Computer for Business I:  Speed: The speed performance of a computer is

Introduction: incomparable with the speed of manual human. Computer

can perform calculations and analysis much faster and
What is a computer? much more accurate than a human.
 E-Learning: with the help of a computer and its components
We will see three different ways to view a computer including: you are able to study and obtain a degree and scholarshIP
over the internet.
 A computer is an electronic device that carries out
arithmetic and logic operations on data before the data is Disadvantages:
converted to information.
 Computers is an electronic device that receives data as Naturally to every good side, there is a bad one and here are the bad
input, processes the data, stores it and send out sides to computers.
information as output.
 A computer is a combination of hardware and software  Redundancy: The introduction of computer can cause
 A computer is a combination of hardware and software redundancy in the workplace, where employees are getting
replaced with computers since they are able to the same
Just like the car needs fuel to operate, the computer also needs job effectively (doing what it was suppose to do), accurately
precise “Data” in other to produce a required outcome (information). (the output remains the same quality at every time), and
relatively cheap. However this can be circumvented by
What is Data? acquiring skills that go with use of computers so that if
anyone is losing his job, it won’t be you.
- Data is regarded upon like the raw fact with NO attributed  Hackers attack: Computer makes it easy to store large
meaning e.g. numbers, unorganized text, symbols. Data amount of data, which can be hacked and misuse.
becomes top priority for every information acquired by the  Ergonomic: They are health associated with the improper
computer. and excessive use of computers. The glare from the screen
causes eyestrain and inadequate support for the wrist when
1.1. The Data Protection Act typing can cause Carpel-Tunnel- Syndrome.
It is aimed at protecting the rights of individuals to privacy. Some Data
Protection Act rules are:
1. If an organization holds data on individuals, it must be
registered under the act.
2. Personal data should be processed fairly and lawfully
3. Personal data should not be disclosed in anyway other than
lawfully and within the registered purpose.
4. Personal data should be adequate and relevant and not
excessive for the required purpose.
5. Personal data should be kept accurate and kept up to date
6. Data must be processed in accordance with the right of the
data subject
7. Appropriate security measures must be taken against
unauthorized access.
What is information?
- Information is the outcome of Data.
- Information also refer to raw facts (data) that has been
processed (given meaning).
Advantages of using o computer

The present global age is a consequence of the computer

age. The extent to which a computer will be advantageous to you will
depend on a number of factors, including your age, job descrIPtion,
area of work, experience and educational background as a matter of
fact computers are used in many areas of life such as:

 Effective documenting: Computer provided tools including

spelling and grammar checker, thesaurus and dictionaries
has made it possible for effective communication and
transmission of accurate information even by the
incapable.
 Storage: Very large amounts of data can be stored in a
relatively small space, hundreds to thousands of pages
could be stored in an object as small as the SD-card
(secure digital Card)
 COMPUTER There are different keyboard layouts but the best known are QWERTY
HARDWARE. mainly used by English speakers since it has an English layout and
AZERTY used by French speakers since it has a French layout. Another
Computer hardware refers to every physical component or keyboard layout modified greatly from a standard layout is DVORAK,
devised to increase typing speed by placing frequently used keys more
device that carryout (Execute) the instructions of the
naturally.
computers software. E.g. keyboard, mouse, joystick, A keyboard connects to the computer through cable PS/2 cable, USB
monitor, speakers and projector. cable or wireless (cordless).
Mouse
Computer hardware can be represented diagrammatically as follows: A mouse is a handheld pointing device which is moved across a flat
surface to control the movement of a pointer on a computer monitor.
Central Processing Unit
CRT MONITOR FLAT PANEL MONITORS
Control Uses vacuum tube technology. Uses the Crystal Display
Unit Output technology
Input
Arithmetic
Consumes more electricity Consumes less electricity
Logic Unit Too large hence not portable Slim in nature hence portable
Electron Gun is used to form Liquid crystals are used to form
images images
The mouse has two buttons, the right and the left buttons, which are
Primary
Storage
clicked (pressed)to enter commands into the computer.
Different actions that can be performed with a mouse are:
‘  Click: Pressing the left mouse button.
Secondary  Right-click: pressing the right mouse button
Storage  Double-click: pressing the left button two times in quick
succession
Storage Unit
 Drag: pressing the left button and while holding, moving the
mouse
Functional Units of a Computer
 Drop: Releasing the left button after dragging
Computer PerIPheral Devices: Drag and drop can be used to move files or documents from one place
to another.
 A computer perIPheral a perIPheral is any external device A mouse connects to a computer through PS/2 cable (PS/2 mouse),
that can be connected to the computers system e.g. USB cable (USB mouse), or wireless (optical mouse).
keyboard, mouse, monitor, printer, scanner etc. Trackball and touch pad.
 A computer perIPheral refers to computer components Scanner
responsible for sending data into and out of the machine. A scanner is an optical device that converts hardcopy image or text
into digital form so that it can be fed into the computer. The common
1. Input Devices optical scanner devices are the flatbed scanner, optical mark reader,
Input devices are hardware components that are used to enter data optical character reader and barcode reader.
and instructions into the computer. Examples are keyboard, mouse,  Flatbed Scanner: a scanner in which the object to be scanned
scanner, joystick, light pen, touchpad, trackball and microphone. is held flat against a piece of glass.
Keyboard  Optical Mark Reader
The keyboard is the standard input device attached to computers. It  Optical Character Reader
has keys (buttons) that are pressed to enter characters and commands  Barcode Reader
into the computer. These keys represent letters, numbers, symbols and Other types of input devices are joystick, light-pen,
control characters. The keyboard has a total of 101-104 keys divided Trackball and touch pad.
into different groups or keypads.
 Function keys, labeled F1-F12, perform specific functions 1.1. Output Devices
based on the software used. F1 for example is used in most Output devices are hardware components that are used to retrieve
software to display help, F2 to enter the bios set-up of the information from the computer. They provide the results of
ROM, F12 to choose device to boot from etc. computations to the person using the computer, in a way they can
 Alphabetical keys: these are keys that carry letters of the understand. Examples are monitor, printer, speaker and projector.
alphabet on them, making them 26 in number
 Numerical keys: used to enter numeric characters, making 1.1.1. Monitor
them 10 in number from 0 to 9, activated by the NUMLOCK Also referred to as VDU (Visual Display Unit), the monitor is the most
(number activator or deactivator). popular output device. It displays information generated by a
 Navigation keys also called direction keys are used to computer on a screen. Such output is known as softcopy output.
navigate through documents and websites. Examples of Monitors are characterized by the technology they use and their
navigation keys are the up, down, left and right arrows. resolution.
 Action keys  By the technology used, monitors are of two main types:
Cathode Ray Tube (CRT) monitors and Flat Panel Display.
 o CRT monitors are similar to a television set. o The programs counter (PC) which holds the address of the
o Flat panel display monitors are of different types: Liquid next instruction to be executed.
Crystal Display (LCD), Electroluminescent Display (ELD), o The current instructions register (CIR) which holds the
Gas Plasma (GP) and Thin Film Transistor (TFT) monitors. instruction being executed.
 General purpose registers on the other hand have no specific
 Monitor resolution refers to the number of dots (pixels) on the function; they are used according to the need of the program
screen that makes up the image. It is expressed as a pair of being executed.
numbers that give the number of dots on a line (horizontal) and
the number of lines (vertical). The size of a pixel is known dot Question: How would you define processing?
pitch. The smaller the dot pitch, the clearer and sharper the
picture appears on the monitor. Most monitors come with a .28 Answer: Processing is performing arithmetic operations (add, subtract,
dot pitch. multIPly, divide etc) or logical operations (comparisons like less than,
 Assignment: State the advantages of flat panel monitors over greater than, equal to etc) on data to convert it to useful information.
CRT 1.1.6. The Instruction Cycle
1.1.2. Printer The instruction cycle describes how program instructions are
A printer is a device that produces computer-generated information on repeatedly fetched, decoded and executed, one instruction at a time,
paper. Such output is referred to as printout or hardcopy. Based on until an instruction to HALT is encountered. Before an instruction can
the technology used, printers can be classified into impact and non- be fetched, it must be placed into memory as well as related data,
impact printers. from an input or secondary storage device. Once the necessary data
 Impact printers have mechanical contact between paper and and instructions are in memory, the central processing unit performs
printing head (e.g. daisy wheel, dot matrix and line printers). the following four steps for each instruction:
 Non-impact printers have no mechanical contact between 1. The control unit fetches (gets) data and instructions from
paper and printing head (e.g. ink-jet, desk- jet, laser printers). memory.
2. The control unit decodes the instructions i.e. determines
Assignment: State the advantages and disadvantages of impact and what they mean, and directs that the necessary data be
non-impact printers? moved to the arithmetic-logic unit.
1.1. The Central Processing Unit 3. The arithmetic-logic unit then executes the instruction on
The central processing unit (CPU) also called processor, is the brain or the data. That is, the ALU is given control and performs the
heart of the computer. It is the part of the computer that interprets and actual operation on the data.
executes program instructions. It also controls the other components 4. The arithmetic-logic unit stores the result of this operation
of the system. The CPU is made up of three main components: the in memory or in a register.
arithmetic-logic unit (ALU), the control unit (CU) and registers.
Examples of CPUs are Intel Pentium II, III, IV, Pentium Celeron, and
AMD (advanced Micro Device).
1.1.3. Control Unit
The control unit acts like supervisor seeing that things are done as they
ought to. It locates and retrieves program instructions from memory,
interprets them and ensures that they are executed in proper
sequence. It also ensures that data is selected from memory as
necessary and information is stored correctly as well. Steps 1 and 2 together are called instruction time or I-time and steps
1.1.4. Arithmetic-Logic Unit 3 and 4 together are called execution time or E-time. The combination
The arithmetic-logic unit (ALU) performs arithmetic and logic of I-time and E-time is called the machine or instruction cycle or the
operations. It contains arithmetic circuits that perform arithmetic fetch-decode-execute cycle. The length of time taken to fetch, decode
operations like addition, subtraction, multIPlication and division, and and execute an instruction is measured in clock cycles.
logic circuits that perform comparisons like equal to, less than, greater Computer Motherboard
than, greater than or equal to and less than or equal to.
Motherboard types are better described by what we call the
1.1.5. Registers
motherboard form factor. The form factor of a motherboard determines
Registers are special storage locations within the CPU that offer an
the specifications for its general shape and size. It also specifies what
advantage of speed. They work under the direction of the control unit
type of case and power supply will be supported, the placement of
to accept and hold data that is being processed. Since the CPU uses
mounting holes, and the physical layout and organization of the board.
registers for the processing of data, the number of registers in a CPU
The most common form factors found in modern PCs are:
and the size of each register affect the power and speed of the CPU.
 Advanced Technology (AT)
Registers are grouped into two: special purpose registers and general
 Advanced Technology Extended (ATX)
purpose registers.
 Low Profile Extension (LPX)
 Special purpose registers are dedicated to specific tasks like:
 New Low profile Extended (NLPX)
o the accumulator which collects the result of computations,
o the memory address register (MAR) which keeps track of
where a given instruction or piece of data is stored in
memory
o The memory data register (MDR) which holds data values.
 1.1.7. The System Bus Expansion Cards:
A computer bus is a set of parallel lines that interconnects various All microcomputers that we used can be can be expanded to perform
components inside the computer, allowing the exchange of data more task better. Expandability refers to a computer’s ability to
between them. It is the pathway between these components, enabling perform better due to the addition of more memory through an
data to be transferred from one component to another. The width or expansion boards.
size of a bus is determined by the number of lines it has. The system Expansion Slots are electronic circuit on the motherboard where the
bus is made up of three different busses: the data bus, the address expansion card or add-on board is inserted. E.g. of memory expansion
bus and the control bus. cards will be the
a. The Data Bus  RAM of which only two types exist, namely (SIMMs or
The data bus carries data between the CPU and main memory or DIMMs) Single and Dual inline memory module,
perIPherals. During a write operation, data is carried from the CPU and  Display adapter or Graphic Card is the circuit board
during a read operation, data is carried into the CPU. This means that responsible for adapting different kinds of color display to
the data bus is bidirectional. The size of the data us determines how the monitor of your computer.
much data can be transferred in a single operation.  Controller card is the expansion card that permits the c.p.u
b. The Address Bus to interact with computer perIPherals e.g. disk controller
The address bus carries address information from the CPU to main enables the computers c.p.u to interact with Hard Disk,
memory or perIPherals. It is unidirectional. The CPU uses the address Diskette etc.
bus to send the address of the memory location to be written to or read  Network Interface Card (NIC). Also known as Ethernet Card
from. Also, when the CPU reads data from or writes to a port, it sends which enables one computer device to communicate with
the port address out on the address bus. The size of the addressbus another.
determines the maximum amount of main memory (RAM) that can be  TV Cards are expansion cards that enables the computer to
addressed. A computer with a 32 bit bus size can address a maximum capture TV and Radio signals
RAM of 232 bits = 4GB. 2.
c. The Control Bus Flynn’s Taxonomy of Computer Architecture
The control bus is used by the CPU to send out signals to enable the Michael Flynn classified computer architecture into four distinct
outputs of addressed memory devices or port devices. Typical control categories based on the notion of stream or flow of information into
bus signals are memory read, memory write, I/O read and I/O write. the CPU. He identified two types of information streams:
When the CPU wants to read data from a memory location, it sends out  The instruction stream which is the flow of instructions into the
the memory address of the desired data on the address bus and then processing unit
sends out a Memory Read signal on the control bus. The memory read  The data stream which is the flow of the data on which the
signal enables the addressed memory device to output the data onto instructions are performed.
the data bus. The data from the memory travels along the data bus to
the CPU.
1.1.8. Input/OutputInterfaces
The CPU communicates with I/O devices through bus interfaces
connected to the system bus. These bus interfaces also called
expansion busesare then connected to ports which allow the exchange
of data and information between the computer and external
(perIPheral) devices.
a. I/O Ports
A port isa pathway for data and information to go into and out of the
computer from external devices such as keyboards, monitors and
printers.
There are many standard ports as well as custom electronic ports
designed for special purposes. Examples of ports are:
o PS/2 ports for connecting the keyboard and mouse
o VGA (Video Graphics Adapter) port for connecting the
monitor
o RJ45 port for connection to an Ethernet network
o RJ14 for connection to the Internet via phone line
o USB port for connecting USB devices like Flash drives,
printers, keyboards and mice
o Serial ports for connecting serial devices like PDAs and
data is transferred through the serial port one bit at a time.
o Parallel port connecting parallel devices like printers
o Firewireis high performance serial bus, for connecting
devices to your personal computer. FireWire provides a
single plug-and-socket connection on which up to 63
devices can be attached with data transfer speeds up to
400 mbps.
 I. NUMBER SYSTEMS AND CODES 1.2.1. Binary Addition
Introduction.
Rules for addition:
1. Number Systems 0+0=0; 0+1=1; 1+0=1; 1+1=10; 1+1+1 = (1+1)
A number system is a set of symbols and rules used to represent + 1 = 10+1 = 11
numbers. The number of different symbols used in a given number i. 100 + 01 = 101 ………………………………….(4 +
system is known as the base or radix of the system. The largest value of
1 = 5)
a symbol (digit) in a given number system is always one less than the
ii. 1101 + 101 = 10010 …………………………. (13 +
base or radix of that system. If the base of a system is represented
5 = 18)
by“𝑏”, then the largest value a digit in that system can assume is“𝑏 −
iii. 1111 + 110 = 10101 …………………………..
1”.
(15 + 6 = 21)
Examples of number systems include the binary, octal, decimal
(denary) and hexadecimal systems. 1.2.2. Binary Subtraction
1.1. The Decimal System Rules for subtraction:
The decimal system has a base value of 10. Its maximum or largest 0-0 = 0; 1-0 = 1; 0-1 = 0 (we borrow digit);
value of digit is(𝑏 − 1) = 10 − 1 = 9, meaning thatthe decimal 1-1 = 0
system uses the digits 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, and 9 to represent any i. 10101 − 100 = 10001 (21 − 4 = 17)
quantity. ii. 1010 − 101 = 101 …... we borrow a digit worth 2 to
For any n-digit number, the value each digit represents depends on its continue with the calculation (10 − 5 = 5)
position in the number. Decimal positions (place values) are powers of iii. 1001011 − 110101 = 10110 (75 − 53 = 22)
ten as shown below: 1.2.3. Binary MultIPlication
Rules for multIPlication:
Least 0 × 0 = 0; 0 × 1 = 0; 1 × 0 = 0; 1 + 1 = 1
Most
significant i. 101 × 10 = 1010 ……………………………….. (5 ×
significant 10 … 1 bit
bit 2 = 10)
ii. 111 × 101 = 100011 …………………………. (7 ×
Where, 10 is the one’splace 5 = 35)
10 Is the ten’s place iii. 11011 × 1101 = 101011111 ……………… (27 ×
10 Is the hundreds place 13 = 351)

The value of any digit in a given n-digit number is obtained by

1.2.4. Binary Division
multIPlying the digit by its place value. The value of the number is the
Rules for division:
sum of the products of the digits and their place values. That is, we
0/1 = 0; 1/1 = 1; 1/0 = undefined.
multIPly each digit by its place value, then we add the different
products obtained.
1.3. The Octal System
Example: 234 = 2 × 10 + 3 × 10 + 4 × 10 . This means
The octal system has a base value of 8. It uses the digits 0-7 to
that there are two one hundreds, three tens and four ones in the
represent any quantity. Weights in octal are powers of eight as shown
number 234.
below. Least Significant
Digit (LSD)
Remark Each digit position in decimal has a weight that is ten times Most Significant
the one to its immediate right. That is, 10 is ten times greater than Digit (MSD) 8 … 8 8 8
10 which is ten times greater than 10 .
Octal positions
1.2. The Binary System Where 8 is the one’s place
The binary system has a base value of 2. Only two digits 0 and 1, are
8 is the eights place
used to represent any quantity in binary. These digits are called binary
8 is the sixty fours place
digits or more commonly bits. To express any quantity in binary we use
powers much like in the decimal system but this time, the weights are
powers of 2 as shown below.
LSB
Most Significant
Example: 367 = 3 × 8 + 6 × 8 + 7 × 8
Bit (MSB) 2 … 2 2 2
(This means that there are 3 sixty fours, 6 eight’s and 7 one’s in 367)
Binary positions for an 𝑛-bit number 1.4. The Hexadecimal System
The prefix “hex” means 6 and “deci” means 10. The hexadecimal
number system is thus a base-16 number system. Each digit position
e.g. the binary number 1101 is expressed as1101 = 1 × 2 +
represents a power of 16. The digits used in this system are 1, 2, 3, 4,
1×2 +0×2 +1×2
5, 6, 7, 8, 9, A, B, C, D, E and F, where𝐴 = 10 , 𝐵 = 11 , 𝐶 =
This means that there are 1 one, 0 two, 1 four, and 1 eight in the
12 , 𝐷 = 13 , 𝐸 = 14 , 𝐹 = 15 .
number 1101.
 1.5. Conversion from One Base to Another Step 1: starting with the 1s place, write down all the binary place
values in order until you get to the first value that is greater than
1.5.1. Binary/Decimal Conversion the number to be converted.
a. Decimal to Binary Step 2: mark out the largest place value
To convert a binary number to decimal, we proceed as follows: Step 3: subtract the new largest place value from the number to
Step 1: starting with the 1s place, write the binary place value be converted. Place a “1” under the place value.
over each digit in the binary number to be converted. Step 4: for the rest of the place values, try to subtract each one
Step 2: add up all the place values that have a “1” in them from the previous result. If you can, place a “1” under that place
value. If you cannot, place a “0”.
Example 1: Convert 11010 to base 10 Step 5: repeat step 4 until all the place values have been
16 8 4 2 1 processed.
1 1 0 1 0 The resulting set of 1s and 0s is the decimal number you started
16 + 8 + 2 = 26 with.
Convert: 1111 (15), 10011 (19), 10101 (21) to base 10. Example 2: 34110 to base 2
Example 2: Convert 1101.011 to base 10 512 256 128 64 32 16 8 4 2 1
1101.011 = 1 × 2 + 1 × 2 + 0 × 2 + 1 × 2 + 0 512is greater 341 so we mark it out. What is left is
×2 +1×2 +1×2 256 128 64 32 16 8 4 2 1
= 8+4+0+1+0+1 4+1 8 341 − 256 = 85 we place 1 under 256
(MSB)
= 13 + 0.25 + 0.125
85 − 128 = 𝑥 we place 0 under 128
= 13 + 0.25 + 0.125
85 − 64 = 21 we place 1 under 64
= 13.375
21 − 32 = 𝑥 we place 0 under 32
Exercise: Convert the following binary numbers to decimal 21 − 16 = 5 we place 1 under 16
i) 1010.1012 5−8 = 𝑥 we place 0 under 8
ii) 10011.0012 5−4 = 1 we place 1 under 4
b. Binary to Decimal 1−2 = 𝑥 we place 0 under 2
There are two methods that can be used to convert decimal numbers 1−1 = 0 we place 1 under 1(LSB)
to binary: Therefore, 341 = 10101010101
- repeated division method Example 3: Convert 25.75 to binary
- repeated subtraction method
25 = 11001 ,
 Repeated Division Method 0.75 × 2 = 1.5 1
The general technique of this method can be used to convert any 0.5 × 2 = 1.0 1
decimal number to any other number system. 0.75 = 11
Step 1: divide the decimal number you want to convert by 2 in
regular long division until you obtain a final remainder ⇒ 25.75 = 11001.11
Step 2: use the remainder as the least significant bit of the
binary number Example 4: Convert: 33.33 to decimal.
Step 3: divide the quotient you got from the first division
operation by 2 until you obtain a final remainder 1.5.2. Binary/Octal Conversion
Step 4: use the remainder as the next digit of the binary number
Step 5: repeat steps 3 and 4 as many times as necessary until
Theorem
you get a quotient that cannot be divided by 2.
If base R1 is the integer power of another base, R2(i.e. R1 = R2d),then
Step 6: use the last remainder (that cannot be divided by 2) as
every group of d digits in R2 is equivalent to 1 digit in the R1 base.
the most significant bit of the binary number.
For example:
Assume that: R1 = 8 (octal) and R2 = 2 (binary)
Example 1: Convert 213 to base 2
213/2 = 106 remainder 1 LSB From the theorem, 8 = 23
106/2 = 53 remainder 0 Hence, 3 digits in base-2 is equivalent to 1 digit in base-8.
53/2 = 26 remainder 1
26/2 = 13 remainder 0 From the stated theorem, the following is a binary-octal conversion
13/2 = 6 remainder 1 table.
6/2 = 3 remainder 0
3/2 = 1 remainder 1
1/2 = 0 remainder 1 MSB

Therefore, 213 = 11010101

 Repeated Subtraction Method

 Binary Hexadecimal Binary Hexadecim Binar Hexadeci

000 0 0000 0 1000 8

001 1 0001 1 1001 9

010 2 0010 2 1010 A

011 3 0011 3 1011 B

100 4 0100 4 1100 C

101 5 0101 5 1101 D

110 6 0110 6 1110 E

111 7 0111 7 1111 F

a. Binary to Octal
Step1: make groups of three bits starting from the least significant bit a. Binary to Hexadecimal
and move towards the most significant bit. Step1: make groups of four bits starting from the least significant bit
Step 2: replace each group of bits by its octal representation. and move towards the most significant bit.
Step 2: replace each group of bits by its hexadecimal value
Example: 1. Convert 100110 to base 8 representation.
100110 = 100 110 Example 1: Convert 100110 to base 16
100 = 4 , 110 = 6 100110 = 0010 0110
∴ 100110 = 46 0010 = 2 , 0110 = 6

Example 2: Convert 1011101 to base 8 ∴ 100110 = 26

1011101 = 001 011 101
001 = 1 , 011 = 3 , 101 = 5 Example 2: Convert 1011101 to base 16
1011101 = 0000 0101 1101
∴ 1011101 = 135 0000 = 0 , 0101 = 5 , 1101 = 𝐶

b. Octal to Binary ∴ 1011101 = 5𝐶

To convert from octal to binary, we replace every octal digit by its 3-bits
binary equivalent. b. Hexadecimal to Binary
To convert from hexadecimal to binary, we carry out the inverse
Example1: Convert 73 to binary operation. That is, we replace every hexadecimal digit by its 4-bits
7 = 111 , 3 = 101 binary equivalent.
∴ 73 = 111101 Example: Convert 450 to binary
4 = 0100 , 5 = 0101 , 0 = 0000
Example 2: Convert 450 to binary ∴ 450 = 10001010000
4 = 100 , 5 = 101 , 0 = 000
∴ 450 = 100101000 Example 2: Convert 6𝐸 to base 2
6 = 0110, 𝐸 = 1110
1.5.3. Binary/Hexadecimal Conversion ∴ 6𝐸 = 1101110
Assume that:
R1 = 16 (hexadecimal) Assignment:
R2 = 2 (binary) 1) Convert the following octal numbers to hexadecimal.
i) 658
From the theorem, 16 = 24 ii) 538
Hence, 4 digits in a binary number is equivalent to 1digit in 2) Convert the following hexadecimal numbers to octal.
the hexadecimal number system. i) 12B16
ii) F2E16
The following is the binary-hexadecimal conversion table
 2. Data Representation o for negative integers, the absolute value of the integer is
equal to "the magnitude of the complement (inverse) of the
Computers use binary patterns (fixed number of bits) to represent
(𝑛 − 1)-bit pattern".
data, which could be numbers, letters, videos, images or other
Example 1: Using 1’s complement, represent the following base 10
symbols. It is important to decide on how these patterns will be
numbers on 8 bits.
interpreted. The interpretation of binary patterns is called data
i) 26 = 11010
representation or encoding. Different representation schemes exist.
Number is positive ⇒ sign bit is 0
2.1. Representation of Unsigned Integers ⇒26 = 0 0011010
Unsigned integers can represent zero and all positive integers. The ii) −25
value of an unsigned integer is interpreted as “the magnitude of its Number is negative ⇒ sign bit is 1
underlying binary pattern”. That is, for an unsigned integer, all the bits 25 = 11001
in the binary pattern are used to represent the magnitude of the Complement of 0011001 is 1100110
integer. ⇒−25 = 1 1100110
In binary, an n-bit pattern can represent 2 distinct integers. Example 2: Give the decimal equivalent of the following 1’s
Therefore, an n-bit pattern will represent integers from 0 to2 − 1. complement binary representations.
i) 0010 0001.
For example: Sign bit is 0 ⇒ positive
o A 4-bit pattern will represent the integers 0 to (2 ) − 1 = Absolute value is 010 0001 = 33
3 Hence, the integer is +33
o An 8-bit pattern will represent the integers 0 to (2 ) − ii) 1000 0001
1 = 255 Sign bit is 1 ⇒ negative
Absolute value is the complement of 000 0001, i.e., 111 1110 =
2.2. Representation of Signed Integers 126
Signed integers can represent zero, positive integers, as well as Hence, the integer is −126
negative integers. Four representation schemes are available for The problem with this representation is that there are still two
signed integers: representations for zero (0000 0000 and 1111 1111).
1. Sign-Magnitude representation a. Addition in 1’s Complement
2. 1's Complement representation o Add binary representations of the two numbers
3. 2's Complement representation o If there is a carry (referred to as end-round carry), add it
4. Biased representation (Excess-𝑛) to the result.
b. Subtraction in 1’s complement
Subtraction is implemented using addition as follows:
2.2.1. Sign-Magnitude Representation
o Determine the 1’s complement of the negative number
In sign-magnitude representation, the most significant bit is the sign
o Add the binary representations of the two numbers
bit with 0 for positive and 1 for negative. The remaining (𝑛 − 1) bits
o If there is any carry, add it to the result
represent the absolute value of the integer. The absolute value of the
Example: subtract 37 from 51 in binary
integer is interpreted as "the magnitude of the (𝑛 − 1)-bit pattern".
37 = 0100101 ⇒ 37 = 1011010 ⇒ −37 = 1101101in 1’s
Example 1: Suppose 𝑛=8 and the binary complement
representation 01000001.
(51) 00110011
Sign bit is 0 ⇒number is positive
(-37) + 11011010
Absolute value is 1000001 = 65 --------------
Hence, the integer is 65.
1 00001101
+ 1
Example 2: Suppose 𝑛=8 and the binary ---------------
representation 10001001. (14)00001110
Sign bit is 1 ⇒number is negative
Absolute value is 0001001 = 9
2.2.3. 2’s Complement Representation
Hence, the integer is −9. In 2's complement representation, the remaining (𝑛 − 1) bits
The drawbacks of sign-magnitude representation are: represent the magnitude of the integer as follows:
o There are two representations (0000 0000 and 1000 0000) o for positive integers, the absolute value of the integer is
for the number zero, which could lead to inefficiency and equal to "the magnitude of the (𝑛 − 1)-bit pattern".
confusion. o for negative integers, the absolute value of the integer is
o Arithmetic is cumbersome making the design of electronic equal to "the magnitude of the complement of the (𝑛 − 1)-
circuits for this scheme difficult. bit pattern plus one". That is, we just add one to 1’s
complement to get 2’s complement.
2.2.2. 1’s Complement Representation
In 1's complement representation the most significant bit is still the
sign bit. The remaining (𝑛 − 1) bits represent the magnitude of the
integer as follows:
o for positive integers, the absolute value of the integer is
equal to "the magnitude of the (𝑛 − 1)-bit pattern".
An alternative and simple way of getting 2’s complement is Computer Software
o to write the representation of the positive number Introduction
o starting from the least significant bit, flIP all the bits to the A computer system is basically made up of hardware and software.
left of the first 1. Hardware refers to the physical components of the computer that
execute software instructions. They are the parts of the computer that
Example 1: Using 2’s complement, store the following base 10 can actually be seen and touched like the keyboard, mouse, monitor
numbers. and internal circuits.Software on the other hand, refers to the
i) −24 collection of computer programs or instructions on “How to Carry out a
Number is negative ⇒ sign bit is 1 task” and which make the hardware useful in executing these
24 = 11000 = 0011000 instructions.
1’s complement of 24 is 1100111 Computer software can also be regarded as set of instructions that
2’s complement of 24 is 1100111 + 1 = 1101000 describes to the computer “What to do”, “When To do it” and “How to
⇒ −24 is represented by 1 1101000 do it”.
ii) −13 Computer software has two major categories namely system software
Number is negative ⇒ sign bit is 1 and application software.
13 = 1101 = 0001101 1. System Software
1’s complement of 13 is 1110010 System software controls and coordinate computer resources
2’s complement of 13 is 1110010 + 1 = 1110011 (hardware and operations) so that the computer user and applications
⇒ −13is represented by 1 1110011 can smoothly interact. They help the computer carry out its basic
operating tasks. System software are designed to perform computer
Example 2: Give the decimal equivalent of the following 2’s related tasks. They include operating systems, firmware, utility
complement binary representations. programs, device drivers, library programs and language translators.
i) 01100000 1.1. The Operating System
Sign bit is 0⇒ positive The operating system is the essential software that is required for a
Absolute value is 110 0000 = 96 computer to become operational. Itis the software layer that is on top
Hence, the integer is +96 of the hardware to provide functionality to computer components,
ii) 1 001 0001 manage the hardware and serve as interface between the computer
Sign bit is 1 ⇒ negative user and the computer. The operating system is called a virtual
Absolute value is the complement of 001 0001 plus 1, machine as ithides the complexity of the hardware and presents the
i.e.,110 1110 + 1 = 111 user with an interface that is easier to understand and program.
Hence, the integer is −111 (−2 + 2 + 2 = −128 + The operating system is stored on disk, but it needs to be loaded into
16 + 1 = −111) memory (RAM) once the computer is switched on and before any other
Modern computers use 2's complement in representing signed program can be run. The term bootstrapping refers to the process of
integers. This is because: loading the operating system into a computer’s memory. This process
2. There is only one representation for the number zero unlike is done by a program called the bootstrap loader that is stored
in sign-magnitude and 1's complement representations. permanently in the computer’s electronic ROM chIP. Examples of
3. Positive and negative integers can be treated together in operating systems are Windows (95, 98, 2000, XP, Vista, 7 and 8),
addition and subtraction. Subtraction can be carried out Macintosh Operating System (Mac OS), Linux and UNIX.
using the "addition logic".
1.2. Language Translators
a. Addition in 2’s Complement A language translator is a computer program that translates program
o Add binary representations of the two numbers instructions from one programming language to another. There are
o If there is a carry, ignore it three types of language translators: compilers, interpreters and
assemblers.
b. Subtraction in 2’s Complement  Compilers translate instructions written in a high-level
Subtraction is implemented as follows: language into machine language instructions.
o Determine the 2’s complement for the negative number  Interpreters translate instructions written in a high-level
o Add the binary representations of the two numbers language into machine language instructions and execute
o If there is any carry, ignore it them, one line at a time.
 Assemblers translate instructions written in assembly
Example: subtract 37 from 51 language (Mnemonics) to machine language instructions.
37 = 0100101 ⇒ 37 = 1011010 (1’s C) ⇒ − 37 =
1 1011011 (2’s C)
(51) 00110011
(-37) + 11011011
- ------------
(14) 1 00001110 discard end-round carry
 2. Application Software 1.2.4. Commercial Software
Application software is computer software that causes a computer to All rights reserved software is software that must be used by the
perform useful tasks beyond the running of the computer itself. They purchaser according to the exact details spelt out in the license
provide user-oriented functionality. Application software are used to agreement.
carry out productive work like typing a letter, designing and invitation
card, surfing the Internet, listening to music or watching a movie.
1.2.5. Open Source Software
Application software includes a variety of programs that can be Open source software is software whose source code is published so
subdivided into general purpose software, special purpose software that a variety of people can add contribution. Examples are Linux OS,
and custom-written software. MySQL, Mozilla and OpenOffice.
The last and the most important type of software will be
2.1. General Purpose Software
General purpose software is designed for a variety of tasks. It is not
2.1.1. Utility Software
limited to one particular function. They are also called generic Utility software is used to enhance the operating system, or in some
software and can be found off-the-shelf. That is, they can be bought other way improve the usefulness of the system. They help analyze,
from the market.Different types of general-purpose application configure, optimize and maintain the computer. Rather than providing
software exist. user-oriented or output-oriented functionality, utility software focuses
a. Word Processing Software on how the computer infrastructure operates. Most major operating
Examples are MS Word, WordPerfect, WordPad, NotePad. systems come with several pre-installed utilities. Examples of utility
software include: disk defragmenters, backup utilities, disk
b. Spreadsheet software
compression utilities, disk cleaners, file managers, disk formatters
Examples are MS Excel, Lotus 1-2-3, Quattro Pro, Apple Numbers
and virus checkers.
c. Database Software
 Disk defragmenters detect computer files whose contents are
Examples are MS-Access, Oracle, Dbase, FileMaker Pro
broken across several locations on adisk, and move the
d. Presentation Software
fragments to one location to increase efficiency.
Examples are MS PowerPoint, HyperStudio, Digital Chisel
 Disk cleaners find and delete files that are unnecessary to
e. Desktop Publishing Software
computer operation, or take up considerable amounts of space.
Examples are MS Publisher, Adobe PageMaker, Quark Express
They help users decide what to delete when their hard disk is
full.
An integrated software package is software that consists of multIPle
 Backup utilities make copies of all information stored on a disk,
applications bundled together. They usually have related functions,
and restore either the entire disk (e.g. in an event of disk failure)
features and user interfaces, and may be able to interact with each
or selected files (e.g. in an event of accidental deletion).
other. Examples are Microsoft Office, OpenOffice, Lotus Smart suite
 Disk compression utilities reduce the space that a file takes up
and Microsoft works.
on disk, increasing the capacity of the disk.
1.1.1. Special Purpose Software  File managers provide a convenient method of performing
Special purpose software is designed for a specific task. Examples are routine data management tasks, such as deleting, renaming,
web browsers, game applications, weather forecasting applications, moving, copying, merging, generating and modifying files.
media players and flight control software.  Disk partition utilities divide an individual drive into multIPle
logical drives, each with its own file system which can be
1.1.2. Custom-Written Software mounted by the operating system and treated as an individual
Custom-written software is written to a particular user’s requirements drive.
or needs. It is generally not available off-the-shelf and often has to be  Disk formatters
purchased directly from the software manufacturer. It is also called  Virus checkers prevent, detect, and remove malware.
bespoke software or tailor made software as it is tailored to the exact 2. Computer Networks
requirements of the user or organization.
A computer network is a collection of computers and other devices
1.2. Software Distribution Licenses
that are connected together so they can communicate and share
Software are distributed under different licenses. They include public
resources. The smallest network can be as simple as two computers
domain, freeware, shareware, open source and all rights reserved.
linked together. The resources shared include files, folders, printers,
1.2.1. Public Domain disk drives and anything else that exists on a computer. Any computer
Public domain software has no owner and is not protected by copyright or device on a network is called a node.
law. It was either created with public funds or the ownershIP was Networking is the term that describes the processes involved in
forfeited by the creator. Public domain software can be copied, sold designing, implementing, upgrading, managing and otherwise working
and/or modified. It is often of poor quality. with networks and network technologies
1.2.2. Shareware 1.1. Types of Computer Networks
Shareware is copyrighted software that allows you to use it for a trial Different criteria exist for classifying computer networks. According to
period but you must pay a registration fee to the owner for permanent geographical area covered, networks can be classified as local area
use. Purchasing the right to use the software may also get you a networks, wide area networks, metropolitan area networks, personal
version with more powerful features and published documentation. area networks etc.
1.2.3. Freeware 1.1.1. Local Area Network
Freeware is copyrighted software that is licensed to be copied and A local area network (LAN) is a network that is used for communication
distributed without charge. Freeware is free but it is still under the among computer devices, usually within an office building or home. It
owner’s control. Examples are Eudora and Netscape. enables the sharing of resources such as files or hardware devices that
 may be needed by multIPle users in an organization. A LAN is limited in network are connected. Data sent to the hub is broadcasted to all the
size, spanning a few hundred meters, and not more than a mile. It is ports but, only the destination computer receives it. There are three
fast, with speeds from 10 Mbps to 10 Gbps. An example of LAN is the kinds of hubs:
network in the Multimedia Resource Centre.  Passive hubs which only split the transmission signal so it can
1.1.2. Metropolitan Area Network be sent to all the ports
A metropolitan area network (MAN) is a large computer network that  Active hubs (also called MultIPort Repeaters) which regenerate
usually spans a city or a large campus. It is optimized for a larger data bits to maintain a strong signal over extended cable
geographical area than a LAN, ranging from several blocks of buildings lengths
to entire cities. A MAN typically covers an area of between 5 and 50  Intelligent hubs (also called Concentrators) usually have their
km diameter. An example of a MAN is a cable TV network. own microprocessor chIPs and network operating systems. They
can be managed remotely on the network.
1.1.3. Wide Area Network
A wide area network (WAN) covers a large geographic area such as a
1.2.4. Switch
country, a continent or even the whole world. It is a distributed A switch is used at the same place as a hub but the difference between
collection of LANs. That is, it connects two or more LANs together. This the two is that a switch has a switching table within it. A switching
is done using devices such as bridges, routers or gateways, which table stores the Media Access Control (MAC) address of every
enable them to share data. The largest and most well-known example computer connected to the switch and sends the data only to the
of a WAN is the Internet. requested address, unlike the hub which broadcasts the data to all the
ports. Switches can therefore be considered as an advanced form of
1.1.4. Personal Area Network hubs.
A personal area network (PAN) is a network that is used for A MAC address is a built-innumber (i.e. set by the manufacturer)
communication among computers and computer devices in close consisting of 12 hexadecimal digits that uniquely and permanently
proximity of around a few meters within a room. A PAN usually includes identifies the network adapter of a computer. Examples of a MAC
laptops, mobile phones, personal digital assistants, digital cameras addressesare 00-14-22-DA-67-15 and 00-13-02-31-E8-BA.MAC
and headsets. It can be used for communication between the devices address is also called the physical address. Under Windows, the MAC
themselves, or for connection to a larger network such as the Internet. address of a computer can be displayed by typing IPconfig/all at a
The most popular is the Wireless PAN (WPAN), a Bluetooth connection Command prompt.
between two laptop computers or phones.
1.2. Components of a Computer Network
1.2.5. Repeater
All types of computer networks require special networking software A repeater is a device used to expand the boundaries of a wired or
and hardware to allow different computers to communicate with each wireless network. With physical media, data transmissions can only
other. The most important software component required for a network span a limited distance before the quality of the signal degrades.
is the network operating system (NOS) while there are many types of Repeaters are usedto preserve signal integrity and extend the distance
hardware devices which are either installed or connected to the over which data can safely travel by regenerating the signals they
computer terminals in order to construct a network. receive. Active hubs are considered as repeaters (multIPort repeaters).

1.2.1. Network Operating System 1.2.6. Bridge

A network operating system is an operating system which includes A bridge, also called a layer 2 switch, is a device used to create a
networking features. It contains special functions, protocols and connection between two separate computer networks or to divide one
device drivers that enable the computer to be connected to a network. network into segments. Creating multIPle segments in a local network
NOS provide the ability to share resources and the ability to manage a reduces the network traffic making the network to be faster and more
network name directory, security, and other housekeeping aspects of a efficient. A bridge performs its segmenting function by examining the
network. data packet and forwarding it to other physical segments only if
Examples of network operating systems are Windows-NT, Windows- necessary.
2000 server, Windows server 3000, Novell Netware and Artisoft 1.2.7. Router
LANstatic. A router is a device that joins several networks together and is
Some multi-purpose operating systems like Windows XP, Windows 7 responsible for transferring data from one network to another. It keeps
and Mac OS 10, come with capabilities that enable them to be track of the IP addresses of the computers on the networks connected
described as network operating systems. to its network interface cards and directs data packets appropriately.
1.2.2. Network Interface/Adapter Card It is more powerful than a bridge because instead of just choosing
A network interface card (NIC) provides the physical interface (link) network segments based on previous traffic, a router can look up the
between the computer and the communication medium. A NIC best route for a packet to take. Routers can be computers with
manages the communication and network protocol for the PC. It operating systems and special network software, or they can be other
prepares data, sends data and controls the flow of data. It plugs into dedicated devices built by network manufacturers. The Internet relies
the system board and provides ports for connection to the network. A heavily on routers.
NIC is also called a LAN card or network adapter card. There are two
kinds of NIC: wired NIC for wired networks and wireless NIC (WNIC) for
wireless networks. A NIC may be designed as an Ethernet card, a
Token Ring card, or an FDDI card (but not all three).
1.2.3. Hub
A hub is a device that works as central connecting point for multIPle
computers in a network. It has ports to which the computers in the
 1.2.8. Modem a. Advantages
A modem (modulator/demodulator) is a device that encodes data for  Easy and inexpensive to set up as little cabling is required
transmission over a particular medium, such as telephone line, coaxial  Easy to include additional stations without disrupting the
cable, fiber optics, or microwaves. It converts digital signals from a network
computer to analog signals or waveform for transmission over a  Failure of one node does not affect network
medium (modulation) and converts analog signals from the medium to
digital signals understandable by the computer(demodulation). b. Disadvantages
Common types of modems are:  High rate of data collision
 Dial-up Modem  Fails if there is any damage to the bus
 Cable Modem  Any break in the bus is difficult to identify
 DSL Modem 1.2.2. StarTopology
 Sat modem In a star topology, all the computers are connected to a central device
1.2.9. MultIPlexer which could be a computer, a hub or a switch. Any communications
A multIPlexer abbreviated MUX, is a device that takes input signals between computers in this topology must pass through the central
from different sources and transmits them over a single transmission node. As such, the central node controls all the activities of the
line. This process is known as multIPlexing. There are different types of network.
multIPlexing:
 Frequency-division multIPlexing (FDM), in which the carrier
bandwidth is divided into sub channels of different frequency
widths, each carrying a signal at the same time in parallel.
 Time-division multIPlexing (TDM), in which the multIPle signals
are carried over the same channel in alternating time slots.
 Code-division multIPlexing (CDM), in which the multIPle signals Star topology
are carried over the same channel but every signal is coded
differently. a. Advantages
Orange and MTN use a combination of FDM and TDM called GSM  Breakdown of a node does not affect the network
while Camtel uses CDMA.  No disruption of the network when connecting or removing
devices
1.1.1. Gateway  It is easy to detect faults
A gateway is a device that connects two dissimilar computer network
architecture using direct and systematic translation between b. Disadvantage
protocols. A gateway translates outgoing network traffic to the  Failure of the central node affects the entire network
protocol needed by the destination network. The term gatewayis also  It is costly due to the amount of cables required to connect the
sometimes loosely used to describe any device that acts as the entry devices
or exit point for a network.
1.2.3. RingTopology
1.1.2. Network Transmission Cables In ring topology, all the nodes are connected in the form of a closed
Cables are used to link computers in a LAN. There are three types of loop such that each node is connected to two others. It uses an empty
cables commonly used: data packet called a token and a special protocol called token ring.
 Coaxial cable Packets travel around the ring in a clockwise direction. To transmit, a
 Twisted pair cable node requires an empty token.
 Fiber optic cable
1.2. Network Topologies
Network topology is the layout or arrangement of the components of a
network. It refers to the way in which computers and cables are
connected together to build a network. Different types of topologies
exist.
1.2.1. BusTopology Ring topology
In bus topology, all computers are connected to a single cable (trunk
or backbone) known as bus, by a transceiver either directly or by using a. Advantage
a short drop cable. Bus transmits in both directions such that any  No collision as a station needs the token to transmit
transmission can be received by all stations. All ends of the cable must  Each computer acts like a repeater so signals are not
be terminated, that is plugged into a device such as a computer or attenuated
terminator, to avoid signals from bouncing back. b. Disadvantage
 If a node in the network fails, the entire network fails
 Network is disrupted when additional stations are added.

Bus topology
 wireless connection is around 3-10km.WiMax service providers are
now just entering the market, offering customers an alternative to a
1.3. Network Standards DSL Internet connection.
1.3.1. EthernetNetwork 2.1.1. Buffering
Ethernet (IEEE 802.3 standard) is the most common and widely used A buffer is an area of memory used to temporarily store data while it is
technology to establish a local area network. An Ethernet network is being moved from one place to another. Buffers are used to
formed by physically connecting the individual computer units to each compensate for differences in rate of flow of data or time of
other in a bus topology or a star topology. Ethernet’s media access occurrence of events, when transferring data from one device to
policy is CSMA/CD (Carrier Sense MultIPle Access with Collision another. Routers use buffers to route data packets on the Internet.
Detection). When a packet is sent from one router to
 CS: means that a station listens to (senses) the medium and another via one or more intermediate routers, the packet is received at
transmits only if medium is idle each intermediate router in its entirety, stored there until the required
 MA: means that any station can use (access) the medium output line is free, then the packet is forwarded.
 CD: means that each station stops transmitting immediately it 1.4. Network Architectures
senses a collision. 1.4.1. Client/ServerArchitecture
When a collision is detected, the two stations involved will retransmit Client/server is a network architecture in which a more powerful
after a random time wait created by a back off algorithm. computer called server is dedicated to serving less powerful
1.3.2. Token Ring Network computers called clients. Servers hold shared resources like files,
Token ring (IEEE 802.5 standard) is a network technology developed programs and the network operating system. They provide access to
by IBM in which computers are connected together in a ring. Token network resources to all the users of the network. There are many
ring’s media-access method is called token passing. A special different kinds of servers, and one server can provide several
message, called token, circulates along the ring from one computer to functions. For example, there are file servers, print servers, mail
another and each computer can transmit only while it is holding the servers, database servers and Web servers. Users run applications on
token. Information flows in one direction along the ring from source to client workstations which rely on servers for resources such as files,
destination and back to source. When a station wishes to transmit, it devices and even processing power.
waits for the empty token to pass by. It seizes it and inserts data into it Internet services are organized according to a client/server
and then releases it to the medium. The token circulates until it gets to architecture. Client programs, such as Web browsers and file transfer
the destination computer that picks it and retrieves the data. After programs create connections to servers, such as Web and FTP servers.
retrieving the data, it regenerates the token and sends it back to the The clients make requests and the server responds to the requests by
medium. providing the services requested by the client.

1.3.3. Fiber Distributed Data Interface 1.4.2. Peer-to-PeerArchitecture

FDDI is a network technology that uses fiber-optic cables in a ring Peer-to-peer (P2P) is a network configuration in which all the
topology with dual rings on which information can travel in opposite workstations (computers) have equal capabilities and responsibilities.
directions. The media access method for FDDI is token passing. The Each workstation acts both as a server and a client. This means that
primary ring is used for data transmission, and the secondary ring any computer on the network can provide services to any other
remains idle. Because of this double ring topology, if a station fails or computer. Peer-2-peer is usually implemented where strict security is
a cable becomes damaged, the dual ring is automatically wrapped not necessary. P2Pnetworks are generally simpler and less expensive,
around itself, forming a single ring. This prevents downtime as a result but they usually do not offer the same performance under heavy loads.
of a failed machine or faulty wiring. Remark A hybrid network combines client/server and peer-to-peer
architectures. It is the most commonly used network architecture.
1.3.4. WirelessNetworkStandards
Wireless networks are established without physical wiring techniques
1.5. Benefits and Limitations of Computer Networks
involved. They use radio and infrared signals and are based around
one of these technologies: Bluetooth, WI-Fi, WiMax, terrestrial 1.5.1. Benefits
microwaves and satellite.  Sharing devices such as printers saves money.
a. Bluetooth  Site (software) licenses are likely to be cheaper than buying
Bluetooth is a low power, short-range wireless technology largely used several standalone licenses.
to interconnect computing devices into a personal area network. It is  Files can easily be shared between users.
based on IEEE standard 802.15 which gives specifications for  Network users can communicate by email and instant
Wireless Personal Area Network (WPAN). messaging.
b. Wi-Fi  Data is easy to backup as all the data is stored on the file
Wi-Fistands for Wireless Fidelity. It is based on a set of wireless server.
networking technologies known as 802.11. These include 802.11b,  Organizations can organize videoconferences (
802.11a, 802.11g and 802.11n. The range of Wi-Fi network videoconferencing)
transmission is about 30-40m indoors and up to about 100m  Employees can work from home (telecommuting).
outdoors.
c. WiMax
WiMax stands for Worldwide Interoperability for Microwave Access. It
is based on IEEE standard 802.16 and facilitates high speed wireless
network links to both fixed and mobile devices. The range of a WiMax
 1.5.2. Limitations 2.2.2. DigitalSignals
 Purchasing the network cabling and file servers can be A digital signal is one in which information is represented as a
expensive. sequence of binary values 0 and 1.These two values represent two
 Managing a large network is complicated.It requires training conditions, on or off, corresponding to two known levels of voltage or
and a network manager usually needs to be employed. current.
 If the file server breaks down the files on the server become Digital signals do not continuously vary as analogue signals. Signals
inaccessible. Email might still work if it is on a separate are transmitted within the computer as digital signals. Systems that
server. The computers can still be used but are isolated. use digital technology are known as baseband systems.
 Viruses can easily spread to other computers throughout the
network, if one computer is infected..
 There is a danger of hacking, particularly with wide area
networks. Security procedures are needed to prevent such
abuse, e.g. a firewall.
3. Data Communication
Data communication refers to the exchange of data between two Digital signal
devices via some form of communication channel. In data
2.3. Broadband and Baseband Transmissions
communication the following basic terms are frequently used:
 Data: a collection of facts in raw form that becomes 2.3.1. Baseband System
information after processing. A baseband system is a single-channel system that supports a single
 Signal: an electric or electromagnetic encoding of data. transmission at any given time. In a baseband system, data is sent as
 Signaling: propagation of signals across a communication a digital signal through the media as a single channel that uses the
channel. entire bandwidth of the media. Baseband communication is bi-
 Transmission: sending of data from one place to another by directional, which means that the same channel can be used to send
means of signals. and receive signals. In Baseband, frequency-division multIPlexing is
There are five basic components in a communication system. not possible.
 Data Source: creates data for transmission 2.3.2. Broadband System
 Transmitter: encodes data for transmission A broadband system is a system that supports multIPle transmissions
 Communication channel: connecting medium between via multIPle frequency channels. In a broadband system, data is sent
communicating devices in the form of an analog signal where each transmission is assigned a
 Receiver: decodes transmitted signals back to data portion of the bandwidth. Broadband communication is unidirectional,
 Destination: the final destination of the transmission so in order to send and receive, two pathways are needed. This can be
Example: John calls Peter on phone. accomplished either by assigning a frequency for sending and
The data source is John, the transmitter is John’s phone, the assigning a frequency for receiving along the same cable or by using
communication channel is the telephone cable or microwave, the two cables, one for sending and one for receiving.
receiver is Peter’s phone and the destination is Peter. 2.4. Transmission Modes and Techniques
2.2. Analog and Digital Signals Transmission modes simply refer to the direction of flow of information
Data is transmitted from one point to another by means of electrical between two communicating devices. It could be simplex, half duplex
signals that may be in analogue or digital form. or full duplex.
2.2.1. Analogue Signals 2.4.1. Simplex
An analog signal is one in which information is represented as a In simplex mode, signals are transmitted in only one direction. The
continuous variation of some physical property or quantity. Analog flow of information is unidirectional from transmitter to receiver
signals are continuous waves that carry information by varying the always. Examples are television broadcasting, computer to the printer
frequency or amplitude of the wave. connection and CPU to monitor communication.
 When the amplitude of the signal is varied the technique is
called amplitude modulation (AM) A B
 When the frequency of the signals is varied, the technique is
called frequency modulation (FM). 2.4.2. HalfDuplex
Human speech is an example of an analog signal. Telephone lines use
In half duplex mode, signals can be transmitted in both directions but
analog signals because they were originally designed for speech.
only one way at a time. The flow of information is bidirectional but
information can only be sent if it is not being received. It is suitable for
data transmission between a computer and dumb terminals. An
example is the police radio (walkie-talkie).

A B

Analogue signal
 2.4.3. FullDuplex  thinnet and
In full duplex mode, signals can be transmitted in both directions  thicknet.
simultaneously. The communicating devices can transmit at the same
time. The flow of information is bidirectional. It is suitable for
interactive systems. An example is the telephone.

A B

Coaxial cable
2.4.4. ParallelTransmission To connect coaxial cable to devices, we need coaxial connectors. The
Parallel transmission is the method of transferring several bits at the most common type of connectors used today is the Bayone-Neill-
same time over separate wires. For example, eight separate channels Concelman, or BNC connector.
will be required if a block of eight bits is to be transmitted in parallel.
Parallel transmission is fast but it is suited only for short distances as b. Twisted Pair Cable
cabling for long distances will be expensive. It is mainly used for Twisted-pair cable is the most common type of cabling used in LAN
connections within the computer and for connecting the computer to networks today. It consists of a pair or pairs of insulated wires twisted
the printer. together. Cable twisting helps reduce noise pickup from outside
2.4.5. Serial Transmissions sources and crosstalk on multi-pair cables. There are two types of
Serial transmission is the method of transferring data one bit at a time twisted pair cables: shielded twisted pairs (STP) and unshielded
through the same channel. If a block of 8 bits is to be transmitted in twisted pairs (UTP).
series, the bits will be transmitted one after the other on the same
channel. Serial transmission can be asynchronous or synchronous. Twisted pair cable uses RJ-14
a. Asynchronous Serial Transmission and RJ-45 connectors
Asynchronous transmission describes the process where transmitted
data is encoded with start and stop bits, specifying respectively the
beginning and end of each character. Data is sent character by
character with each character preceded by a start bit and a stop bit is Twisted pair cable
added to the end. Other control bits like the parity bit are added to the
group before the stop bit and small gabs are inserted to distinguish  Unshielded Twisted Pair
each group. UTP cables consist of 2 or 4 pairs of twisted cable. Cable with 2 pair
b. Synchronous Serial Transmission use RJ-11 connector and 4 pair cable use RJ-45 connector. RJ stands
Synchronous transmissiondescribes a continuous and consistent for registered jack. There are five levels of UTP:
timed transfer of data blocks. Data is sent as one long bit stream or Category 1: These are used in telephone lines and low speed data
block of data without start or stop bits and with no gabs. Upon cable.
reception, the receiver counts the bits and reconstructs bytes. It is Category 2: These cables can support up to 4 mps implementation.
essential that the same timing is maintained by both sender and Category 3: These cable supports up to 16 mps and are mostly used in
receiver as there are no start and stop bits and no gaps. Another 10 mps.
channel is therefore used to transfer timing signals to keep the both Category 4: These are used for large distance and high speed. It can
parties synchronized. Accuracy is dependent on the receiver keeping support 20mps.
an accurate count of the bits as they arrive. Category 5: This is the highest rating for UTP cable and can support up
to 100mps.
2.1. TransmissionMedia a. Fiber Optic Cable
A transmission medium is the physical pathway that connects Fiber optic cables use optical fibers that carry digital data signals in
computers and other devices on a network. Each transmission medium the form of modulated light pulses. An optic fiber consists of an
requires specialized network hardware that is compatible with that extremely thin cylinder of glass, called the core, surrounded by a
medium, and most networks need to use a combination of concentric layer of glass, known as the cladding. Each cable has two
transmission media types selected based on the network's fibers - one to transmit and one to receive.
needs.There are two categories of transmission media: guided and There are two types of optic fibers:
unguided media.  A single mode fiber (SMF) uses a single ray of light to carry
2.1.1. Guided Media transmissions over long distances.
Guided media are the physical links through which signals are  A multi-mode fiber (MMF) uses multIPle rays of light
confined to narrow path. They are made up of an internal conductor simultaneously with each ray of light running at a different
bounded by jacket material. They are also called bounded or reflection angle to carry transmissions over short distances.
conducted media. Three common types of guided media are coaxial 2.4.6. UnguidedMedia
cable, twisted pair cable and fiber optical cable. Unguided media do not use physical means to define the path to be
a. Coaxial Cable taken. They provide a means for transmitting electromagnetic waves
Coaxial cable consists of an inner core and an outer flexible braided but do not guide them. They are also called unbounded media.
shield, both of conductive material separated by an insulator. The Examples of unguided media are infrared waves, radio wavesand
braided shield prevents the cable from picking up or emitting electrical microwaves.
noise. There are two types of coaxial cable:
 2.4.7. The OSI Reference Model
a. Infrared The Open Systems Interconnection (OSI) reference model or more
Infrared uses transmitters/receivers (transceivers) that modulate non- commonly the OSI model is an ISO standard that defines how network
coherent infrared light. Infrared signals do not penetrate walls as such communications take place by providing a framework for
transceivers must be within line-of-sight either directly or via standardization. The OSI model divides network communications into
reflection. Line of sight is a type of propagation that can transmit and seven layers. Each layer is responsible for carrying out specific
receive data only where transmit and receive stations are in view of functions when transmitting data on the network. The table below
each other without any sort of an obstacle between them. shows the layered architecture of the OSI reference model.
b. Radio waves
Radio wave systems transmit signals by modulation of These
7 Application Layer
electromagnetic waves with frequencies below that of visible light. layers can
Radio waves carry information by systematically changing some 6 Presentation Layer be recalled
property of the radiated waves such as amplitude (AM radio), using the
frequency (FM radio) and phase. Radiowaves are omnidirectional.This 5 Session Layer following
means that signals spread out in all directions and can be received by mnemonic
4 Transport Layer
many antennas. s:
c. Microwaves 3 Network Layer All People
Microwaves are electromagnetic radiations beyond the frequency Seem To
range of radio and television. There are two types of microwave 2 Data Link Layer
Need Data
systems: terrestrial microwave systems and satellite systems. Processing
1 Physical Layer
 Terrestrial microwavesystemsare land-based. Microwaves being . (Layers 7
line-of-sight and - 1)
OSI Reference Model
 Traveling in a straight line, the earth’s curvature poses a
problem to long distance microwave transmissions. As such,long Layer 7: Application
distance transmissions antennas (repeaters)to be used at intervals of It provides network services directly to the user’s applications such as
25 to 30 kilometers between the transmitting and receiving end. a web browser or e-mail client. This layer is said to be “closest to the
user”. Examples of protocols that operate at this layer are: TELNET,
 Satellite systems use communication satellites to solve the HTTP, FTP, SMTP and POP.
problem posed by the earth’s curvature to terrestrial microwave
systems. A communication satellite is a microwave relay station Layer 6: Presentation
placed in outer space. A microwave signal is transmitted from earth to The Presentation layer represents the data in a particular format to the
the satellite which amplifies the signal and sends it back to earth. The Application layer. It defines encryption, compression, conversion and
earth station transmits the signal to the satellite on an up-link, on one other coding functions. Examples of specifications defined at this layer
frequency and the satellite repeats those signals on a down link which are: GIF, JPEG, MPEG, MIME and ASCII.
is on another frequency.
Layer 5: Session
It establishes, maintains and terminates end-to-end connections
(session) between two applications on two network nodes. It controls
the dialogue between the source and destination nodes, which node
can send when and for how long. Examples of protocols that operate
on this layer are: RPC, NETBIOS and X.225

Layer 4: Transport
It is responsible for end-to-end delivery of entire messages. It allows
data to be transferred reliably and uses sequencing to guarantee that
 Advantages of microwave systems it will be delivered in the same order it was sent. It also provides
oNo cables needed services such as error checking and flow control. Examples of
oMultIPle channels available protocols at this layer are: TCP, UDP, NETBEUI and SPX.
oWide bandwidth
 Disadvantages Layer 3: Network
o Line-of-sight will be disrupted if any obstacle, such as new It is responsible for path determination, routing, and the delivery of
buildings, are in the way packets across internetworks. It is also responsible for addressing
o Signal absorption by the atmosphere. Microwaves suffer (also known as logical addressing) for example IP addressing.
from attenuation due to atmospheric conditions. Examples of protocols at this layer are: IP, IPX and ICMP.
o Towers are expensive to build Examples of devices that operate at this level are Layer-3 switches and
routers. WAPs (wireless access points) with built-in routing
capabilities also act at this layer.
Layer 2: Data Link and the second bit set to 0 in dotted decimal notation i.e. 128.0.0.0
It is responsible for reassembling bits taken off the wire by the physical and loopback. E.g. 135.58.24.17.
layer to frames and makes sure they are in the correct order and The need for a protocol is obvious: it allows different computers from
requests retransmission of frames in case an error occurs. It provides different vendors and with different operating characteristics to ‘speak
error checking by adding CRC to the frame. Examples of protocols at the same language’. The same protocols must be followed by each
this layer are: Ethernet machine involved in the communication in order for the receiving host
t, Token Ring, PPP and ISDN. to be able to understand the message. A protocol may be physical or
Examples of devices that operate at this layer are: switches, bridges, logical.
NICs and WAPs (Wireless Access Points). 2.1.1. Physical Protocols
Physical protocols are concerned with how a device connects toa
Layer 1: Physical medium. They ensure that a device connected to a medium can
This layer communicates directly with the communication medium. It transmit through the medium. They make sure that the layout of pins
is responsible for activating, maintaining and deactivating the physical on the connectors is the same and that devices are correctly
link. It defines electrical and optical signaling, voltage levels, data connected and configured. Few examples of physical protocols are
transmission rates, as well as mechanical specifications such as cable 802.11 for Wi-Fi connections and DSL for broadband.
lengths, and connectors, the amount of pins and their functions.
Examples of devices that operate at this layer are: hubs, repeaters,
2.1.2. Logical Protocols
and NICs. Logical protocols are concerned with data handling. They ensure that
These layers can be recalled using the following mnemonics: All data are in the right format for the application, the bit rates match at
People Seem To Need Data Processing. (Layers 7 - 1) both ends, and the same error correction is used. Examples of logical
protocols are TCP/IP, HTTP, POP3, FTP, SMTP and WAP.
4. The Internet Types of Network Protocols
3.1. Brief History a. Internet Protocol
Many years ago, the military of the United States of America desired to Internet Protocol (IP) specifies the format of packets and the
interconnect or link their computers in order to better understand and addressing scheme. All computer devices (desktops, laptops, PDAs,
manage information and communication with respect to enemy phones, tablets) connected to the Internet, have IP addresses by which
attacks in times of crisis. In the year 1969 the Department of Defense they are identified.
(DoD) then developed an experimental network called the Advanced
Research Project Agency Network (ARPANet) Definition: An IP address is a unique identifying number given to every
In the year 1980, the National Science Foundation of the United single computer on a TCP/IP network.
States of America then developed the technology of ARPANet to Two versions of IP addresses are available: IPv4 that uses 32 bits and
produce the National Science Foundation Network (NSFNet) which IPv6 that uses 128 bits.
now enabled universities and other school establishments in the USA  An IPv4 is made up of four sets of numbers separated by dots
to be interconnected. After a great deal of work, a network which such as 123.23.168.22. This notation is known as dotted
enabled the transfer of large amounts of information at very high decimal notation. Each of the four numbers separated by dots
speed which is today called the Internet was developed. can be any number from 0 to 255, making for a total of 4.3
The Internet can be defined as a worldwide/global system of billion potential IPv4 addresses (i.e. 255×255×255×255).
interconnected computer networks. It is the network of networks in
which users can view information on the World Wide Web, exchange  An IPv6 has eight sets of numbers separated by colons such
electronic mail, particIPate in electronic discussion forums as 3ffe:1900:4545:3:200:f8ff:fe21:67cf.
(newsgroups), send files from any computer to any other and even use IP addresses are assigned manually (by an administrator) or
each other’s computers directly if they have appropriate passwords. automatically (by DHCP or APIPA). An IP address is also known as a
Another name for the Internet is information superhighway. logical address.
2.1. CommunicationProtocols b. Address Resolution Protocol
For proper communication in a network, different entities must speak ARP resolves IP addresses to MAC addresses.
the same language. There must be mutually acceptable conventions
and rules about the content, timing and underlying mechanisms. Assignment: Differentiate between an IP address and a MAC address.
These conventions and associated rules are referred as protocols.
Definition: A protocol is a set of rules and conventions that govern how c. Internet Control Message Protocol
devices on a network communicate. ICMP isresponsible for diagnostics and error reporting during message
CLASSES OF IP. sending.
IP addresses are classified into different classes based on the size of d. Internet Group Management Protocol
network, the leading bit/ start address. They are various classes of IP IGMP is responsible for management of group multicast.
addresses ranging from class a, to class E.
Class A: it’s a category of IP whose first eight bits or the first dotted
decimal, is the Network part of the address while the rest of the bits
represents the host address, ranging from 0.0.0.0 to 127.0.0.0 and
loopback. E.g. 2.134.213.2.
Class B: it’s a category of IP whose first 16 bits represents the
Network part of the address. All class b IP’s have their first bit set to 1
 3.1.1. Transport Layer i) IMAP
The transport layer is responsible for sequencing and transmission of ii) RIP
packets, acknowledgment of receipts, recovery of packets and flow iii) DNS
control. In essence, it engages in host-to-host transportation of data iv)
packets and the delivery of them to the application layer. A transport 3.2. TCP/IP Ports
layer PDU is called segment. A computer has a single physical connection to the network. All data
Core protocols at this layer are TCP and UDP. destined for a particular computer arrives through that connection.
However, the data may be intended for different applications running
a. Transmission Control Protocol on the computer. To identify the application for which the data is
TCP is aconnection-orientedreliable protocol used in the accurate intended, TCP requires port numbers on the host and destination for
transmission of large amounts of data. Data packets are verified using communication.
checksums and retransmitted if they are missing or corrupted. The Definition: A communication port is a 16-bit number that identifies an
application plays no part in validating the transfer. application on the Internet or TCP/IP network.
Popular Internet application protocols are associated with well-
b. User Datagram Protocol knownportsassigned by the Internet Assigned Number Authority
UDPis a connectionless unreliable protocol used for the transmission (IANA). Sample TCP port numbers are:
of small amounts of data. Data packets are sent without testing to
Port number Protocol
verify whether they actually arrive at the destination, nor whether they
were corrupted in transit. It is up to the application to determine these 20 FTP data channel
factors and request retransmissions. UDP is faster compared to TCP.
21 FTP control channel

3.1.2. Application Layer 23 Telnet

The application layer provides user applications with the ability to
25 SMTP
access the services of the other layers. Some protocols of this layer
are HTTP, FTP, POP, SMTP, Telnet, IMAP and WAP. 80 HTTP

110 POP
a. Hypertext Transfer Protocol
HTTPis a standard method of publishing information as hypertext in Ports are usually combined with IP addresses to form a socket. For
HTML format on the Internet. It provides the ability to supply web example 127.102.10.0:80.
pages between a browser and the server. HTTPS is a secure version of
HTTP used for accessing secure web servers, whereby all data
transferred are encrypted.

b. File Transfer Protocol

FTP is a standard for transferring files between a server and a client on
a TCP/IP network. It provides the ability to upload and download files
between hosts on the network.

c. Simple Mail Transfer Protocol

SMTP is used for sending e-mails between servers on the Internet and
other TCP/IP networks. It governs the transmission of mail messages
and attachments. SMTP is used in the case of outgoing messages.

d. Post Office Protocol

POP is a standard protocol for delivering e-mails to personal
computers.There are different versions of the post office protocol
indicated by POPnwhere n = 1, 2, 3 or4.
e. Telnet
Telnet is a protocol that allows a computer on the network to be
accessed remotely. It provides the ability to login into a remote host
and administer the machine. Using Telnet a computer can be used as
a terminal on another.
f. WirelessApplicationProtocol
WAP is a protocol which runs on mobile phones and provides a
universal open standard for bringing Internet content to mobile
phones and other wireless devices.
Assignment: Give the full meaning of the following protocols and state
their functions.
 3.3. Internet Services 3.3.4. Services of Virtual Communities
3.3.1. The World Wide Web (Telephony)
The World Wide Web (WWW) is a system on the Internet which allows Internet telephony or voice over IP (VoIP) is the transmission of voice
documents to be connected to other documents by hypertext links, telephone conversations through the Internet or IP networks. It allows
enabling the user to search for information by moving from one users to have voice-talk with others. The telephone calls are digitized
document to another. It consists of a large number of web servers that and transmitted through the Internet. Internet telephone services can
host websites. A website consists of a number of web pages connected be mainly categorized into net-to-net and net-to-phone telephony.
by hypertext links. A web page is a text file that contains information In net-to-net telephony, both caller and receiver must be online. When
stored using a structured language called HTML (Hypertext Markup both are online, one dials the other person’s phone number. If they
Language). accept the call, then voice communication is established.
A website can be accessed by typing its address or URL In net-to-phone, only one person has to be online. This person dials
(Uniform/Universal Resource Locator) into the address bar of a web the other person’s phone number and the latter receives a ring on their
browser. An example of a URL is http://www.crtv.cmwhere http is phone. Yahoo messenger and Skype provide services for both types.
the protocol used and www.crtv.cm, the domain name (address) of 3.3.5. InterpersonalComputing
the site. Interpersonal computing refers to person-to-person interactions
Example facilitated by websites that enable collaborative content creation,
1. http://www.bgsmolyko.edu/Ls3,4/ict796/intenet.pdf sharing and manipulation. Interpersonal computing involves: blogs,
 http is the protocol used (hypertext transfer protocol) social networks, wikis and viral video sites.
 www.bgsmolyko.edu is the domain name (the machine at a. Blogs
BGS Molyko that hosts the website) A blog (web log) is a chronological, journal-style website which its
 Ls3,4/ict796/internet.pdf is the path of the document author (or "blogger") maintains like an online diary, with regular
(resource) on the host computer. Ls3,4 is the folder, ict796 is entries of commentary, descriptions of events, or other material such
the subfolder and internet.pdf is the file (resource). as graphics or video. Many blogs provide commentary or news on a
Example 2: www.minsup.gov.cm particular subject; others function as more personal online diaries.
They also provide the readers with the ability to leave comments in an
 gov is the top level domain which specifies that the URL is for a
interactive format.
government institution.
b. Social Networking Sites
 cm specifies the country in which the URL is hosted or the
Social networking sites are websites that allow user to build
country in which the institution is found.
personalized communities to socialize with. Common features include
a customizable profile, the ability to add other users as friends, the
Assignment: What is a home page?
ease of sharing pictures, music, text, and links, and built-in chat and
Answer: A web page that links a user to the other areas of the website.
mail features. Examples of social networking sites areFacebook,
3.3.2. ElectronicMail Twitter and Instagram.
Electronic mail or e-mail (email) is a means of sending messages, text, c. Wikis
and computer files between computers via the Internet. To send and Wikis are websites that allow visitors to easily add, remove and edit
receive e-mails, you need an Internet connection and an e-mail content, hence enabling the collaborative authorship of
account which can be created within a webmail service such as Yahoo, comprehensive documents. The best example of a wiki is the multi-
Hotmail or Gmail. When you create an e-mail account, you are given a lingual, web-based encyclopedia Wikipedia, Google, Bing, Yahoo,
unique email address that gives you access to your mail box. An email
AOL, Ask.com etc and which currently includes over two million
address is made up of two parts separated by the symbol @
articles, they are also called Search Engines.
pronounced “at”. For example bgsmolyko@yahoo.com. d. Viral Video Sites
In the above address, A viral video is a video that is distributed by sharing. Viral videosites
 bgsmolyko is the user ID, user name or login are websites that allow anybody to post videos online. Whilst it is now
 Yahoo.com is the domain name. The domain specifies the not difficult to put a video on any website, the significance of viral
mail server (computer) on which the mail box is located. video sites is that they provide somewhere to put videos where it is
The part of the domain name after the dot is called top-level domain, likely that at least some other people will actually find them. Examples
and specifies the type of organization or the country the host server is are YouTube and Kaltura.
located. Some common top-level domains are:
o .com - for commercial enterprises
o .edu - for educational institutions and universities
o .gov - for United States government agencies
o .net - for organizations such as Internet Service Providers
o .org - for non-commercial organizations
3.3.3. InstantMessaging
Instant messaging is a live (or real time) communication which occurs
when brief text messages are exchanged instantly over the Internet.
Instant Messaging requires that both users be on-line at the same
time. Common IM applications are AOL Instant Messenger, Yahoo
Messenger and Microsoft MSN messaging.
 3.3.6. Electronic Commerce
E-commerce refers to the buying and selling on the Internet. Different
models of e-commerce exists: business-to-business, business-to-
consumer, business-to-government and m-commerce
a. Business-to-Business
B2C model sells goods or services to the consumer, generally using
online catalog and shopping cart transaction systems. For example,
an online pharmacy giving free medical consultation and selling
medicines to patients is following B2C model. Amazon is an example
of one of the first and still one of the most successful B2C e-
commerce companies.
b. Business-to-Business
B2B describes commerce transactions between businesses, such as
between a manufacturer and a wholesaler, or between a wholesaler
and a retailer. In this form, the buyers and sellers are both business
entities and do not involve an individual consumer.

c. Business-to-Government
B2G is a derivative of B2B marketing. B2G sites provide a platform for
businesses to bid on government opportunities which are presented as
solicitations requests for proposal (RFPs) to tender.
d. M-Commerce
M-commerce refers to the use of mobile devices for conducting
transactions. The mobile device holders can contact each other and
can conduct the business. Even the web design
and development companies optimize the websites to be viewed
correctly on mobile devices.