ALTERNATIVE ENERGY SOURCES

A
There are many reasons why we are looking towards alternative energy sources. With many
countries signing the Kyoto Treaty, efforts to reduce pollutants and greenhouse gases are a
primary focus in today’s culture. Alternative, or renewable, energy sources show significant
promise in helping to reduce the amount of toxins that are byproducts of energy use. Not
only do they protect against harmful by-products, but using alternative energy helps to
preserve many of the natural resources that we currently use as sources of energy. To
understand how alternative energy use can help preserve the delicate ecological balance of
the planet, and help us conserve the non-renewable energy sources like fossil fuels, it is
important to know what types of alternative energy are out there.

B
Alternative energy sources are resources that are constantly replaced and are usually less
polluting. They are not the result of the burning of fossil fuels or splitting of atoms. The use of
renewable energy is contributing to our energy supply. Some alternative energy sources are:
biomass energy, geothermal energy, hydroelectric power, solar power, wind power, fuel cells,
ocean thermal energy conversion, tidal energy, and wave energy.

C
Biomass is renewable energy that is produced from organic matter. Biomass fuels include
wood, forest and mill residues, animal waste, grains, agricultural crops, and aquatic plants.
These materials are used as fuel to heat water for steam or processed into liquids and
gases, which can be burned to do the same thing. With more use of biomass at lower
production costs and better technology, the United States could generate as much as
four-and-a-half times more biopower by 2020. It is estimated that biomass will have the
largest increase among renewable energy sources, rising by 80 percent and reaching 65.7
billion KW in 2020.

D
Geothermal energy uses heat from within the earth. Wells are drilled into geothermal
reservoirs to bring the hot water or steam to the surface. The steam then drives a
turbine-generator to generate electricity in geothermal plants. In some places this heat is
used directly to heat homes and greenhouses, or to provide process heat for businesses or
industries. Reykjavik, Iceland, is heated by geothermal energy. Most geothermal resources
are concentrated in the western part of the United States. Geothermal heat pumps use
shallow ground energy to heat and cool homes, and this technique can be employed almost
anywhere. With technological improvements much more power could lie generated from
hydrothermal resources. Scientists have been experimenting by pumping water into the hot
dry rock that is 3-6 miles below the earth’s surface for use in geothermal power plants.

E
Hydroelectric (hydropower) energy employs the force of falling water to drive
turbine-generators to produce electricity. Hydropower produces more electricity than any
other alternative energy source. It has been estimated that hydroelectric power will decline
from 389 billion KW in the US in 1999 to 298 billion KW in 2020. This decline is expected
because most of the best sites for hydropower have already been developed and because of
concerns about the adverse impact that large-scale hydroelectric facilities may have on the
environment.

F
Solar energy is generated without a turbine or electromagnet. Special panels of photovoltaic
cells capture light from the sun and convert it directly into electricity. The electricity is stored
in a battery. Solar energy can also be used to directly heat water for domestic use (solar
thermal technology). The domestic photovoltaic (PV) industry could provide up to 15% of
new US peak electricity capacity that is expected to be required in 2020.

G
Wind energy can be used to produce electricity. As wind passes through the blades of a
windmill, the blades spin. The shaft that is attached to the blades turns and powers a pump
or turns a generator to produce electricity. Electricity is then stored in batteries. The speed of
the wind and the size of the blades determine how much energy can be produced. Wind
energy is more efficient in windier parts of the country. Most wind power is produced from
wind farms — large groups of turbines located in consistently windy locations. Wind, used as
a fuel, is free and non-polluting and produces no emissions or chemical wastes.
Wind-powered electricity is gaining in popularity.

H
Fuel cells are electrochemical devices that produce electricity through a chemical reaction.
Fuel cells are rechargeable, contain no moving parts, are clean, and produce no noise.
Scientists are exploring ways that they could be used as a power source for nearly
exhaust-free automobiles and how they can be used as electricity-generating plants. The
high cost of manufacturing fuel cells has prevented the mass use of this valuable energy
source.

I
Ocean sources; Oceans, which cover more than 70% of the earth, contain both thermal
energy from the sun’s heat and mechanical energy from the tides and waves. Ocean thermal
energy conversion (OTEC) converts solar radiation to electric power. OTEC power plants
use the difference in temperature between warm surface waters heated by the sun and
colder waters found at ocean depths to generate electricity. The power of tides can also be
harnessed to produce electricity. Tidal energy works by harnessing the power of changing
tides but it needs large tidal differences. The tidal process utilises the natural motion of the
tides to fill reservoirs, which are then slowly discharged through electricity-producing
turbines. Wave energy conversion extracts energy from surface waves, from pressure
fluctuations below the water surface, or from the full wave. Wave energy also uses the
interaction of winds with the ocean surface. This technology is still in the exploratory phase
in the United States.

Questions 1-2
The writer mentions a number of facts relating to alternative power sources.
Which TWO of the following facts are mentioned?
A International co-operation has yet to result in the largescale implementation and effective
use of alternative power sources.
B One alternative energy source in particular will have a great impact in the years to come.
C A side-effect of one of these forms of energy is the production of chemical waste.
D Expense is the main factor that is an obstacle to developing one of these forms of energy
E Approximately one in five US homes will be using one of these forms of energy within
twenty years.
F One attraction of these forms of energy in general is the relatively low production costs.
Questions 3-4
Choose the correct letter A, B, C or D.
3. Geothermal energy is produced by
A heating the air below the surface of the ground.
B employing the force of falling water.
C extracting water or steam from beneath the earth’s surface.
D using the earth’s natural electricity.
4. Which form of alternative energy does not involve the use of turbines?
A wind energy
B geothermal energy
C tidal energy
D fuel cell energy
Questions 5-8
Do the following statements agree with the information given in Reading Passage 1?
In spaces 5-8 below, write
TRUE. if the statement agrees with the information
FALSE. if the statement contradicts the information
NOT GIVEN. If there is no information on this
5. Wind power is the most efficient form of alternative energy.
6. Wave energy can be derived from a number of sources.
7. Alternative energy sources serve several purposes.
8. Fossil fuels are needed in at least one of these alternative energy sources.
Questions 9-13
Complete the sentences.
Choose NO MORE THAN THREE WORDS from the passage for each answer.
By using alternative energy sources, we can cut the 9 … that are produced by current power
sources.
In addition to fossil fuels and atom splitting, we presently use 10 … as part of our power
source.
Renewable energy called biomass is produced from 11 …
The renewable energy that comes from within the earth is called 12 …
One of the reasons that fuel cells are not widely used is the 13 … of manufacturing.

Colour Blindness
Colour blindness results from an absence or malfunction of certain colour-sensitive cells in
the retina. The retina is a neuro-membrane lining the inside back of the eye, behind the lens.
The retina contains both rod cells (active in low light or night vision but which cannot
distinguish colour) and cone cells (active in normal daylight, sensitive to colour). Cone cells,
also called photoreceptors, are concentrated mostly in the central part of the retina, in an
area called the macula. Cone cells provide clear, sharp colour vision. The cones contain
light-sensitive pigments that are sensitive to the range of wavelengths. There are three
different types of cones with one sensitive to short wavelengths, or the colour blue, one
sensitive to medium wavelengths, or the colour green, and the other sensitive to higher
wavelengths, or the colour red. All of these cells send information about colour to the brain
via the optic nerve which connects to the1 retina at a point very close to the macula. Normal
persons, referred to as trichromats, are able to match all colours of the spectrum by using a
combination of these three fundamental colour sensitivities. Hence, the huge variety of
colours we perceive stems from the cone cells' response to different compositions of
wavelengths of light.

There are many types of colour blindness. When there are deficiencies in the cones, either
at birth or acquired in other ways, the cones are not able to distinguish the particular
wavelengths and thus, that colour range is seen differently. Those with defective colour
vision have a deficiency or absence in one or more of the pigments. People with a deficiency
in one of the pigments (the most common type of colour vision problem) are called
anomalous trichromats. When one of the cone pigments is absent and colour is reduced to
two dimensions, dichromacy occurs. These individuals normally know they have a colour
vision problem and it can affect their lives on a daily basis. They see no perceptible
difference between red, orange, yellow, and green. All these colours that seem so different to
the normal viewer appear to them to be the same colour. Missing the cones responsible for
green and red hues can also affect the sensitivity to brightness.

Most cases of colour blindness, about 99%, are inherited, resulting from partial or complete
loss of function in one or more of the different cone systems and affect both eyes without
worsening over time. The most common are red-green hereditary (genetic) photoreceptor
disorders collectively referred to as "red-green colour blindness". It affects 8% of all males of
European origin and 0.4% of all females. The gene for this is carried in the X chromosome.
Since males have an X-Y pairing and females have X-X, colour blindness can occur much
more easily in males and is typically passed to them by their mothers. In other words,
females may be carriers of colour blindness, but males are more commonly affected. People
with this disorder cannot identify red or green by itself but can if among a coloured group.
Other forms of colour blindness are much more rare. They include problems in discriminating
blues from yellows. Both colours are seen as white or grey. This disorder occurs with equal
frequency in men and women and usually accompanies certain other physical disorders,
such as liver disease or diabetes.

The rarest form of all is total colour blindness, monochromacy, where one can only see grey
or shades of black, grey and white as in a black-and-white film or photograph.
Monochromacy occurs when two or all three of the cone pigments are missing and colour
and lightness vision is reduced to one dimension. Another term for total colour blindness is
achromatopsia, the inability to see colour.

Inherited colour vision problems cannot be treated or corrected. Some acquired colour vision
problems can be treated with surgery, such as the removal of a cataract, depending on the
cause. Certain types of tinted filters and contact lenses may also help an individual to
distinguish different colours better. Additionally, computer software has been developed to
assist those with visual colour difficulties and those with mild colour deficiencies to learn to
associate colours with certain objects and are usually able to identify colour in the same way
as everyone else. One frequent problem encountered is with traffic lights, and worst of all,
warning lights: colour-blind people always know the position of the colours on the traffic light
- in most situations; red on top, yellow in the centre, green on the bottom. But warning lights
present an entirely different problem. In this situation there is only one light; no top or
bottom, no right or left, just one light that is either red or yellow.

Colour vision problems can have a significant impact on a person's life, learning abilities and
career choices. On an everyday basis, there are some annoyances and frustrations: not
being able to differentiate between green or ripe tomatoes when preparing food, for
example, or buying clothes that to the 'normal' eye seem positively garish. However, people
with colour vision problems usually learn to compensate for their inability to see colours.
Although there is little or no treatment for colour blindness, most colour deficient persons
compensate well for their defect and may even discover instances in which they can discern
details and images that would escape normal-sighted persons. At one time the US Army
found that colour-blind persons can spot camouflage colours in cases where those with
normal colour vision are typically fooled.

Part 2: Questions 14-26

Questions 14-20
Complete each sentence with the correct ending A - K from the box below.
Write the correct letter A - K in spaces 14-20 below.
14 Colour blindness can be caused by a birth defect, or …
15 Surprisingly, some people who are colour blind …
16 People with hereditary colour blindness …
17 Because of our genetic make-up, colour blindness …
18 Red-green genetic photoreceptor disorders mean that people …
19 People with monochromacy …
20 The inability to see certain lights …

A can see better at night than during the day

B cannot be treated by surgery
C can affect men much more easily than women
D can affect their sensitivity to bright lights
E can see no colour at all, other than shades of black, grey and white
F can see things that people with normal vision cannot
G can have very dangerous consequences for colour-blind people.
H can be acquired or inherited
I can mean having to wear contact lenses.
J cannot distinguish certain colours if they stand alone
K can match all colours of the spectrum

Questions 21-23
Choose the correct letter A, B, C or D.
21 What causes colour blindness?
A the absence of rod cells
B the malfunction of rod cells
C the malfunction of cone cells
D the retina’s inability to detect light22
22 Which group of people are the least common?
A people who cannot detect blues from yellows
B anomalous trichromats
C people with dichromacy
D people with achromatopsia
23 What would colour-blind people consider an everyday nuisance?
A not being able to identify the colour of warning lights
B not being able to tell an apple from a tomato
C not being able to cook
D not being able to buy matching clothes

Questions 24-26
Complete the diagram below.
Choose NO MORE THAN TWO WORDS from the passage for each answer.