A transistor is a semiconductor device used to amplify or switch electrical signals and power, serving

as a fundamental component of modern electronics. It typically has at least three terminals: base,
collector, and emitter. A voltage or current applied to one pair of terminals controls the current
through another pair, enabling signal amplification. Transistors are either packaged individually or
embedded in integrated circuits, making them essential in modern electronics.

### Parts of a Transistor

- **Base**: Activates the transistor.

- **Collector**: Positive lead.

- **Emitter**: Negative lead.

Transistors operate by allowing current to flow through channels controlled by the voltage or current
at the terminals. Most transistors are made from pure silicon or germanium, though other
semiconductor materials are sometimes used. Compared to vacuum tubes, transistors are smaller
and require less power, though vacuum tubes may perform better at very high frequencies or
voltages.

Transistors' low cost, flexibility, and reliability have made them ubiquitous, replacing
electromechanical devices in many applications. They can amplify signals or act as electrically
controlled switches, making them vital in digital circuits for both high-power and low-power
applications.

### Types of Transistors

1. **Bipolar Junction Transistor (BJT)**:

- Terminals: Base, Collector, Emitter

- A small current at the base controls a larger current between the collector and emitter.

2. **Field-Effect Transistor (FET)**:

- Terminals: Gate, Source, Drain

- A voltage at the gate controls a current between the source and drain.

### Applications

Transistors are used as switches in digital circuits, toggling between "on" and "off" states. Important
parameters include the current switched, voltage handled, and switching speed. Ideal transistors aim
to minimize leakage currents when off, reduce resistance when on, and ensure fast transitions
between states.
### Simplified Operation

In a grounded-emitter transistor circuit, as the base voltage rises, the emitter and collector currents
increase exponentially, reducing the resistance between collector and emitter. When the voltage
difference between collector and emitter is near zero, current flows freely, and the switch is "on"
(saturation).

Transistors are categorized by their structure (e.g., MOSFET, BJT, JFET, IGBT), semiconductor material
(e.g., silicon, germanium, gallium arsenide), electrical polarity (NPN, PNP for BJTs; N-channel, P-
channel for FETs), performance (power rating, operating frequency), and physical packaging. They
can operate across a wide temperature range and are tailored for specific applications such as
switches, general-purpose use, and high-frequency operations.

Structure

 MOSFET (IGFET)
 BJT (Bipolar Junction Transistor)
 JFET (Junction Field-Effect Transistor)
 IGBT (Insulated-Gate Bipolar Transistor)
 Other Types

Semiconductor Material

 Metalloids: Germanium (first used in 1947) and Silicon (first used in 1954) in various forms
(amorphous, polycrystalline, monocrystalline).
 Compounds: Gallium arsenide (1966) and Silicon carbide (1997).
 Alloy: Silicon-germanium (1989).
 Allotrope of Carbon: Graphene (research ongoing since 2004).

Electrical Polarity

 NPN and PNP for BJTs

 N-channel and P-channel for FETs

Performance

 Maximum Power Rating: Low, medium, high.

 Maximum Operating Frequency: Low, medium, high, radio (RF), microwave frequency. The
maximum effective frequency is denoted by fT (transition frequency).
 Application: Switch, general purpose, audio, high voltage, super-beta, matched pair.
 Physical Packaging: Through-hole metal, through-hole plastic, surface mount, ball grid array,
power modules.
 Amplification Factor: hFE, βF (transistor beta), or gm (transconductance).
 Working Temperature:
o Traditional: −55 to 150 °C (−67 to 302 °F).
o Extreme Temperature: Above 150 °C (302 °F) and below −55 °C (−67 °F).

A transistor might be described by a combination of these characteristics, such as a silicon,

surface-mount, BJT, NPN, low-power, high-frequency switch.
The JEDEC part numbering scheme, developed in the 1960s in the U.S., typically starts with "2N" for
three-terminal transistors and "3N" for four-terminal dual-gate field-effect transistors. The prefix is
followed by a two-, three-, or four-digit number that doesn't indicate device properties. For instance,
2N3055 is a silicon NPN power transistor, while 2N1301 is a PNP germanium switching transistor. A
letter suffix like "A" may indicate a newer variant.

In Japan, the JIS semiconductor designation begins with "2S" (e.g., 2SD965), though the "2S" prefix is
sometimes omitted on the package. Suffixes such as R, O, and BL indicate tighter hFE (gain)
groupings.

Manufacturers often use proprietary numbering systems. For example, CK722 was a specific
manufacturer's code. Prefixes like "MPF" in MPF102, originally denoting a Motorola FET, are now
unreliable indicators of the manufacturer. Sometimes proprietary schemes borrow from other
naming conventions, such as PN2222A, a plastic-cased version of 2N2222A.

Military parts have their own codes, like the British Military CV Naming System. Manufacturers also
use "house numbers" for large orders, reflecting specific purchasing specifications rather than
standardized numbers. For example, HP part 1854-0053 is a JEDEC 2N2218 transistor, also known as
CV7763.

Ambiguity can arise from multiple naming schemes and the abbreviation of part numbers. Different
devices may share the same marking (e.g., J176), and as through-hole transistors gain surface-mount
counterparts, many new part numbers emerge due to varying pinout arrangements and options for
dual or matched devices. Thus, while original devices like 2N3904 are standardized, their newer
versions are not.
Other Types
The BJT and FET are the main types of transistor based on how the
circuit can be used, other than these two there are more types of
transistor such as
 MOSFET (Metal-Oxide-Semiconductor Field-Effect
Transistor): It uses an insulated gate to control the flow of
electrons.
 JFET (Junction Field-Effect Transistor): Controls current
with electric field applied across a semiconductor material.
 IGBT (Insulated-Gate Bipolar Transistor): Combines
features of both MOSFET and bipolar junction transistor
(BJT) which is used in high-power applications.
 Thin-Film Transistor (TFT): It is used in flat-panel
displays and sensors.
 HEMT (High Electron Mobility Transistor):It is used for
high-speed operation and low noise performance.
  ITFET (Inverted-T Field-Effect Transistor):It uses
inverted-T-shaped gate structure for improved
performance.
 FREDFET (Fast-Reverse Epitaxial Diode Field-Effect
Transistor): It is used for high-speed switching
applications with low reverse recovery time.
 Schottky Transistor: It uses Schottky barrier at the base-
collector junction to improve switching speed.
 Tunnel Field-Effect Transistor (TFET):It is used for low-
power operation.
 OFET (Organic Field-Effect Transistor):It is used for
flexible electronics and displays.
 Diffusion Transistor: It uses diffused semiconductor
junction for amplification.

How do Transistors Work?

As we know BJT consists of three layers or terminals which
are Emitter, Base, and Collector. It is a device where two P-N
junctions are there within a BJT.
 One P-N junction exists between the emitter and base
region, and the second junction exists between
the collector and base region.
 Transistors are combined to form a logic gate in which it
compares multiple input current and provide output.
Transistors are used in complex switching circuits which comprise
all modern telecommunication systems.
In the operation of BJT, the base-emitter is forward-biased and the
base-collector is reversed-biased.

Characteristics of Transistor
It represents the plot or structure which represents the relation
between current and voltage of a transistor in a specific
configuration. The characteristics of a Transistor are:
 Input Characteristics: It gives the information about the
change in input current with varying voltage having
constant output voltage.
 Output Characteristics: It is a plot of an output current
with output voltage having constant input voltage.
 Current Transfer Characteristics: This graph shows the
relation between output current and input current by
keeping the voltage constant.
Transistor Biasing
It is a process of applying a DC operating voltage condition to the
transistor so that the AC input signal can be amplified correctly by
the transistor. It is one of the most used semiconductor devices
that is used for a wide range of applications. To obtain those
functionality a transistor must be supplied with current or voltage.
It can be accomplished by various biasing circuits and techniques.
Types of Transistor Biasing
Well, in this particular context we will see types of transistor
biasing and the most common preferred methods for biasing of
transistor are as mentioned below.
 Base Resistor: The base terminal of the transistor is
connected with a high value of the base resistor and the
transistor used in the circuit is of NPN type so that the
other end of the resistor will be connected to the positive
part of the supply. It makes the junction base-emitter to be
forward biased and the terminal base will be positive
compared to the emitter terminal.
 Collector To Base: In this collector-to-base biasing the
circuit consists of a base resistor which is fed back to the
terminal collector. It is different from the method of base
resistor. Note that if the current at the collector tends to
increase the voltage at the load resistor gets increased
which results in an increase in the value of the voltage at
the collector-emitter and the current at the base will be
reduced.
 Voltage Divider: This type of biasing is widely preferred
because it consists of two resistors. This biasing helps in
providing stabilization due to the resistor present at the
emitter and one disadvantage of using this type of biasing
is here the signals tend to get mixed while using this bias in
the circuits.
Transistor Operating Conditions
When a small signal is applied between one pair of terminals in a
transistor, a signal can be operated to control a much larger signal
at another pair of terminals. In this part, the property of the
transistor is gained due to signal strength in the process of
switching and the output generated can be either voltage or
current or electronic signal. If the input increases then the output
also increases. In other words, it is simple to say that output is
proportional to input. Due to this particular activity transistor can
act as an amplifier.
The main use of a transistor is that it makes the circuit more
controllable and the current flow is determined by other circuit
elements. Depending on the biasing conditions like forward or
reverse, transistors have three major modes of operations cutoff,
active, and saturation regions.
 Active Mode: In this mode, the transistor is generally used
as current amplifier. In active mode, two junctions are
differently biased which means emitter-base junction is
forward biased whereas collector-base junction is
reverse biased. In this mode, current flows between
emitter and collector and the amount of current flow in
proportional to the base current.
 Cutoff Mode: Here both collector base junction and
emitter junction are reverse biased. As both the PN
junction are reverse biased, there is almost no current flow
except very small leakage of currents. In BJT mode it is
switched OFF and is essentially an open circuit. This region
is mainly used in switching and digital logic circuits
 Saturation Mode: In this particular mode of
operation, both the emitter-base and collector-base
junctions are forward biased. Here current flows freely
from collector to emitter with almost 0 resistance. In this
mode, the transistor is fully switched ON and it is a closed
circuit. It is mainly used in switching and digital logic
circuits.
Applications of Transistor
Transistors are fundamental building blocks of modern electronics.
They are essentially tiny, solid-state switches that can amplify or
regulate a current or voltage. Here are some of their key
applications:
 Switch: Transistors can function like electronic switches.
By applying a small voltage, a large current flow can be
controlled on or off. This capability is crucial for digital
circuits, the foundation of modern computers and many
other devices.
 Amplifier: Transistors can take a weak electrical signal
and make it much stronger. This is essential for
applications such as hearing aids, amplifiers for musical
instruments, and radio technology.
 Integrated Circuits (ICs): Transistors are miniaturized
and embedded in large numbers onto tiny silicon chips to
create complex integrated circuits. These ICs are the heart
of modern electronics, found in everything from
smartphones and computers to cars and medical devices.
 Memory: Transistors are used in various memory devices,
such as Random Access Memory (RAM) and Flash memory,
which enable electronic devices to store and retrieve data.
 Logic Gates: Transistors can be combined to form logic
gates, the basic building blocks of digital circuits. Logic
gates perform basic operations like AND, OR, and NOT,
which allows for complex computations within electronic
devices.