Available online at www.sciencedirect.

com

Review
Chemical ecology of nectar–mosquito interactions:
recent advances and future directions
Islam S Sobhy and Colin Berry ]]
]]]]]]
]]

Mosquitoes, males and females, rely on sugar-rich resources, mosquitoes for egg development, both male and female
including floral nectar as a primary source of sugar to meet their mosquitoes rely on sugar-rich sources, such as nectar,
energy and nutritional needs. Despite advancements in fruit juices, and honeydew, to meet their energy and
understanding mosquito host-seeking and blood-feeding nutritional needs [2]. Moreover, some mosquito species
preferences, significant gaps in our knowledge of the chemical do not engage in blood-feeding behavior and solely de-
ecology mediating mosquito–nectar associations remain. The pend on carbohydrates obtained from plants and alter-
influence of such association with nectar on mosquito behavior native sources [3]. Sugar feeding increases lifespan and
and the resulting effects on their fitness are also not totally reproductive output and thus has a potential impact on
understood. It is significant that floral nectar frequently acts as a population dynamics [4]. The study of mosquito nectar
natural habitat for various microbes (e.g. bacteria and yeast), foraging reveals intricate interactions between mosqui-
which substantially alter nectar characteristics, influencing the toes and flowering plants, shedding light on their eco-
nutritional ecology of flower-visiting insects, such as logical roles beyond disease transmission [5].
mosquitoes. The role of nectar-inhabiting microbes in shaping
the nectar–mosquito interactions remains, however, under- Mosquitoes (Family: Culicidae) exhibit a diverse range of
researched. This review explores recent advances in foraging strategies for obtaining nectar, mirroring the di-
understanding the role of such multitrophic interactions on the versity of nectar-producing plants and their floral traits.
fitness and life history traits of mosquitoes and outlines future Understanding the dynamics of mosquito–plant interactions
directions for research toward their control as disease vectors. and the factors influencing mosquito nectar foraging beha-
vior is of paramount importance for several reasons [6]. First,
Address nectar foraging is a fundamental aspect of mosquito ecology,
School of Biosciences, Cardiff University, Museum Avenue, Cardiff as it directly impacts their survival, longevity, and re-
CF10 3AX, UK
productive success [5]. Second, the foraging choices made
Corresponding author: Sobhy, Islam S (SobhyI@cardiff.ac.uk, by mosquitoes can have cascading effects on plant popula-
is_sobhy@yahoo.com) tions and communities. By visiting flowers for nectar, mos-
quitoes inadvertently participate in plant reproduction and
may influence the genetic diversity and distribution of plant
Current Opinion in Insect Science 2024, 63:101199
species [7]. Nectar sources can be colonized by specialized
This review comes from a themed issue on Vectors and medical micro-organisms, such as yeasts and bacteria, adding an in-
and veterinary entomology
triguing dimension to these interactions [8]. Such microbes
Edited by Zainulabeuddin Syed can potentially influence the nutritional quality of nectar
For complete overview about the section, refer “Vectors and medical and, by extension, mosquito fitness.
and veterinary entomology (2023)”
Available online 7 April 2024 This review presents an in-depth exploration of the in-
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cois.2024.101199 tricate realm of mosquito–nectar ecology. It aims to delve
into the mosquito–flower association, the factors affecting
2214–5745/Crown Copyright © 2024 Published by Elsevier Inc. This
is an open access article under the CC BY license (http://
the mosquito nectar foraging, the ecological implications
creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). of mosquito–nectar interactions, and the potential appli-
cations of this knowledge in vector management pro-
grams. The role and involvement of micro-organisms
associated with nectar is also considered ( Figure 1).

Introduction Mosquito–flower association and pollination

The foraging behavior of mosquitoes, primarily known services
for the blood-feeding habits of females and their role as The phenomenon of floral visitation by nectar-foraging
vectors of various diseases, encompasses a broader mosquitoes, although well documented [4], has often
spectrum of dietary choices than commonly recognized been an overlooked aspect of mosquito behavior. His-
[1]. While blood is a crucial resource for female torically, mosquitoes have been commonly perceived as

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2 Vectors and medical and veterinary entomology

Figure 1

Current Opinion in Insect Science

Schematic representation depicts the mosquito–nectar interactions. Floral odors such as the monoterpenes β-myrcene (1) and linalool (2) attract
mosquito males and females to flowers. Several microbes inhabit nectar, such as yeast and bacteria, which alter the nectar characteristics (e.g. sugars
and amino acid content) as well as the emission of extra microbial volatiles such as 3-methyl-butanol (3) which have been shown to attract mosquitoes
[58]. Both floral and microbial odors affect the overall nectar scent serving as honest signals (i.e. infochemicals) of nectar (i.e. reward) quality and to
convey information about the availability of other macronutrients in floral nectar, which ultimately shape mosquito foraging decisions.

nectar thieves or robbers, implying that they consumed The potential role of mosquitoes in contributing to plant
nectar without efficiently facilitating pollen transfer be- reproduction raises questions pertaining to the specific
tween inflorescences [9]. Despite numerous historical floral cues that entice mosquitoes to engage in flower
observations of mosquito pollination activity in orchids pollination. In their study, Lahondere et al. [7] discovered
[10,11], recent observations [7,12] have provided further that mosquitoes exhibit a preference for pollinating orchid
evidence that mosquitoes may indeed function as polli- species emitting predominantly nonanal and octanal, ac-
nators rather than mere nectar thieves. For instance, in a companied by low levels of terpene compounds, such as
series of pollination experiments, Peach and Gries [9] linalool and lilac aldehyde. The differential proportions of
evidenced that the Culex pipiens L. (Diptera: Culicidae) these attractive floral volatile organic compounds in the
mosquito pollinated common tansy (Tanacetum vulgare L.) orchid scents strongly mediate mosquito attraction and
and also carried pollen of Canada goldenrod (Solidago potentially contribute to reproductive isolation between
canadensis L.) and yarrow (Achillea millefolium L.) during orchid species [7]. Semiochemicals, including 1-octen-3-ol
floral visits of greenhouse-grown specimens. Aedes spp. and nonanal, which are known to be emitted by humans
mosquitoes, including the notorious Aedes aegypti L. and are attractive to vertebrate host-seeking Culex mos-
(which are vectors several of serious diseases, such as quitoes [13], were also detected in the volatile blend from
dengue fever and yellow fever worldwide), are effective inflorescences of common African angiosperm perennial
pollinators of the Platanthera obtusata orchid [7]. Peach plants (e.g. Lantana camara L, Datura stramonium L., and
and Gries [12] have shed further light on the diverse roles Senna didymobotrya Fresen) frequented by nectar-foraging
mosquitoes can play in pollination, categorizing them as mosquitoes [14]. Other factors, such as the emission of CO2
specialized pollinators or copollinators alongside small by plants and visual cues from inflorescences, have been
lepidopteran insects, copollinators with other dipterans, shown to play pivotal roles in the decision-making process
and even generalist pollinators. Thus, mosquitoes join the of mosquito pollination [15–17].
ranks of many other insects as generalist pollinators,
contributing to the common tansy’s pollination [9]. These These intriguing discoveries demonstrate the under-
examples challenge our conventional understanding of pinning role of mosquitoes in plant pollination, but there
mosquito behavior, revealing their unsuspected con- is still much to uncover regarding the intricate me-
tributions to plant reproduction. chanisms and the full extent of their contributions to this
ecosystem service.

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 Nectar foraging consequences on mosquito fitness Sobhy and Berry 3

Mosquito nectar foraging showed that both Culex and Aedes mosquitoes are at-
Nectar composition and attractiveness tracted not only by the floral scents of T. vulgare but also
Nectar functions as a highly nutritious energy source, to plant-derived CO2. This was notably evidenced after
supplying sugars and essential nutrients vital for the sunset when plants began emitting CO2, enhancing the
health and vitality of flower-visiting insects [18]. The attractiveness of a synthetic floral blend comprising 20
sugars found in floral nectar, notably sucrose, which is a volatile compounds, including benzaldehyde and acet-
major component of many floral nectars, glucose, and ophenone. Acetophenone was also shown to be an at-
fructose, offer the mosquito valuable resources capable tractive floral volatile to A. aegypti [30]. It is noteworthy
of fueling energy-intensive tasks, such as flying and that several of the biologically active scents found in
foraging [4]. Within floral nectaries rich in sucrose, floral nectars have also been recognized as attractants for
mosquitoes are also exposed to various mono- and oligo- mosquitoes in search of hosts or suitable oviposition
saccharides, such as mannose, galactose, raffinose, mal- sites, underscoring a shared chemical basis of differently
tose, and melibiose [18], several of which have been motivated attractions [31]. The floral odorants (i.e. li-
detected in mosquito midguts [4]. Furthermore, nectar monene, α-pinene, β-caryophyllene, β-elemene, and
includes amino acids, organic acids, vitamins, and mi- benzaldehyde), recognized for their attraction to nectar-
nerals, all of which complement the mosquitoes’ dietary seeking mosquitoes, were also shown to trigger the
needs and facilitate their physiological functions [19]. oviposition behavior of the gravid females of Anopheles
Mosquitoes may be able to optimize their feeding as arabiensis [32] and Anopheles gambiae [33]. Recent re-
they have been shown to have the ability to differentiate search has suggested that mosquitoes are not only at-
between sugar sources of varying nutritional quality, tracted to nectar as a sugar source but also are capable of
with Culex mosquitoes opting for plants with higher developing associative learning between olfactory (e.g.
glycogen, lipid, and protein content [20]. odorant) cues and sugar source quality [34,35]. Studying
sugar feeding behavior, therefore, can enhance our un-
While research on the chemical ecology of mosquito derstanding of mosquito preferences regarding plant
nectar foraging is relatively nascent, our current under- sources, how they allocate their time based on efficiency
standing suggests that mosquitoes employ a multi- and feeding duration, and the potential competition for
sensory approach to locate nectar resources involving these sugar sources with other organisms visiting the
visual, gustatory, and olfactory cues to detect various plant [36]. For example, A. arabiensis males display the
chemical signals (this being facilitated by their ex- ability to differentiate between various nectar sources,
ceptionally sensitive antennal sensors), including the exhibiting a preference for certain flowering plant spe-
floral scents produced by nectar-yielding plants [4,12]. cies that offer the most significant metabolic benefits
Consistent with the notion that nectar scents can serve (i.e. the most attractive plants eliciting significantly
as honest signals of reward used by flower-visiting in- higher sugar intake rates) [37]. Additional field experi-
sects, Burdon et al. [21] found that the emission of the ments remain essential to corroborate the functions of
nectar volatile (S)-(+)-linalool, which dominates in the these nectar scents as semiochemicals in nectar–mos-
floral volatile bouquet of Penstemon digitalis, could be quito interactions and sugar feeding behavior.
used to predict nectar rewards for bumblebees. Like-
wise, it is plausible that scented nectars with certain
plant volatiles, such as monoterpenes, could act as reli- Effects on mosquito fitness traits
able indicators of sugar rewards for mosquitoes. In this Nectar feeding, which is a facultative or obligate beha-
context, mosquitoes not only exhibited electro- vior of certain mosquito species in nature [4,38], has
physiological responses to monoterpenes, such as lina- emerged as a significant ecological factor in the biology
lool, α-pinene, β-pinene, β-myrcene, camphor, (E)-β- of several mosquito species [12]. Numerous studies on
ocimene, (+)-borneol, and linalool oxide [7,22–24], but interactions between plants and mosquitoes have re-
both males and females were also lured by these blends vealed that floral nectar plays a crucial role in the diets of
in laboratory and field settings [23,25–27]. Furthermore, both male and female mosquitoes, influencing their
odorant receptors located on mosquito antennae have survival, mating competence, and flight activity [5]. For
been recognized for detecting several nectar volatile instance, access to plant nectar has been linked to in-
compounds [28]. Hence, mosquitoes can differentiate creased mating competence in males of various mosquito
between closely related plant species based on their species [22,39]. Moreover, the consumption of plant
emitted floral volatile blends despite the considerable nectar not only enhances survival of A. aegypti females
variability of these floral profiles [29]. It was, for ex- but also stimulates egg development and increases
ample, observed that the floral volatiles nonanal and lilac overall fecundity, extending the period of egg laying
aldehyde, which are highly detectable by A. aegypti an- [40]. Thus, it is not surprising that the absence of sugar
tennae in laboratory assays, played a role in making the sources can impact flight capability, potentially influen-
P. obtusata orchid appealing to adult mosquitoes under cing mosquito dispersal, mating success, and host finding
field conditions [7]. In a notable study, Peach et al. [17] as reviewed in Ref. [36]. Additionally, sugar feeding can

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4 Vectors and medical and veterinary entomology

impact the potential of A. aegypti to transmit pathogens bacterium Gluconobacter sp. led to increased amino acid
both directly and indirectly [2]. concentrations and a higher proportion of mono-
saccharides in the nectar of the sticky monkey plant
Sugars are not the only nectar components to influence (Diplacus aurantiacus) [46]. Such changes in the char-
mosquitoes. Ricinine, for example, an alkaloid com- acteristics of floral nectar induced by nectar-dwelling
pound that is found abundantly in the nectar of the microbes can also have detrimental effects on flower-
castor bean Ricinus communis, induced a significant re- visiting insects [47]. For instance, the presence of nectar
duction in the longevity of Anopheles coluzzii and A. bacteria has been linked to decreased pollination suc-
gambiae and caused acceleration in the parasite cess, reduced seed set, and reduced nectar consumption
(Plasmodium falciparum) growth rate with an earlier in- by pollinators [48,49] due to significant alterations in
vasion of the salivary glands in both species, indicating nectar pH and total sugar concentration [48]. Another
contrasting effects on their ability to transmit malaria notable outcome of microbial involvement is the altera-
[41]. Furthermore, amino acids, particularly proline, play tion of nectar odors [50,51], thus altering the scent pro-
a unique role for sustaining flight metabolism and phy- file of the inflorescence [52].
siology [19]. In addition, Anopheline male mosquitoes
that consume a sugar solution enriched with vitamins Microbial odors and mosquito behavior
exhibit extended lifespans and enhanced reproductive There is increasing evidence for the role of microbially
fitness [42]. The survival, insemination rates, and produced signals in influencing mosquito behavior across
swarming ability of male Anopheles mosquitoes are sig- their life span. Microbial odors may have a negative
nificantly enhanced when fed on floral nectar [43]. impact on mosquitoes. For example, a mixture of com-
These studies highlight the significant impact of nectar pounds isolated from in vitro cultures of the bacterium
composition on mosquitoes, underscoring the need to Xenorhabdus budapestensis exhibits potent feeding-deter-
investigate the factors that determine this composition. rent activity against A. aegypti, A. gambiae, and C. pipiens
[53]. With Xenorhabdus bacteria being symbionts of in-
sect pathogenic nematodes, deterrent behavior is likely
Nectar microbes and their emerging role in to serve the mosquitoes well! In other situations, mi-
nectar–mosquito interactions crobial volatiles may also attract mosquitoes. For in-
Floral nectar not only serves as a vital resource for var-
stance, semiochemicals derived from microbes, such as
ious flower-visiting insects, including mosquitoes, but
bacteria and fungi, including alcohols, carboxylic acids,
also harbors a hidden world of specialized micro-organ-
and methyl esters, serve as indicators of suitable ovipo-
isms adapted to its challenging conditions, which en-
sition sites for various mosquito species, attracting gravid
compass high osmotic pressure, low nitrogen content,
females [54–56]. Furthermore, volatile semiochemicals,
and defensive metabolites [8]. A diverse array of mi-
such as butyl 2-methylbutanoate, released by the mi-
crobes, including bacteria and yeasts, has been shown to
crobes associated with animal hosts were significantly
exploit nectar as an ecological niche [44].
attractive, luring host-seeking mosquitoes [57].

Microbe-mediated effects on nectar traits Microbial modification of mosquito food sources

Previous research has demonstrated that nectar-dwelling Evidence is accumulating that microbially produced
microbes have the capacity to modify the characteristics odorants serve as honest signals to flower-visiting insects
of floral nectar. These microbial-driven alterations in about reward quality [52]. These signals are species
nectar properties encompass modifications in sugar specific, involving distinct sender and receiver dynamics,
concentration and types with higher proportion of as microbe-derived odorants may exhibit varying effects
monosaccharides, increased amino acid content, nectar in different contexts [50]. Nevertheless, our under-
acidity (pH), and the production of secondary metabo- standing of how nectar micro-organisms affect mosqui-
lites [44]. There is mounting evidence suggesting that toes remains extremely limited, despite the potentially
the metabolic activity of these nectar-dwelling microbes significant implications for mosquito ecology.
possesses the potential to reshape the benefits flowering
plants offer to flower-visiting insects profoundly. An A recent study has demonstrated that the nectar yeast
additional example for this is the alteration of nectars Lachancea thermotolerans when grown in synthetic nectar
sugar composition where the presence of nectar- caused a significant increase in attraction of C. pipiens
dwelling microbes, such as yeast and bacteria, can shift females compared with the control unfermented, axenic
the sugar from being sucrose dominant to fructose synthetic nectar [58]. When nectars were fermented with
dominant [45]. Notably, bacteria and yeasts can exert microbes such as L. thermotolerans, and the bacteria Mi-
opposing impacts on nectar characteristics. For instance, crococcus lactis and Micrococcus luteus, cultured separately
whereas fermentation by the yeast Metschnikowia re- but presented together, they attracted fewer C. pipiens
ukaufii resulted in reduced amino acid levels without females compared with L. thermotolerans on its own. The
altering sugar composition, the presence of the odor profile emitted by L. thermotolerans was found to

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 Nectar foraging consequences on mosquito fitness Sobhy and Berry 5

vary based on the nutritional composition of the syn- This review emphasizes the importance of under-
thetic nectar culture medium. This finding suggests that standing the chemical ecology mediating mosquito–-
odors de novo produced by micro-organisms in floral nectar interactions, particularly the factors that shape
nectar convey information to nectar-seeking mosquitoes mosquito nectar foraging behavior. The use of multi-
regarding the availability of specific macronutrients, sensory cues, including gustatory and olfactory signals,
perhaps fine-tuning signals that might derive from plant enabled by the highly sensitive antennal sensors of
nectars alone, subsequently influencing the foraging mosquitoes, plays a vital role in their ability to locate and
decisions made by the mosquitoes. Notably, the emis- select nectar resources [4,5]. Floral volatiles, such as li-
sion of several floral volatiles (e.g. nonanal, linalool, β- nalool, limonene, α-pinene, and benzaldehyde, have
ocimene, linalool oxide, benzaldehyde, and limonene), been identified as attractive signals for nectar-seeking
to which mosquito exhibits a positive behavioral re- mosquitoes, and the interplay of these cues with sugar
sponse (see section Mosquito–flower association and polli- rewards remains an area of interest [31,39]. We further
nation services), has been shown to be manipulated by the highlighted the subsequent positive effects of nectar
addition and/or removal of nectar microbes [52]. This feeding on mosquito fitness-related traits across the
underscores the potential involvement of nectar mi- different species.
crobes in mediating mosquito–nectar interactions and
opens new avenues to improve our understanding of the Moreover, the role of nectar-dwelling micro-organisms in
dynamic relationship between flowering plants and shaping nectar characteristics is a burgeoning field of
mosquitoes, which should be perceived not merely as a study [18]. Microbes can significantly alter nectar prop-
two-part interaction but rather within the context of a erties, from sugar composition to odor profiles, poten-
three-part interplay encompassing plants, mosquitoes, tially influencing mosquito behavior and fitness. Recent
and microbes. research highlights the potential of microbe-derived
volatiles to serve as honest signals of reward quality and
To date, the work of Peach et al. [58] remains the only to convey information about the availability of specific
study linking microbe-produced scents to mosquito macronutrients, ultimately affecting mosquito foraging
nectar-seeking behavior, but microbial modification of decisions [58].
other sugar sources has also been shown to affect mos-
quito behavior. For instance, the scent profile of aphid The study of mosquito–nectar interactions and the role
honeydew that is colonized by microbes proves to be of nectar-inhabiting microbes in shaping these interac-
more enticing to the yellow fever mosquito, A. aegypti, tions presents a promising avenue for further research.
than the aroma of sterilized honeydew [59]. Several areas warrant increased attention:

Overall, accumulating evidence suggests that bacteria 1. Research should assess the extent of mosquitoes’
and yeasts play a substantial role in shaping nectar contribution to plant–pollinator networks and their
quality [50–52,60], which could have significant im- potential role in reproductive biology and the con-
plications for mosquito ecology. The fact that in- servation of plant species.
vestigation of the influence of microbe-derived volatiles 2. Extending our understanding of the effect of nectar
from floral nectar on mosquito foraging choices is limited as a sugar source on mosquito fitness, survival, and
to one study restricts our ability to formulate broad behavior is crucial. This includes research on the
generalizations. In addition, the potential impact of mi- differential impacts of other nectar components, such
crobes on other fitness-related traits, such as oviposition, as amino acids and secondary metabolites, on mos-
host-seeking behavior, and disease transmission, remains quitoes.
largely unexplored and warrants investigation in future 3. Assessing the ability of mosquitoes to develop asso-
studies. ciative learning between various cues and sugar
source quality needs further exploration. This could
shed light on how mosquitoes navigate and select
Conclusions and future perspectives nectar resources efficiently.
The intricate interactions between mosquitoes and floral 4. Investigating how nectar-dwelling microbes modify
nectar are far more complex and significant than tradi- nectar characteristics and how these modifications
tionally perceived. While mosquitoes are primarily re- influence mosquito behavior is understudied.
cognized for their role as disease vectors, they also Research should focus on exploring the impact of
engage in nectar foraging [5], contributing to plant–- nectar micro-organisms on mosquito fitness-related
pollinator networks and possibly influencing the genetic traits, including oviposition, host seeking, and disease
diversity and distribution of plant species [7]. Recent transmission.
research has challenged the notion that mosquitoes are 5. Characterization of the microbial volatile profiles re-
merely nectar thieves, highlighting their potential as leased from various floral nectars and identification of
pollinators with diverse roles in plant reproduction [12]. the bioactive compounds to mosquitoes still remain

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6 Vectors and medical and veterinary entomology

unexplored, and further studies in this area are, thus, 3. Wolff GH, Riffell JA: Olfaction, experience and neural
needed. mechanisms underlying mosquito host preference. J Exp Biol
2018, 221:jeb157131.
6. Analyzing the role of microbe-derived semi-
4. Foster WA: Mosquito sugar feeding and reproductive
ochemicals, in conjunction with CO2, in mosquito energetics. Annu Rev Entomol 1995, 40:443-474.
attraction to floral nectar remains an area of interest.
5. Barredo E, DeGennaro M: Not just from blood: mosquito nutrient
Further studies should investigate how these che- •• acquisition from nectar sources. Trends Parasitol 2020,
mical cues influence mosquito behavior (including 36:473-484.
Interesting review paper that shed the light on the nectar-feeding be-
cross-over use of the same signals in different pro- havior by anthropophilic mosquitoes and its importance to mosquito
cesses, for example, oviposition and blood/nectar ecology and disease transmission. The authors further highlighted the
significance of sugar consumption in the life cycle of mosquitoes, their
foraging), and whether they impact downstream preferred plant origins, the enticing volatiles, and the role of vision, ol-
mosquito-borne disease transmission. faction, and gustation in guiding this behavior.
7. Developing more knowledge on nectar–mosquito 6. Nyasembe VO, Teal PE, Mukabana WR, Tumlinson JH, Torto B:
interactions offers potential for developing ecologi- Behavioural response of the malaria vector Anopheles gambiae
to host plant volatiles and synthetic blends. Parasites Vectors
cally sound strategies in mosquito surveillance and 2012, 5:1-11.
control. Consequently, further research is necessary
7. Lahondère C, Vinauger C, Okubo RP, Wolff GH, Chan JK, Akbari
to enhance the efficiency and specificity of large-scale •• OS, Riffell JA: The olfactory basis of orchid pollination by
implementation of attractive toxic sugar baits across mosquitoes. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 2020, 117:708-716.
This study reveals the olfactory basis of orchid pollination by mosqui-
various environments. toes. The authors found that Aedes spp. mosquitoes, including A. ae-
gypti, are effective pollinators of the P. obtusata orchid and
demonstrated this mutualism is mediated by the orchid’s scent. They
In essence, understanding these complexities of nec- further examined the neural and behavioral processes mediating mos-
tar–mosquito interactions promises to reveal the hidden quito floral preference. They also carried out analyses of floral scent
facets of mosquito biology and their ecological impact, compounds that attract diverse mosquito species and performed an-
tennal and antennal lobe recordings to show how these floral volatile
with practical applications in vector control. compounds are represented in the mosquito.
8. Álvarez-Pérez S, Lievens B, Fukami T: Yeast–bacterium
Data Availability interactions: the next frontier in nectar research. Trends Plant
Sci 2019, 24:393-401.

No data were used for the research described in the ar- 9. Peach DAH, Gries G: Nectar thieves or invited pollinators? A
case study of tansy flowers and common house mosquitoes.
ticle. Arthropod Plant Inter 2016, 10:497-506.
10. Dexter JS: Mosquitoes pollination, orchids. Science 1913, 2:867.
Declaration of Competing Interest 11. Thien LB: Mosquito pollination of Habenaria obtusata
(Orchidaceae). Am J Bot 1969, 56:232-237.
The authors declare that the content of this manuscript 12. Peach DAH, Gries G: Mosquito phytophagy — sources
was not affected by any financial, commercial, legal, or •• exploited, ecological function, and evolutionary transition to
haematophagy. Entomol Exp Appl 2020, 168:120-136.
professional interest. In this article, the authors (1) reviewed the many plant-derived food
sources mosquitoes exploit, (2) studied the pollination function of
mosquitoes, and (3) investigated the role of microbes in the sugar-
Acknowledgements foraging ecology of mosquitoes.
The authors thank Zainulabeuddin Syed and Walter S. Leal for the in-
vitation to write this manuscript. The authors thank Hefin Jones (Cardiff 13. Syed Z, Leal WS: Acute olfactory response of Culex mosquitoes
University) for the insightful critical comments and suggestions on a pre- to a human- and bird-derived attractant. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA
2009, 106:18803-18808.
vious version of the paper. This work was not supported by specific
funding. 14. Nikbakhtzadeh MR, Terbot JW, Otienoburu PE, Foster WA:
Olfactory basis of floral preference of the malaria vector
Anopheles gambiae (Diptera: Culicidae) among common
Data access statement African plants. J Vector Ecol 2014, 39:372-383.
15. Peach DAH, Ko E, Blake AJ, Gries G: Ultraviolet inflorescence
No new data were generated for this review article. cues enhance attractiveness of inflorescence odour to Culex
pipiens mosquitoes. PLoS One 2019, 14:e0217484.

References and recommended reading 16. Dieng H, Satho T, Binti Arzemi NA, Aliasan NE, Abang F,
Wydiamala E, Miake F, Zuharah WF, Abu Kassim NF, Morales
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been highlighted as: mimics: foraging responses, feeding patterns, and significance
for sugar bait technology. Acta Trop 2018, 185:230-238.
•• of special interest
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cues guide mosquitoes to tansy inflorescences. Sci Rep 2019,
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•• Philos Trans R Soc B Biol Sci 2022, 377:20210163.
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Krishnan RS, Castillo SSG, Alfonso-Parra C, Avila FW, et al.: The significance in the nourishment and well-being of insect pollinators. The
impact of mating and sugar feeding on blood-feeding author further highlighted the need for addressing knowledge gaps in
physiology and behavior in the arbovirus vector mosquito nectar research in future studies. Specifically, there is a call for research
Aedes aegypti. PLoS Negl Trop Dis 2021, 15:e0009815.

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www.sciencedirect.com Current Opinion in Insect Science 2024, 63:101199

8 Vectors and medical and veterinary entomology

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feeding-deterrent activity against three deadly mosquito vectors (i.e. A. mixture with two bacterial species. They also found that L. thermo-
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