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I’m extremely honored to serve as the promoter of the Unique Academy. I

believe the UNIQUE Campus has a special place in the Dar es Salaam City
community and consider it to have tremendous potential to extend ICT
education, research and scholarship initiatives.

As the needs of the transformative technology grow and change, UNIQUE

Campus is positioned to be a leader working with business, education and
government to achieve this vision, the campus is committed to being student
focused; nimble and flexible to meet the needs of our students and strategic
partners; innovative and not afraid to fail in our quest to find creative
solutions to future challenges.

The presence of our certificate, diploma, and graduate degrees in computer

education has contributed more than 1000 graduates. We have joined hands
with leading international education providers like Oracle Corporation and
EC Council to provide more job-oriented skills, hands-on experience on
today’s technology, to develop innovative programs and to address pressing
professional needs.

One of our most significant achievements to date is the addition of Mahatma

Gandhi University to our wings. This venture helps our fellow Tanzanians to
obtain an international under graduate and master certifications from India
by attending the classes in UNIQUE Campus Dar Es Salaam, Tanzania.

I believe in that, education should be available for every qualified and desired
individual if you have excelled well in the secondary/higher secondary
results but financially not capable to continue the higher education and have
the willingness to make a proud career please feel free to contact me at
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Dr. B.S. Sreekumar

Promoter
Syllabus
Unit 1 – Introduction to Set Theory
Set definition, unions, intersections, and Venn Diagrams

UNIT 2: Matrices
Matrix definitions, transposes, determinants, Eigenvalues and Eigenvectors

UNIT 3: Differential Equations

Definition and simple properties, differentiation, limits, constant derivatives,
polynomials product rule and quotient rule

UNIT 4: Integrals
Definition, importance, indefinite and definite integrals.
How to use this book
Each unit of the book provides a precise and complete knowledge on a particular
topic. You need to first read the unit and then test your learning by performing
different activities and solving model questions provided at the end of the unit.

INTRODUCTION
Introduction provides an overview of what we are going to learn in the unit. It
discusses the main topics of the unit and tried to answer the basic questions of
WHAT, WHY and HOW preferably in the same order. Wherever possible, examples
and daily applications are included in the introduction to make the concept
understandable to the reader.

SUMMARY
Towards the end of each unit a brief summary of the main topics covered in the
unit is provided. You must go through the summary to have a quick revise of all
the major concepts discussed in the unit.

CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

This section helps you in checking your understanding of the topics already
covered in the topic. You can find the answers of the questions provided at the end
of the book.
 Table of Contents

Modules

Unit 1: Introduction to Set Theory Page 1

Unit 2: Matrices Page 12

Unit 3: Differential Equations Page 29

Unit 4: Integral Calculus Page 31

UNIT - 1
Introduction to Set Theory
Objectives:
After completing this unit, you will be able to:
 Define a set
 Perform different set operations
 Perform different set operations using Venn Diagrams

CTU 07105 Mathematics – 1 Page 1 of 59

1.0 Introduction
The concept of set is fundamental to mathematics and computer science.
Everything mathematical starts with sets. For example, relationships between two
objects are represented as a set of ordered pairs of objects, the concept of ordered
pair is defined using sets, natural numbers, which are the basis of other numbers,
are also defined using sets, the concept of function, being a special type of relation,
is based on sets, and graphs and digraphs consisting of lines and points are
described as an ordered pair of sets.

Though the concept of set is fundamental to mathematics, it is not defined

rigorously here. Instead we rely on everyone's notion of "set" as a collection of
objects or a container of objects. In that sense "set" is an undefined concept here.
Similarly we say an object "belongs to " or "is a member of" a set without
rigorously defining what it means. "An object(element) x belongs to a set A" is
symbolically represented by "x∈A" . It is also assumed that sets have certain
(obvious) properties usually asssociated with a collection of objects such as the
union of sets exists, for any pair of sets there is a set that contains them etc.
This approach to set theory is called "naive set theory " as opposed to more
rigorous "axiomatic set theory". It was first developed by the German
mathematician Georg Cantor at the end of the 19th century. For more on naive
and axiomatic set theories click here which is not required for this course. Though
the naive set theory is not rigorous, it is simpler and practically all the results we
need can be derived within the naive set theory. Thus we shall be following this
naive set theory in this course.

Representation of Set
A set can be described in a number of different ways. The simplest is to list up all
of its members if that is possible. For example {1, 2, 3} is the set of three
numbers 1, 2, and 3. { indicates the beginning of the set, and } its end. Every
object between them separated by commas is a member of the set. Thus {{1, 2},
{{3}, 2}, 2}, {1 } } is the set of the elements {1, 2}, {{3}, 2} and {1}.

A set can also be described by listing the properties that its members must
satisfy. For example, { x| 1≤ x≥2and x is a real number} represents the set of real
numbers between 1 and 2, and { x| x is the square of an integer and x≤ 100 }
represents the set { 0, 1, 4, 9, 16, 25, 36, 49, 64, 81, 100 }.

A third way to describe a set is to give a procedure to generate the members of

the set. In this representation, first, basic elements of the set are presented. Then
a method is given to generate elements of the set from known elements of the set.
Thirdly a statement is given that excludes undesirable elements (which may be
included in the set otherwise) from the set. for example the set of natural numbers
N can be defined recursively as the set that satisfies the following (1), (2), and (3):
i. 0ЄN
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 ii. For any number x if xЄ N, then x + 1Є N.
iii. Nothing is in N unless it is obtained from (1) and (2).
Following this definition, the set of natural numbers N can be obtained as
follows:
First by (i), 0 is put into N.
Then by (ii), since 0 is in N, 0 + 1 (= 1) is in N.
Then by (ii) again, 1 + 1 (= 2) is in N.
Proceeding in this manner all the natural numbers are put into N.

Note that if we don't have (3), 0.5, 1.5, 2.5, ... can be included in N, which is not
what we want as the set of natural numbers.

1.1 Basics of Set

Definition (Equality of sets): Two sets are equal if and only if they have the
same elements.

More formally, for any sets A and B, A = B if and only if x [ xЄA xЄB ].

Thus for example {1, 2, 3} = {3, 2, 1}, that is the order of elements does not
matter, and {1, 2, 3} = {3, 2, 1, 1}, that is duplications do not make any difference
for sets.

Definition (Subset): A set A is a subset of a set B if and only if everything in A is

also in B.

More formally, for any sets A and B, A is a subset of B, and denoted by A⊆B, if
and only if x [ xЄA xЄB ] .

If A⊆ B, and A≠B, then A is said to be a proper subset of B and it is denoted by

A⊂B.

For example
{1, 2} ⊆ {3, 2, 1}.
Also {1, 2} ⊂{3, 2, 1}.

Definition(Cardinality): If a set S has n distinct elements for some natural

number n, n is the cardinality (size) of S and S is a finite set. The cardinality of S
is denoted by |S|.

For example the cardinality of the set {3, 1, 2} is 3.

Definition(Empty set): A set which has no elements is called an empty set.

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More formally, anempty set, denoted by ∅, is a set that satisfies the following:
x x∉ ∅,where ∉ means "is not in" or "is not a member of".

Note that ∅ and {∅} are different sets. {∅} has one element namely ∅ in it. So {∅} is not
empty. But ∅ has nothing in it.

Definition(Universal set): A set which has all the elements in the universe of
discourse is called a universal set.

More formally, auniversal set, denoted by U , is a set that satisfies the following:
x xЄU .

Three subset relationships involving empty set and universal set are listed below
as theorems without proof. Their proofs are found elsewhere.

Note that the set A in the next four theorems are arbitrary. So A can be an empty
set or universal set.

Theorem 1: For an arbitrary set A, A⊆U .

Theorem 2: For an arbitrary set A, ∅⊆A .
Theorem 3: For an arbitrary set A A A .
Definition(Power set): The set of all subsets of a set A is called the power set of A
and denoted by 2A or (A) .

For example for A = {1, 2}, (A) = { ∅, {1}, {2}, {1, 2} } .

For B = {{1, 2}, {{1}, 2}, ∅} , (B) = { ∅, {{1, 2}}, {{{1}, 2}}, {∅}, { {1, 2}, {{1}, 2 }}, { {1,
2}, ∅}, { {{1}, 2}, ∅}, {{1, 2}, {{1}, 2}, ∅} } .
Also (∅) = {∅} and ({∅}) = {∅, {∅}} .
Theorem 4: For an arbitrary set A, the number of subsets of A is 2|A| .

Example
Q = {x, y, z}. How many subsets will Q have? List all the subsets.

Solution
|Q| = 3
Number of subsets = 2|Q|= 23 = 8
The subsets of Q are { }, {x}, {y}, {z}, {x, y}, {x, z}, {y, z}and {x, y, z}

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1.2 Union and Intersection
The UNION of two sets is the set of elements which are in either set.
For example: let A = (1,2,3) and let B = (3,4,5). Now the UNION of A and B, written
AUB = (1,2,3,4,5). There is no need to list the 3 twice.

The INTERSECTION of two sets is the set of elements which are in both sets.
For example: let A = (1,2,3) and B = (3,4,5). The INTERSECTION of A and B,
written A∩B = (3).

Sometimes there will be no intersection at all. In that case we say the answer is the
"empty set" or the "null set { }" Ø.
For example: Given set
A ={all prime numbers greater than 5} and set B= {all even prime numbers},
then A∩B = { }.

Now sometimes we want to talk about elements which lie OUTSIDE of a given set
and within another set. This is referred to as finding the COMPLEMENT of the set
and is written for example, ~B.

1.3 Venn Diagrams

A Venn Diagram is a pictorial representation of the relationships between sets.
We can represent sets using Venn diagrams. In a Venn diagram, the sets are
represented by shapes; usually circles or ovals. The elements of a set are labelled
within the circle.

Example 1:
Given the set P is the set of even numbers between 15 and 25. Draw and label a
Venn diagram to represent the set P and indicate all the elements of set P in the
Venn diagram.

Solution:
List out the elements of P.
P = {16, 18, 20, 22, 24} ← ‘between’ does not include 15 and 25
Draw a circle or oval. Label it P . Put the elements in P.

Example 2:
Draw and label a Venn diagram to represent the set
R = {Monday, Tuesday, Wednesday}.

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Solution:

Draw a circle or oval. Label it R . Put the elements in R.

Example 3:
Given the set Q = {x : 2x – 3 < 11, x is a positive integer }. Draw and label a Venn
diagram to represent the set Q.
Solution:
Since an equation is given, we need to first solve for x.
2x – 3 < 11 ⇒ 2x< 14 ⇒x< 7

So, Q = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6}
Draw a circle or oval. Label it Q .
Put the elements in Q.

Example4:
Draw a Venn diagram to represent the relationship between the sets. A = {1, 3, 5}
and B = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5}

Solution:
Since A is a subset of B:
Step 1: Draw circle A within the circle B
Step 2 : Write down the elements in circle A.
Step 3 : Write down the remaining elements in circle B.

Example 5:
Draw a Venn diagram to represent the following sets:
U = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9}, A = {1, 2, 5, 6}, B = {3, 9}
Solution:
Step 1 : Draw a rectangle and label it U to represent the universal set.

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Step 2 : Draw circles within the rectangle to represent the other sets. Label the
circles and write the relevant elements in each circle.
Step 3 : Write the remaining elements outside the circles but within the rectangle.

Complement Of A Set
The complement of set A, denoted by A’ , is the set of all elements in the universal
set that are not in A.

The number of elements of A and the number of elements of A ’ make up the total
number of elements in U .
n(A) + n(A ’ ) = n( U )

Example:
Let U = {x :x is an integer, –4 ≤ x ≤ 7}, P = {–4, –2, 0, 2, 4, 5, 6} and
Q ’ = {–3, –2, –1, 2, 3}.
a) List the elements of set P ’
b) Draw a Venn diagram to display the sets U ,P and P ’
c) Find n(Q)

Solution:
a) First, list out the members of U.
U = {–4, –3, –2, –1, 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7}
P ’ = {–3, –1, 1, 3, 7} ← in U but not in P
b) Draw a Venn diagram to display the sets U ,P and P ’

c) Find n(Q)
n( U ) = 12, n(Q ’ ) = 5

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Use the formula:
n(Q) + n(Q ’ ) = n( U )
n(Q) = n( U ) – n(Q ’ ) = 12 – 5 = 7

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Sets Intersection: Intersection Of Two Sets
The intersection of two sets X and Y is the set of elements that are common to
both set Xand set Y. It is denoted by X ∩ Y and is read ‘X intersection Y’.

Example:
Draw a Venn diagram to represent the relationship between the sets
X = {1, 2, 5, 6, 7, 9, 10} and Y = {1, 3, 4, 5, 6, 8, 10}
Solution:

We find that X ∩ Y = {1, 5, 6, 10} ← in both X and Y

For the Venn diagram,
Step 1 : Draw two overlapping circles to represent the two sets.
Step 2 : Write down the elements in the intersection.
Step 3 : Write down the remaining elements in the respective sets.
Notice that you start filling the Venn diagram from the elements in the intersection
first.

If X ⊂Y then X ∩Y = X .We will illustrate this relationship in the following example.

Example:
Draw a Venn diagram to represent the relationship between the sets
X = {1, 6, 9} and Y = {1, 3, 5, 6, 8, 9}
Solution:

We find that X ∩ Y = {1, 6, 9} which is equal to the set X

For the Venn diagram,
Step 1 : Draw one circle within another circle
Step 2 : Write down the elements in the inner circle.
Step 3 : Write down the remaining elements in the outer circle.

Venn Diagrams of three sets

The intersection of three sets X, Y and Z is the set of elements that are common to
sets X, Y and Z. It is denoted by X ∩ Y ∩ Z
CTU 07105 Mathematics – 1 Page 9 of 59
Example:
Draw a Venn diagram to represent the relationship between the sets
X = {1, 2, 5, 6, 7, 9}, Y = {1, 3, 4, 5, 6, 8} and
Z = {3, 5, 6, 7, 8, 10}

Solution:
We find that X ∩ Y ∩ Z = {5, 6}, X ∩ Y = {1, 5, 6},
Y ∩ Z = {3, 5, 6, 8} and X ∩ Z = {5, 6, 7}

For the Venn diagram:

Step 1 : Draw three overlapping circles to represent the three sets.
Step 2 :Write down the elements in the intersection X ∩ Y ∩ Z
Step 3 : Write down the remaining elements in the intersections:
X ∩ Y, Y ∩ Z and X ∩ Z
Step 4 : Write down the remaining elements in the respective sets.
Again, notice that you start filling the Venn diagram from the elements in the
intersection first.

CTU 07105 Mathematics – 1 Page 10 of 59

Summary
The concept of set is fundamental to mathematics and computer science.
Everything mathematical starts with sets. A set can be described in a number of
different ways. The simplest is to list up all of its members if that is possible.A set
can also be described by listing the properties that its members must satisfy.Two
sets are equal if and only if they have the same elements.A set A is a subset of a
set B if and only if everything in A is also in B.If a set S has n distinct elements
for some natural number n, n is the cardinality (size) of S and S is a finite set.The
intersection of two sets X and Y is the set of elements that are common to both set
Xand set Y. Venn Diagrams are used to represent the relationship between two oe
more sets.

CTU 07105 Mathematics – 1 Page 11 of 59

Check Your Progress

Solve the following problems with the use of a Venn diagram.

1. In a class of 50 students, 18 take Chorus, 26 take Band, and 2 take both
Chorus and Band. How many students in the class are not enrolled in either
Chorus (Choir) or Band?
2. In a school of 320 students, 85 students are in the band, 200 students are on
sports teams, and 60 students participate in both activities. How many
students are involved in either band or sports?
3. A veterinarian surveys 26 of his patrons. He discovers that 14 have dogs, 10
have cats, and 5 have fish. Four have dogs and cats, 3 have dogs and fish, and
one has a cat and fish. If no one has all three kinds of pets, how many patrons
have none of these pets?
4. A guidance counselor is planning schedules for 30 students. Sixteen students
say they want to take French, 16 want to take Spanish, and 11 want to take
Latin. Five say they want to take both French and Latin, and of these, 3 wanted
to take Spanish as well. Five want only Latin, and 8 want only Spanish. How
many students want French only?

Note: Answers are at the end of the book

CTU 07105 Mathematics – 1 Page 12 of 59

UNIT - 2
1.0 Matrices
Objectives:
After completing this unit, you will be able to:
 Define a matrix
 Perform different matrix arithmetic
 Find determinants and inverses of matrices
 Determine Eigenvalues and Eigenvectors

CTU 07105 Mathematics – 1 Page 13 of 59

1.1 Definitions
Amatrixisacollectionofnumbersorderedbyrowsandcolumns.Itiscustomarytoencloset
heelementsofamatrixinparentheses,brackets,orbraces.

Example

Thismatrixhastworowsandthreecolumns, soitis referred to as a “2 by 3” matrix.

 Generally, amatrixisdefined asfollows:

CTU 07105 Mathematics – 1 Page 14 of 59

 Example

Avectorisaspecialtypeofmatrixthathasonlyonerow(calledarowvector)oronecolumn(c
alledacolumnvector).Itisdefinedasavectorbecauseitisoftenusedtodefinethecoordinat
esofapointinamulti-dimensionalspace.

 Ascalarisamatrixwithonlyonerowandonecolumn. It is
customary to denote scalars byitalicized,lowercaseletters
(e.g.,x).
 Vectorsaredenotedby bold,lowercaseletters (e.g., x).
 Matriceswithmorethanonerowandonecolumnaredenotedbybold,uppercaselet
ters(e.g., X).
 A squarematrixisamatrixthathasas manyrows asit hascolumns.
Asymmetricmatrixis asquarematrixinwhich x =x for allI andj.
ij ji
MatrixAissymmetricmatrixbutBisnotsymmetric.

 Adiagonalmatrixisasymmetricmatrixwherealltheoff theleadingdiagonalelements
are0.

CTU 07105 Mathematics – 1 Page 15 of 59

 Example

 Anidentitymatrixisadiagonalmatrixwith1sandonly1sontheleading diagonal
and0elsewhere.

Example

 A nullmatrixisamatrixwhichhasthevalueof zerofor allof itselements.

1.2 Elementary Matrix Arithmetic

Matrix Addition
Theoperation ofadditionof twomatricesis onlydefined
whenbothmatriceshavethesamedimensions.IfAandBare both(m ×n),then thesum
C=A+B,thus
c =a +b
ij ij ij

Example

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 Matrixadditionisbothassociative,thatis,A+(B+C)=(A+B)+C,andcommutativeA+B=B
+A.

Thesubtractionoftwomatricesissimilarlydefined;ifAandBhavethe
samedimensions,thenthediffeƌeŶĐeC=A−Bimpliesthatthe elementsof Care
c =a −b
ij ij ij
MatrixMultiplication

Inmatrixalgebra,therearetwokindsof matrixmultiplication:multiplicationof
amatrixbyanumber(scalar) and multiplicationof a matrixbyanother matrix.

Multiplicationbetweenamatrixandascalar
Eachelementin theproductmatrixissimplythescalarmultipliedbytheelement
inthematrix.Thatis,for R=aB,
then
rij=abij
Example
a=8,

B=

Then, aB =

Matrix multiplicationinvolvinga scalaris commutative.Thatis,aB=Ba.

Multiplicationofarow vectorbya columnvector

Toperform this,therowvectormusthave as many

columnsasthecolumnvectorhasrows.

Example

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 Theproductof arowvectormultipliedby acolumnvector will bea scalar. Thus,

Allothertypesofmatrixmultiplicationinvolvethe multiplicationofa
rowvectorandacolumnvector. Specifically, intheexpression
R=AB,r =a •b
ij i j

Thus,if

Then

CTU 07105 Mathematics – 1 Page 18 of 59

 Hence

Formatrixmultiplicationtobelegal,the first
matrixmusthaveasmanycolumnsasthesecondmatrixhasrows.This,ofcourse,isthe
requirementformultiplyinga rowvectorby acolumnvector.

Example

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 This isillegal

Examplesof matrixmultiplication

Solution

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 1.3 Matrix Transpose
t T
i. Thetransposeofamatrixisdenotedbyaprime (A′)orasuperscripttorT (A orA ).
ii. Thefirstrowofamatrixbecomesthefirstcolumnofthetransposematrix,thesecond
rowofthematrixbecomes thesecondcolumnofthe transpose,etc.
iii. Thus,

i. Thetransposeofarowvectorwillbeacolumnvector, and the transpose

of a column vector willbea rowvector.
ii. The transpose of a symmetric matrix is simply the
originalmatrix.
iii. Thedeterminantofa2x2 matrixA, isthe quantity ad−bc

MatrixInverse
Inmatrixalgebra,theinverseofamatrixisthatmatrixwhich,whenmultiplied bythe
originalmatrix,givesanidentitymatrix.Theinverseofamatrixis denotedbythe
superscript“ 1”.Hence,
-

AA−1 = A−1A = I

Note

A matrixmustbesquaretohave aninverse,butnot allsquarematriceshave an

inverse.

Theinverseofa2×2matrix
Theinverseofa2×2 matrixA, is another 2×2matrixdenotedby A−1
withthepropertythatAA−1=A−1A=I, hereIisthe2×2identitymatrix

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 Notall2×2matriceshave an inversematrix.Ifthe determinantof
thematrixiszero,then itwillnothave aninverse;thematrixisthen
saidtobesingular.Onlynon-singularmatriceshaveinverses.

A simpleformulafortheinverse of a 2×2matrix

Example1

Findtheinverse ofthematrix

Solution

Example2

Find,ifpossible,theinverseofthematrix

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Solution

Inthiscasethedeterminantof thematrixiszero:

Becausethedeterminantiszerothe matrixis singularand noinverseexists.

1.4 Matrices Determinants and Inverses

PropertiesofDeterminants

i. Thedeterminantofamatrixisarealnumber,itis notamatrix.
ii. Thedeterminant canbeanegativenumber.
iii. It is not associated with absolute value at
allexceptthattheybothuseverticallines.
iv. Thedeterminantonlyexistsforsquarematrices(2×2,3×3,...n×n).Thedetermina
ntofa1×1matrixisthatsinglevalueinthedeterminant.
v. The inverse of a matrix will exist only if the determinantisnotzero.

DeterminantsofLargerMatrices
Thedeterminantof a3x3matrixA

Isobtainedbyfindingthe minors,M , ofelementsa andthe

ij ij
correspondingcofactorsα .
ij
Intheaboveexampleof matrixA, the minorof
elementa is
23

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 Thecofactorα ofanelement
ij
a inadeterminantissimplyitsminorM multipliedbyeither +1or−1,
ij ij
dependinguponits position,thatis
cofa =α
ij ij

i+j
=(−1) M
ij

Inthecaseofthe(3×3)exampleabove

Therefore

IfAisa(3×3) matrix,

Example
Thedeterminantofthematrix

CTU 07105 Mathematics – 1 Page 24 of 59

 isgiven by

The inverseofa
squarematrixAwithanonzerodeterminantistheadjointmatrixdividedbyth
edeterminant,thiscanbewrittenas

i. The adjoint matrix is the transpose of thecofactormatrix.

ii. ThecofactormatrixisthematrixofdeterminantsoftheminorsA multipliedby-
ij
i+j
1 .
iii. Thei,j'thminorofAisthematrixAwithoutthei'thcolumn or thej'throw.

Theadjointmatrix,adjA,of a squarematrixAis defined asthe transpose of

thematrixofcofactors oftheelementsofA,thatis

For a (2×2)matrix,

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1.5 Eigenvalues and Eigenvectors
Definitions

LetAbeannx n(square) matrix.Thenumberλisaneigenvalueof

Aifthereexistsanon-zerovectorv suchthatAv=λv. Inthiscase,vector v
iscalledaneigenvectorofAcorrespondingtoλ.

ComputingEigenvaluesandEigenvectors

WecanrewritetheconditionAv=λvas(A−λI)v=0 whereIisthenx nidentitymatrix.

Butweare lookingfor a non-zero vectorv.

That is,the determinant of A− λI must equal 0. Wecall p(λ)=det(A−λI)the

characteristicpolynomialof A.

Theeigenvaluesof A aresimplytherootsofthe characteristicpolynomialofA.

Example

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Summary
Amatrixisacollectionofnumbersorderedbyrowsandcolumns.Avectorisaspecialtype
ofmatrixthathasonlyonerow(calledarowvector)oronecolumn(calledacolumnvector).
Ascalarisamatrixwithonlyonerowandonecolumn. Various operations can be
performed on sets, this covered under matrix arithmetic section. Matrices
determinants, inverses, Eigenvalues and Eigenvectors are also covered under
this unit.

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Check Your Progress

Fill in the blanks.

1. A……………. isacollectionofnumbersorderedbyrowsandcolumns.

2. A. . . . . . . . isaspecialtypeofmatrixthathasonlyonerow(calledarowvector)orone
column(calledacolumnvector).

3. A ……………….. isamatrixthathasas manyrows asit hascolumns.

4. A ………………. is asquarematrixinwhich x =x for allI andj

ij ji
5. The …………….. is the transpose of the cofactor matrix

Note: Answers are at the end of the book

CTU 07105 Mathematics – 1 Page 28 of 59

UNIT - 3
Differential Equations
Objectives:
After completing this unit, you will be able to:
 Define differential calculus
 Determine derivatives of polynomials using Polynomials
Rules

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1.0 Introduction
Calculus is concerned with comparing quantities which vary in a non-linear
way. It is used extensively in science and engineering since many of the things
we are studying (like velocity, acceleration, current in a circuit) do not behave
in a simple, linear fashion. If quantities are continually changing, we need
calculus to study what is going on.

Calculus was developed independently by the Englishman, Sir Isaac Newton,

and by the German, Gottfried Leibniz. They were both working on problems of
motion towards the end of the 17th century. There was a bitter dispute
between the men over who developed calculus first. Because of this
independent development, we have an unfortunate mix of notation and
vocabulary that is used in calculus. From Leibniz we get the dy/dx and ∫ signs.
There are two main branches of calculus:
i. The first is differentiation (or derivatives), which helps us to find a rate
of change of one quantity compared to another.
ii. The second is integration, which is the reverse of differentiation. We
may be given a rate of change and we need to work backwards to find the
original relationship (or equation) between the two quantities.

1.1 Differential Calculus

What is Differentiation?
Differentiation is all about finding rates of change of one quantity compared to
another. We need differentiation when the rate of change is not constant.
What does this mean?

Constant Rate of Change

First, let's take an example of a car travelling at a constant 60 km/h. The
distance-time graph would look like this:

We notice that the distance from the starting point increases at a constant rate
of 60 km each hour, so after 5 hours we have travelled 300 km. We notice that

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the slope (gradient) is always 5300/5=60 for the whole graph. There is a
constant rate of change of the distance compared to the time. The slope is
positive all the way (the graph goes up as you go left to right along the graph.)

Rate of Change that is Not Constant

Now let's throw a ball straight up in the air. Because gravity acts on the ball it
slows down, then it reverses direction and starts to fall. All the time during this
motion the velocity is changing. It goes from positive (when the ball is going
up), slows down to zero, then becomes negative (as the ball is coming down).
During the "up" phase, the ball has negative acceleration and as it falls, the
acceleration is positive.
Now let's look at the graph of height (in metres) against time (in seconds).

Notice this time that the slope of the graph is changing throughout the motion.
At the beginning, it has a steep positive slope (indicating the large velocity we
give it when we throw it). Then, as it slows, the slope get less and less until it
becomes 0 (when the ball is at the highest point and the velocity is zero). Then
the ball starts to fall and the slope becomes negative (corresponding to the
negative velocity) and the slope becomes steeper (as the velocity increases).

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TIP
The slope of a curve at a point tells us the rate of change of the quantity at
that point.

Development of Differential Calculus

Up until the time of Newton and Leibniz, there was no reliable way to describe
or predict this constantly changing velocity. There was a real need to
understand how constantly varying quantities could be analysed and predicted.
That's why they developed differential calculus.

1.2 Why Study Differentiation?

There are many applications of differentiation in science and engineering.
Differentiation is also used in analysis of finance and economics.

Applications of Differentiation
We use the derivative to determine the maximum and minimum values of
particular functions (e.g. cost, strength, amount of material used in a building,
profit, loss, etc.). Also, Tangents and Normals which are important in physics
(e.g. forces on a car turning a corner).A tangent to a curve is a line that
touches the curve at one point and has the same slope as the curve at that
point. A normal to a curve is a line perpendicular to a tangent to the curve.

Derivatives are met in many engineering and science problems, especially

when modelling the behaviour of moving objects.

Limits and Differentiation

To understand what is really going on in differential calculus, we first need to
have an understanding of limits.

Limits
In the study of calculus, we are interested in what happens to the value of a
function as the independent variable gets very close to a particular value.

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Limits as x Approaches a Particular Number
Sometimes, finding the limiting value of an expression means simply
substituting a number.

Example 1
Find the limit as t approaches 10 of the expression P=3t+7.

There is no complication because f(t)=3t+7 is a continuous function.

But there are cases where we cannot simply substitute like this.

Notation for the Derivative

IMPORTANT: The derivative (also called differentiation) can be written in
several ways. This can cause some confusion when we first learn about
differentiation.
The following are equivalent ways of writing the first derivative of y=f(x):
Dy/dx or f'(x) or y'.

Derivatives of Polynomials Rules

Common derivatives

i. Derivative of a Constant

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This is basic. In English, it means that if a quantity has a constant value, then
the rate of change is zero.

ii. Derivative of n-th power of x

iii. Derivative of Constant product

Here, y is some function of x. It means that if we are finding the derivative of a

constant times that function, it is the same as finding the derivative of the
function first, then multiplying by the constant.

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iv. Derivative of a sum

Here, u and v are functions of x. The derivative of the sum is simply equal to the
derivative of the first plus derivative of the second.

v. Derivatives of Products and Quotients

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Product Rule
If u and v are two functions of x, then the derivative of the product uv is given by

Example

If we have a product like

y = (2x2 + 6x)(2x3 + 5x2)
we can find the derivative without multiplying out the expression on the right.

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Solution

Quotient Rule
(A quotient is just a fraction.)
If u and v are two functions of x, then the derivative of the quotient u/v is given
by...

Example

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CTU 07105 Mathematics – 1 Page 38 of 59
Summary
Differentiation is all about finding rates of change of one quantity compared to
another. Application of differentiation is explained in this unit and several
examples are given. Derivative of constants, product of constants, polynomials,
product and quotient rules are discussed and illustrated.

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Check Your Progress
1. Find the derivative of y = −7x6
2. Find the derivative of y = 3x5 – 1
3. Find the derivative of y=13x4−6x3−x−1
4. Find the derivative of y=−41x8+21x4−32
5. Find the derivative of y = (2x2 + 6x)(2x3 + 5x2)

Note: Answers are at the end of the book

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UNIT - 4
Integration
Objectives:

After completing this unit, you will be able to:

 Define integral calculus

 Explain the importance of integration

 Determine definite and indefinite integrals

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1.0 Introduction
Why do we need to study Integration?
Often we know the relationship involving the rate of change of two variables,
but we may need to know the direct relationship between the two variables.
For example, we may know the velocity of an object at a particular time, but
we may want to know the position of the object at that time.
To find this direct relationship, we need to use the process which is opposite
to differentiation. This is called integration (or antidifferentiation).

The processes of integration are used in many applications.

The Petronas TowersSoaring to a height of 451.9 metres, the 88-storey, in Kuala
Lumpur experience high forces due to winds. The Towers completed in 1997,
the tallest by then. Integration was used to design the building for strength.

Figure 1:Petronas Towers

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 Figure 2:Petronas Towers – distant night view

The Sydney Opera House is a very unusual design based on slices out of a
ball. Designed by Danish architect Jørn Utzon, the facility formally opened on
20 October 1973. Many differential equations (one type of integration) were
solved in the design of this building.

Figure 3:The Sydney Opera House

Historically, one of the first uses of integration was in finding the volumes of
wine-casks (which have a curved surface).

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 Figure 4:the volumes of wine-casks

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1.1 The Differential

We write dy/dx and f'(x) to mean the same thing. We used d/dx as an operator.

Definitions

Differentials are infinitely small quantities. We usually write differentials as

dx, dy, dt (and so on), where:
dx is an infinitely small change in x;
dy is an infinitely small change in y; and
dt is an infinitely small change in t.

When comparing small changes in quantities that are related to each other
(like in the case where y is some function f x, we say the differentialdy, of
y=f(x) is written:

Note:
We are now treating dy/dx more like a fraction (where we can manipulate the
parts separately), rather than as an operator.

Example
Find the differential dy of the function y=3x5-x.

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1.2 Antiderivatives and The Indefinite Integral
We wish to perform the opposite process to differentiation. This is called
"antidifferentiation" and later, we will call it "integration".

Example 1

If we know that

,
and we need to know the function this derivative came from, then we "undo"
the differentiation process. (Think: "What would I have to differentiate to get
this result?")

Note:
Most math text books use C for the constant of integration, but for questions
involving electrical engineering, we prefer to write "+K", since C is normally
used for capacitance and it can get confusing.

Notation for the Indefinite Integral

We write: ∫3x2dx=x3+K and say in words:
"The integral of 3x2 with respect to x equals x3 + K."

The Integral Sign

The ∫ sign is an elongated "S", standing for "sum". Later we will see that the
integral is the sum of the areas of infinitesimally thin rectangles.

Other Notation for Integrals

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Note: Sometimes we write a capital letter to signify integration. For example,
we write F(x) to mean the integral of f(x). So we have:
F(x)=∫f(x)dx

Example 2
Find ∫(x2−5)dx
The antiderivative of x2 is x3/3, and the antiderivative of 5 is 5x, so we can
write:
∫(x2 − 5)dx=x3/3−5x+K

Integral of a Constant
∫k dx=kx+K
(k and K are constants.)

The integral of a constant is that constant times x, plus a constant.

Example 3
Find ∫4 dx
Using our new rule, we can simply write:
∫4 dx=4x+K
Always check by differentiating your answer, and you should get back to what
the question was asking you to integrate.

Integral of a Power of x

For the integral of a power of x: add 1 to the power and divide by the new
number.

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Example 4
Integrate ∫x5dx
We use our new rule, and obtain:

The Constant of Integration

Don't forget the "+ K" (or, alternatively, "+ C"). This constant of integration is
vital in later applications of the indefinite integral.

Example 5
Integrate
∫8x6dx
8 is a constant, so it can go out the front:
8∫x6dx
Next, do the integration step by adding 1 to the index and dividing by the new
number:

And of course, we must not forget the constant.

So the final answer is:

Example 6
Integrate dy=(5x2−4x+3)dx

Solution
dy=(5x2−4x+3)dx
This is already in differential form, so we can just add the integral signs:
∫dy=∫(5x2−4x+3)dx

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On the left hand side, we simply have:
∫dy=∫(1)dy=y (We are integrating the constant 1 with respect to y.)
On the right hand side, we integrate each of the terms, one at a time:

So putting it all together, we have the solution:

y=5(x3)/3-2x2+3x+K

Power Formula for Integration

Consider this integration:

∫(2x4−5)6x3dx

This is different to the other exercises above!

The expression we have to integrate contains (2x4−5)6, which is a function of a
function, and we have that x3 at the end. We cannot do this integration using
the rules we have learned so far. In this case, we have to do the reverse of the
Chain Rule (ify is a function of u, and u is a function of x, then we say "y is a
function of the function u").
We introduce a new rule for integrating cases like these.

(This is true if n≠−1)

This requires a substitution step, where u(x) is some function of x.

Now back to the problem to see how to apply this formula.

Integrate ∫(2x4−5)6x3dx.

Solution
We use, as a starting point, the substitution
u=2x4−5.
Why? Because 2x4−5 is the expression in brackets in the question.

Now differentiating u gives: du=8x3 dx

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It is differentiated so as to get the expression (in terms of u) that will be
substituted in the integral in place of xndx expression. Our question has only
onex3 dx (not 8 of them) so we need to divide both sides by 8:

(Now the right hand side is the same as what we have in the question, x3dx.)
We can now rewrite our question as:

Now we integrate with respect to u:

Finally, we express everything in terms of x, since that's the variable we started

with:

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1.3 Definite Integral

Given a function that is continuous on the interval [a,b] we divide the

interval into n subintervals of equal width, , and from each interval choose a
point, xi . Then the definite integral of f(x) from a to b is

The number “a” that is at the bottom of the integral sign is called the lower
limit of the integral and the number “b” at the top of the integral sign is called
the upper limit of the integral.

and

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Summary
Often we know the relationship involving the rate of change of two variables,
but we may need to know the direct relationship between the two variables. For
example, we may know the velocity of an object at a particular time, but we
may want to know the position of the object at that time. To find this direct
relationship, we need to use the process which is opposite to differentiation.
This is called integration (or antidifferentiation).Integral constant, power
formula of integration, indefinite and definite integrals are explained and
examples given.

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Check Your Progress
1. Y’ = 3x2, find y
2. Find ∫(3x2−3)dx
3. Integrate dy=(6x2−4x+3)dx
1. Integrate

2. Integrate

Note: Answers are at the end of the book

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Answers to Check Your Progress

Unit 1
1. x = 8 students
2. 225 students
3. x = 5 patrons
4. x=7

Unit 2
1. matrix
2. vector
3. squarematrix
4. symmetricmatrix
5. adjoint matrix

Unit 3
1. -42x5
2. 15x4
3. 52x3−18x2−1
4. −328x7+84x3
5. 28x2 +88x3+90x2

Unit 4
1. x3 + k
2. x3 – 3x + k
3. 2x3 – 2x2 + 3x + k
4. (x3 – 2)7/7 + K

5.

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