PSD of Manchester Coding

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PSD of Manchester Coding

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PSD of Manchester Coding

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PSD of Manchester Coding

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Intersymbol Interference
In practice, the digital pulses are not perfectly rectangular and
the transmission medium is neither perfectly linear nor
distortionless (because it has limited bandwidth).

A transmission channel has only limited bandwidth

 a small portion of signal spectrum is suppressed.
 signal spectrum distortion
 spreading of signal pulse (dispersion).

Spreading of a pulse beyond its interval causes it interferes

with neighboring pulses ⎯ intersymbol interference (ISI).
• Intersymbol interference (ISI) occurs when a pulse spreads out in such a way that it
interferes with adjacent pulses at the sample instant.

• Example: assume polar NRZ line code. The channel outputs are shown as spreaded
(width Tb becomes 2Tb) pulses shown (Spreading due to bandlimited channel
characteristics).
Channel Input Channel Output
Pulse width Tb Pulse width Tb

Data 1

− Tb 0 Tb − Tb 0 Tb

Data 0
− Tb 0 Tb − Tb 0 Tb

Eeng 360 6
• For the input data stream:
1 0 1 1 0 1
A
0 Tb 2Tb 3Tb 4Tb 5Tb

• The channel output is the superposition of each bit’s output:

0 Tb 2Tb 3Tb 4Tb 5Tb

Resultant Channel
Output Waveform
1 0 1 1 0 1

0 Tb 2Tb 3Tb 4Tb 5Tb

Eeng 360 7
Intersymbol interference
Nyquist's First Criterion for Zero lSI
Is it is possible to obtain zero ISI with limited
channel bandwidth?

Condition for zero intersymbol interference (ISI)

If the signal shape is p(t), then p(t) must satisfy
p(0) = non-zero constant
p(nT) = 0, when n  0.
 Derivation

This criterion can be intuitively understood in the following way:

• frequency-shifted replicas of H(f) must add up to a constant value.
• This condition is satisfied when H(f) spectrum has even symmetry, has bandwidth less
than or equal to 2/Ts and its single-sideband has odd symmetry at the cutoff
frequency ±1/2Ts.
Let the function h(t) be the channel impulse response, x[n] the symbols to be
sent, with a symbol period of Ts; the received signal y(t) will be in the form (where
noise has been ignored for simplicity):
 • Only one transmitted symbol has an effect on the received y[k] at sampling
instants, thus removing any ISI. This is the time-domain condition for an ISI-
free channel. Now we find a frequency-domain equivalent for it. We start by
expressing this condition in continuous time:

for all integer n. We multiply such a h(t) by a sum of Dirac delta function (impulses) delta
(t) separated by intervals Ts This is equivalent of sampling the response as above but
using a continuous time expression. The right side of the condition can then be
expressed as one impulse in the origin:
 Nyquist’s First Method for Zero ISI
➢ ISI can be eliminated by using an equivalent transfer function, He(f), such that the impulse
response satisfies the condition:
C , k = 0
he ( kTs +  ) = 
0, k  0
k is an integer, Ts is the symbol (sample) period
 is the offset in the receiver sampling clock times
C is a nonzero constant
sin x
Now choose the function for he (t )
x Sampling Instants
wout ( t ) =  an he ( t − nTs ) ISI occurs but,
n
NO ISI is present at the
he is a Sa function sampling instants
sin  f s t
he (t ) =
 f st
➢ There will be NO ISI and the bandwidth requirement will be minimum (Optimum Filtering) if
the transmit and receive filters are designed so that the overall transfer function He(f) is:
1  f  sin  f s t 1
He ( f ) =
fs
 f  e
h ( t ) =
 f st
Where fs =
Ts
 s
➢ This type of pulse will allow signalling at a baud rate of D=1/Ts=2B (for Binary R=1/Ts=2B)
where B is the absolute bandwidth of the system.

He(f)
1/fs

f
-fs/2 0 fs/2

fs
Absolute bandwidth is: B = MINIMUM BANDWIDTH
2
Signalling Rate is: D =1 Ts = 2 B Pulses/sec
Nyquist’s First Method for Zero ISI
 Nyquist’s First Method for Zero ISI
he(t)
He(f)
1/fs

f
Zero crossings at non-zero integer multiples of the bit period
-fs/2 0 fs/2
• Since pulses are not possible to create due to:
– Infinite time duration.
– Sharp transition band in the frequency domain.

• The Sinc pulse shape can cause significant ISI in the presence of timing errors.
– If the received signal is not sampled at exactly the bit instant (Synchronization
Errors), then ISI will occur.

• We seek a pulse shape that:

– Has a more gradual transition in the frequency domain.
– Is more robust to timing errors.
– Yet still satisfies Nyquist’s first method for zero ISI.
➢ Because of the difficulties caused by the Sa type pulse shape, consider other
pulse shapes which require more bandwidth such as the Raised Cosine-rolloff
Nyquist filter but they are less affected by synchrfonization errors.
➢ The Raised Cosine Nyquist filter is defined by its rollof factor number r=fΔ/fo.
1, f  f1

 1    ( f − f1 )  
H e ( f ) =  1 + cos    , f1  f B B is the Absolute Bandwidth
 2   2 f   

0, f B
f  = B − f 0 f1  f 0 − f  Where f o is the 6-dB bandwidth of the filter
f Rb
Rolloff factor: r = Bandwidth: B = (1 + r )
f0 2
 sin 2 f 0t   cos 2 f  t 
he ( t ) = F  H e ( f )  = 2 f 0 
−1
 
 2 f 0t  1 − ( 4 f  t ) 
2

f Rb
Rolloff factor: r = Bandwidth: B= (1 + r )
f0 2
➢ Now filtering requirements are relaxed because absolute bandwidth is
increased.
➢ Clock timing requirements are also relaxed.
➢ The r=0 case corresponds to the previous Minimum bandwidth case.
1    ( f − f )  
H ( f ) = 1 + cos 
1
e   
2  2 f  


B = fo + f 

f R D
Rolloff factor: r = Bandwidth: B = (1 + r ) = (1 + r )
f0 2 2
 Raised Cosine-Rolloff Nyquist Filtering
➢ Impulse response is given by: h (t ) = F  sin 2 f 0t   cos 2 f  t 
−1
 H e ( f )  = 2 f 0   
 2 f 0t  1 − ( 4 f t ) 
e 2

• The tails of he(t) are now

decreasing much faster than the
Sa function (As a function of t2).
• ISI due to synchronization errors
will be much lower.

Eeng 360 20
Frequency response and impulse
responses of Raised Cosine pulses for
various values of the roll off parameter.

r→B
r  → ISI 
 Raised Cosine-Rolloff Nyquist Filtering
➢ Illustrating the received bit stream of Raised Cosine pulse shaped transmission
corresponding to the binary stream of 1 0 0 1 0 for 3 different values of r=0, 0.5, 1.
1 0 0 1 0 1 0 0 1 0
Bandwidth for Raised Cosine Nyquist Filtering
• The bandwidth of a Raised-cosine (RC) rolloff pulse shape is a function of the
bit rate and the rolloff factor:
 f 
B = f o + f  = f o 1 +   = f o (1 + r )
 fo 
R
B = (1 + r )
2
D
B = (1 + r ) Multilevel Signalling
2

• Or solving for bit rate yields the expression:

2B
R=
1+ r
– This is the maximum transmitted bit rate when a RC-rolloff pulse shape
with Rolloff factor r is transmitted over a baseband channel with bandwidth
B.
 Nyquist Filter
➢ Raised Cosine Filter is also called a NYQUIST FILTER.
➢ NYQUIST FILTERS refer to a general class of filters that satisfy the NYQUIST’s First
Criterion.

➢ Theorem: A filter is said to be a Nyquist filter if the effective transfer function is :

  f 
   +Y ( f ), f  f0
H e ( f ) =   2 f0 

0, f Elsewhere

Y (f ) is a real function and even symmetric about f = 0:

Y ( − f ) = Y ( f ), f  2 f0
Y is odd symmetric about f = f 0 :
Y ( − f + f 0 ) = −Y ( f + f 0 ), f  f0
➢ There will be no intersymbol interference at the system output if the symbol rate is

D = f s = 2 f0
 Nyquist Filter Characteristics

Y (f ) is a real function and even symmetric about f = 0:

Y ( − f ) = Y ( f ), f  2 f0
Y is odd symmetric about f = f 0 :
Y ( − f + f 0 ) = −Y ( f + f 0 ), f  f0

  f 
   +Y ( f ), f  f0
H e ( f ) =   2 f0 

0, f Elsewhere
Both the intersymbol interference and noise may cause errors, and hence
affect the system performance.

How to evaluate the combination effect of noise and

intersymbol interference on overall system performance?

--- Use an eye pattern (eye diagram).

The eye pattern is the synchronized superposition of all possible signal

patterns obtained in a particular signal interval.
 Eye Diagram
• Eye diagram is a means of evaluating the quality of a received “digital
waveform”

– By quality is meant the ability to correctly recover symbols and timing

– The received signal could be examined at the input to a digital receiver

or at some stage within the receiver before the decision stage

• Eye diagrams reveal the impact of ISI and noise

• Two major issues are 1) sample value variation, and 2) jitter and sensitivity
of sampling instant

• Eye diagram reveals issues of both

• Eye diagram can also give an estimate of achievable BER

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The eye pattern (eye diagram)
The interior region of the eye pattern is called the eye
opening. (Eye opening is also the timing error allowed
on the sampler at the receiver)

Little ISI, little noise, little jitter  more open eye

An eye pattern provides useful information about the

system performance.
The width of the eye opening defines the time interval over which the received
signal can be sampled without error from ISI.
(The best sampling time: when the vertical opening of the eye is the largest)

The height of the eye opening, at a specified sampling time, defines the system
noise margin

The slope of the open eye indicates the sensitivity to the timing error.
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 Eye Diagram Setup
• Eye diagram is a retrace display of
data waveform
– Data waveform is applied to
input channel
– Scope is triggered by data
clock
– Horizontal span is set to cover
2-3 symbol intervals
• Measurement of eye opening is
performed to estimate BER
– Sampling also impacted by
jitter
 Eye Diagram
• Run the oscilloscope
in the storage mode
for overlapping
pulses
• X-scale = pulse width
• Y-Scale = Amplitude
• Close Eye → bad ISI
• Open Eye → good ISI
Signal space representation
 Projection of One vector onto Another Vector
Let v and u be vectors in Rn with angle a (0  a  ) between them.
Figure 4.17 OA : the projection of v onto u
OA = OB cos a = || v || cos a
v u v u
= || v || =
|| v || || u || || u ||
v u u v u
 OA = ( )( )= u
|| u || || u || u  u
v u
Note : If a   / 2 then  0.
u u

v u
So we define proju v = u.
u u
Definition
The projection of a vector v onto a nonzero vector u in Rn is
denoted projuv and is defined by
v u
proju v = u
u u

O Figure 4.18
 Example 3
Determine the projection of the vector v = (6, 7) onto the vector
u = (1, 4).
Solution
v  u = (6, 7)  (1, 4) = 6 + 28 = 34
u  u = (1, 4)  (1, 4) = 1 + 16 = 17
Thus
v u 34
proju v = u = (1, 4) = (2, 8)
u u 17
The projection of v onto u is (2, 8).
The Gram-Schmidt Orthogonalization Process
Let {v1, …, vn} be a basis for a vector space V. The set of vectors
{u1, …, un} defined as follows is orthogonal. To obtain an
orthonormal basis for V, normalize each of the vectors u1, …, un .
u1 = v1
u 2 = v 2 − proju1 v 2
u 3 = v 3 − proju1 v 3 − proju 2 v 3

u n = v n − proju1 v n −  − proju n −1 v n

Figure 4.19
 Example 4
The set {(1, 2, 0, 3), (4, 0, 5, 8), (8, 1, 5, 6)} is linearly independent
in R4. The vectors form a basis for a three-dimensional subspace V
of R4. Construct an orthonormal basis for V.
Solution

Let v1 = (1, 2, 0, 3), v2 = (4, 0, 5, 8), v3 = (8, 1, 5, 6)}.

Use the Gram-Schmidt process to construct an orthogonal set
{u1, u2, u3} from these vectors.
Let u1 = v1 = (1, 2, 0, 3)
(v2  u2 )
Let u 2 = v 2 − proju1 v 2 = v 2 − u1 = (2, − 4, 5, 2)
(u1  u1 )
Let u 3 = v 3 − proju1 v 3 − proju 2 v 3
( v 3  u1 ) (v3  u2 )
= v3 − u1 − u 2 = (4, 1, 0, − 2)
(u1  u1 ) (u 2  u 2 )
The set {(1, 2, 0, 3), (2, −4, 5, 2), (4, 1, 0, −2)} is an orthogonal
basis for V.
Normalize them to get an orthonormal basis:
(1, 2, 0, 3) = 12 + 2 2 + 0 2 + 32 = 14
(2, − 4, 5, 2) = 2 2 + (−4) 2 + 52 + 2 2 = 7
(4, 1, 0, − 2) = 4 2 + 12 + 0 2 + (−2) 2 = 21
 orthonormal basis for V:
 1 2 3   2 4 5 2  4 1 2 
 , , 0, ,  , − , , ,  , , 0, − 
 14 14 14   7 7 7 7   21 21 21 