Lecture Notes 13

Properties of Magnetic Materials:

Intensity of magnetisation (I): It is defined as the magnetic moment per unit
volume.

( )

Where, A is the area of cross section of the material. The intensity of

magnetisation is a vector quantity and its SI unit is Am-1. Its dimensional
formula is M0L-1T0A.

Magnetic induction (B): The number of lines of force per unit area is called
Magnetic induction.

The dimensional formula of B is MT-2A-1

Magnetic Permeability μ: The ability of a medium to permit the passage of

magnetic lines of force through it.

Magnetic Susceptibility (ϰ): The ratio of intensity of magnetisation (I) to the

magnetic field (H) in which the material is placed. , it has no unit and no
dimension.

Relative Permeability ( ) It is the ratio of permeability of medium to the

permeability of free space. It has no unit and no dimension. .

Relation between magnetic permeability and magnetic susceptibility:

When a specimen of iron or nickel is placed in a magnetic field, the total

magnetic induction BT produced in a specimen is BT = B0 + BM ----------- (1)

Using, and

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B0 – Magnetic field in zero fields, BM- Maximum magnetic field, BT – Total field
after magnetisation. Therefore, equation (1) becomes,

( )

( )

This is the relation between magnetic permeability and magnetic susceptibility.

Magnetic properties of Materials:

Magnetic materials are classified based on their susceptibility (ϰ).

ϰ- is negative -------- Diamagnetic

ϰ- is small and positive---------- Paramagnetic B

ϰ- is large and positive---------- Ferromagnetic

Diamagnetic materials are those made of atoms that do not have permanent
magnetic moments

Paramagnetic and ferromagnetic materials are those made of atoms that have
permanent magnetic moments.

All ferromagnetic materials are made up of microscopic regions called

domains, regions within which all magnetic moments are aligned. These
domains have volumes of about 10-12 to 10-8 m3 and contain 1017 to 1021 atoms.
The boundaries between the various domains having different orientations are
called domain walls. In an unmagnified sample, the domains are randomly
oriented.so that the net magnetic moment is zero, as shown in Figure a. When
the sample is placed in an external magnetic field, the magnetic moments of
the atoms tend to align with the field, which results in a magnetized sample, as
in Figure b. Observations show that domains initially oriented along the
external field grow larger at the expense of the less favourably oriented
domains. When the external field is removed, the sample may retain a net
magnetization in the direction of the original field. At ordinary temperatures,

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thermal agitation is not sufficient to disrupt this preferred orientation of
magnetic moments

(a) Random orientation of atomic magnetic moments in an unmagnetized

substance. (b) When an external field B 0 is applied, the atomic magnetic
moments tend to align with the field, giving the sample a net
magnetization vector M.

Diamagnetic Paramagnetic Ferromagnetic

Repelled by magnetic Feebly attracted Strongly attracted

field

Magnetised opposite to Align parallel to the Align parallel to the

the Applied field
Applied field Applied field

It moves from stronger Moves from weaker to Moves from weaker to

to weaker regions of stronger region of field stronger region of field
field.

μr < 1 μr > 1 μr >> 1

Independent of Depends on Depends on temperature

temperature temperature

Copper, Gold, Bismuth Oxygen, manganese, iron, cobalt, nickel,

and water. platinum and aluminium gadolinium, and
dysprosium

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Curie temperature (Tc): A temperature at which ferromagnetic substance
becomes paramagnetic.

Curie temperature of cobalt is greater than iron which is greater than nickel.

Hysteresis: The process of magnetisation and demagnetisation is called

hysteresis or lagging of magnetic induction to the applied field during the cycle
of magnetisation.

When a bar of ferromagnetic material is placed in an increasing magnetic field,

H, then it is observed that magnetic induction, B, also increases first slowly and
then rapidly till it becomes constant for any further vale of H. This value of
magnetic induction is called saturated value (H max ) near the point ‘a’ of the
curve ‘oa’ as shown in hysteresis curve.

Retentivity: The residual of magnetic induction in the specimen (region OB- as

shown in hysteresis curve) even after the removal of external magnetic field.
i.e., B≠ 0 and H =0 (Where B is Magnetic Induction and H is Applied Magnetic
Field).

Coercivity: The negative applied field (region OC- as shown in hysteresis curve)
required to remove the remenance of magnetic induction of specimen. B= 0
and H ≠ 0.

Ampere’s Circuital law:

The line integral of B.ds around any closed path equals μ0I, where I is the total
continuous current passing through any surface bounded by the closed path.
ʃB.ds = μ0I
Ampère’s law describes the creation of magnetic fields by all continuous
current configurations, but at our mathematical level it is useful only for
calculating the magnetic field of current configurations having a high degree of
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symmetry. Its use is similar to that of Gauss’s law in calculating electric fields
for highly symmetric charge distributions.
Ampere’s circuital law holds good for steady currents which do not fluctuate
with time.

Magnitude of the magnetic field versus r .The

field is proportional to r inside the wire and
varies as 1/r outside the wire.

The solenoid and toroid

The solenoid and the toroid are two pieces of equipment which generate
magnetic fields.

Toroid
The device consists of a conducting wire wrapped around a ring (a torus) made
of a non-conducting material.
(Or)
It is hollow circular ring on which a large number of turns of a wire are closely
wound. It is used in synchrotron.

Magnetic field due to Toroid

To calculate this field, we must evaluate over the circle of radius r. By

symmetry, we see that the magnitude of the field is constant on this circle and
tangent to it, so B. ds = B ds. Furthermore, note that ʃB.ds the circular closed
path surrounds N loops of wire, each of which carries a current I. Therefore,
the right side of equation is μ0NI in this case.

Ampère’s law applied to the circle gives

( )
Therefore,

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This result shows that B varies as 1/r and hence is non-uniform in the region
occupied by the torus. However, if r is very large compared with the cross-
sectional radius of the torus, then the field is approximately uniform inside the
torus.

For an ideal toroid, in which the turns are closely spaced, the external
magnetic field is zero. This can be seen by noting that the net current passing
through any circular path lying outside the toroid (including the region of the
“hole in the doughnut”) is zero. Therefore, from Ampère’s law we find that B
=0 in the regions exterior to the torus.

Solenoid
A solenoid is a long wire wound in the form of a helix. (Or) A long wire which is
wound on cylindrical rod in the form of helix, where the neighbouring turns are
closely spaced. It is used in television for producing necessary magnetic fields.

With this configuration, a reasonably uniform magnetic field can be produced

in the space surrounded by the turns of wire—which we shall call the interior
of the solenoid—when the solenoid carries a current.
Figure shows the magnetic field lines surrounding a loosely wound solenoid.
Note that the field lines in the interior are nearly parallel to one another, are
uniformly distributed, and are close together, indicating that the field in this
space is uniform and strong. The field lines between current elements on two
adjacent turns tend to cancel each other because the field vectors from the
two elements are in opposite directions. The field at exterior points such as P is
weak because the field due to current elements on the right-hand portion of a
turn tends to cancel the field due to current elements on the left-hand portion

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 .

An ideal solenoid is approached when the turns are closely spaced and the
length is much greater than the radius of the turns. In this case, the external
field is zero, and the interior field is uniform over a great volume.

Cross-sectional view of an ideal solenoid, where the

interior magnetic field is uniform and the exterior field is
zero. Ampère’s law applied to the dashed path can be
used to calculate the magnitude of the interior field.

Magnetic field due to Solenoid

Consider the rectangular path of length l and width w shown in Figure. We can
apply Ampère’s law to this path by evaluating the integral of B.ds over each
side of the rectangle. The contribution alongside 3 is zero because B = 0 in this
region. The contributions from sides 2 and 4 are both zero because B is
perpendicular to ds along these paths. Side 1 gives a contribution Bl to the
integral because along this path B is uniform and parallel to ds. The integral
over the closed rectangular path is therefore
()
The right side of Ampère’s law involves the total current passing through the
area bounded by the path of integration.
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 Therefore,
Since,
B=

Magnetic Force between Two parallel Conductors

Consider two long, straight, parallel wires separated by a distance ‘a’ and
carrying currents I1 and I2 in the same direction, as illustrated in Figure. We can
determine the force exerted on one wire due to the magnetic field set up by
the other wire. Wire 2, which carries a current I2, creates a magnetic field B2 at
the location of wire 1. The direction of B 2 is perpendicular to wire 1, as shown
in Figure. The magnetic force on a length l of wire 1 is

Because l is perpendicular to in this situation, the magnitude of F1

is . . Because the magnitude of is given by Equation

= ( )= ( )

We see that the direction of F1 is toward wire 2 because

is in that direction. If the field set up at wire 2 by
wire 1 is calculated, the force F2 acting on wire 2 is found
to be equal in magnitude and opposite in direction to F 1.

Hence, we find that parallel conductors carrying currents in the same direction
attract each other, and parallel conductors carrying currents in opposite
directions repel each other.

Because the magnitudes of the forces are the same on both wires, we denote
the magnitude of the magnetic force between the wires as simply FB. We can
rewrite this magnitude in terms of the force per unit length:

Definition of Ampere:

When the magnitude of the force per unit length between two long, parallel
wires that carry identical currents and are separated by 1 m is 2 ×10 -7 N/m, the
current in each wire is defined to be 1 A.
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Fundamental laws of electromagnetism

The Experiments of Faraday and Henry:

The relative motion between the magnet and the coil is responsible for
generation of electric current in the coil.

The relative motion between the coils induces electric current.

It is also observed that induction is possible without relative motion between

coil and magnet or between coils. By keeping two coils are held fixed and
connecting a galvanometer in one coil and a battery in another coil through a
key also induction possible whenever key is plugged or unplugged.

(a) When a magnet is moved toward a loop of wire connected to a

galvanometer, the galvanometer deflects as shown, indicating that a current is
induced in the loop.

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(b) When the magnet is held stationary, there is no induced current in the
loop, even when the magnet is inside the loop.

(c) When the magnet is moved away from the loop, the galvanometer deflects
in the opposite direction, indicating that the induced current is opposite that
shown in part (a).

Changing the direction of the magnet’s motion changes the direction of the
current induced by that motion.

Faraday’s Law of Electromagnetic induction: Faraday observed that when a

magnet is moved towards or away from a coil, a current flows in it which could
be the result of e.m.f., induced in the coil due to relative motion. This is known
as electromagnetic induction.

Whenever the number of lines of force (flux) associated with any closed circuit
changes, induced current flows through the circuit which lasts so long as the
change lasts.

The magnitude of the induced emf in a circuit is equal to the rate of change of
magnetic flux through the circuit.

It can be mathematically expressed as ,

The negative sign indicates the direction of and hence the direction of
current in a closed loop.

If N number of turns are used in a coil, then

Factors affecting induced emf:

i) Induced emf can be increased by increasing the number of turns, ie,

N.

ii) By changing, B or A or Ɵ or all the three. (as )

Lenz’s Law and Conservation of Energy:

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It gives the direction of induced emf. It states that the direction of induced
e.m.f. is such that it opposes the change or the cause which produces it.

Explanation:

When North Pole of a magnet approaches a coil, flux through the coil increases
and an emf is induced in the coil which results in the flow of induced current.
The direction of induced current is such that it opposes the motion of the
magnet. This is possible only when the induced current in the coil flows in
anticlockwise direction so that face of the coil facing the magnet behaves as
North Pole, repelling thus the approaching north pole of the magnet.

If the magnet is taken away, induced current in the coil flows in clockwise
direction so that face of the coil towards the magnet behaves as South Pole,
attracting thus the receding north pole of the magnet.

Thus in both the above case of motion, the direction of induced current is such
that it opposes the motion of the magnet, which is Lenz’s law.

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Maxwell’s equation:
An accelerating charge produces electromagnetic waves. An electric charge
oscillating harmonically with frequency ν produces electromagnetic waves of
the same frequency ν. An electric dipole is the basic source of electromagnetic
waves. Electromagnetic waves with wavelength of the order of few metres
were produced and detected in the laboratory by Hertz in 1887. He thus
verified a basic prediction of Maxwell’s equations.

They are as follows.

A) Integral form of Maxwel’s Equation

∮ ( )

∮ ( )

∮ ( )

∮ ( )

B|) Differential form of Maxwell’s equation

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