SOUTHERN LUZON STATE UNIVERSITY

COLLEGE OF ALLIED MEDICINE

Main Campus
Lucban, Quezon

RAD03: RADIATION PRODUCTION AND CHARACTERISTICS

SUMMARY NOTES:

RADIOLOGIC SCIENCE FOR TECHNOLOGISTS

PHYSICS, BIOLOGY, AND PROTECTION

STEWART CARLYLE BUSHONG

(12TH EDITION)

CHAPTER 3: THE STRUCTURE OF MATTER

PREPARED BY:

JAY FRANCIS Q. BRIL

BSRT-2

PRESENTED TO:

MARY MITCHELLE M. PUNO, RRT

Instructor
 CHAPTER 3

THE STRUCTURE OF MATTER

Key terminologies Description

ATOM • the building block of a radiographer’s

understanding of the interaction
between ionizing radiation and
matter.
• the smallest particle that has all the
properties of an element.
• it is neutrally charged.
• principal parts:
▪ orbital shell (electrons)
▪ nucleus (neutrons and protons)
• essentially an empty space.
GREEK ATOM • matter is composed of four
substances:
▪ earth
▪ water
▪ air
▪ fire
• all matter could be described as
combinations of the four basic
substances in various proportions,
modified by four basic essences:
▪ dry
▪ wet
▪ cold
▪ hot
DALTON ATOM • 1808
• John Dalton
• Eye-and-Hook Affair
• the elements could be classified
according to integral values of atomic
mass.
• an element is composed of identical
atoms are reacted the same way
chemically (however, they were
different— hooks and eyes; from
atoms of any other element).
THOMSON ATOM • Joseph John “J.J.” Thomson
• Plum-Pudding Model
• plums represent the electrons.
 • pudding represents the proton
protons/positive charge.
• described as “positive
electrification”.
BOHR MODEL • Miniature Solar System
• contains a small, dense, positively
charged nucleus surrounded by
negatively charged electrons revolve
in fixed, well-defined orbits around the
nucleus.
▪ in the normal atom, the number of
electrons is equal to the number of
positive charges in the nucleus.
QUANTUM CHROMODYNAMICS • predicts the existence of force-carrier
particles called, GLUONS which
transmit the strong force between
particles of matter that carry COLOR,
a form of strong “charge”.
FUNDAMENTAL PARTICLES • three primary constituents of an
atom:
▪ electron
▪ proton
▪ neutron
• the atom can be viewed as a miniature
solar system (Bohr Model):
▪ sun = nucleus
▪ planets = electrons
NUCLEUS • central core of an atom.
• contains protons and neutrons.
• contains nearly all mass of the atom.
• positively charged.
• uranium nucleus – the largest
naturally occurring atom.
NUCLEONS • protons and neutrons – both have
nearly 2,000 times the mass of an
electron.
• composed of quarks that are hold
together by gluons.
PROTONS • mass: 𝟏. 𝟔𝟕𝟑 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟐𝟕
• carries one unit of positive electric
charge.
• number of protons determine the
chemical element.
NEUTRONS • mass: 𝟏. 𝟔𝟕𝟓 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟐𝟕
• carries no charge; electrically neutral.
 ELECTRONS • the atom can be viewed as a miniature
solar system (Bohr Model):
▪ sun = nucleus
▪ planets = electrons
• the arrangement of the electrons
around the nucleus determines the
manner in which atoms interact.
• carry one unit of negative electric
charge.
• mass: 𝟗. 𝟏𝟎𝟗 × 𝟏𝟎³¹
ATOM • Neutral Atom
▪ consists of the same number of
protons and electrons.
• Ionized Atom
▪ consists of an extra or lacking of
electrons (e-).
▪ can be positive or negative.
▪ not electrically neutral but carries
a charge equal in magnitude to
the difference between the
numbers of electrons and
protons.
▪ in normal state, atoms are
electrically neutral; the electric
charge on the atom is zero.
• Atomic Particle
▪ mass is expressed as atomic mass
unit (amu).

KEYNOTES

“nucleons, neutrons, and protons each have nearly 2,000 times the mass of
electron.”

IMPORTANT CHARACTERISTICS OF THE FUNDAMENTAL

PARTICLES
Particle Location Charge Discovered by Mass

ELECTRON Orbital Shell Negative (-) Joseph John Lightest

Thomson
PROTON Nucleus Positive (+) Eugene -
Goldstein
NEUTRON Nucleus Neutral (0) James Chadwick Heaviest
 Key Terminologies Description

ORBITAL SHELL • helps to reveal how an atom reacts

chemically; (atoms are combined with
other atoms to form molecules).
IONIZATION • the removal of an orbital electron
from an atom.

KEYNOTES

“the total number of electrons in the orbital shell is exactly equal to the number of
protons in the nucleus, in normal atom.”
“atoms can be ionized by addition or subtraction of protons because they are
bound very strongly together, and action would change the type of atom.”
“an alteration in the number of neutrons does not ionize an atom because the
neutron is electrically neutral.”
“in all except the lightest atoms, the number of neutrons is always greater the
number of protons; the larger the atom, the greater the abundance of neutrons over
protons.”

Key Terminologies Description

ELECTRON ARRANGEMENT • the maximum number of electrons

that can exist each shell; increases
with the distance of the shell from the
nucleus.
• the number of electrons in the
outermost shell is equal to its group
in the periodic table.
• determines the valence of an atom.
• the number of the outermost
electron shell is equal to its period in
the periodic table.
TRANSITIONAL ELEMENTS • the orderly scheme of atomic
progression from smallest to largest
atom is interrupted in the fourth
period; instead of simply adding
electrons to the next outer shell,
electrons added to an inner shell.
• these elements, no outer shell ever
contains more than eight electrons.
• the chemical properties depend on
the number of electrons in the two
 outermost shells.
CENTRIPETAL FORCE • “center-seeking force”
• results from a basic law of electricity
that states that;
▪ opposite charges – attract (one
another)
▪ like charges – repel
• keeps an electron in the orbit.
• “electrons would drop into the nucleus
because of strong electrostatic
attraction.”
CENTRIFUGAL FORCE • “flying-out-from-the-center force”
MAXIMUM ELECTRONS PER SHELL • formula = 𝟐𝒏𝟐
▪ where 𝒏 is the shell number.

MAXIMUM NUMBER OF ELECTRONS THAT CAN OCCUPY EACH ELECTRON

SHELL
Shell Number Shell Symbol Number of Electrons

1 K 2

2 L 8

3 M 18

4 N 32

5 O 50

6 P 72

7 Q 98

KEYNOTES

“no outer shell can contain more than eight electrons.”

“when eight electrons are in the outer shell, the shell is filled.”
“all atoms have one electron in the outer shell lie in group I in the periodic table… atoms
with two electrons in the outer shell fall in group II, and so forth.”
“in the normal atom, the centripetal force balances the centrifugal force, so that
electrons maintain their distance from the nucleus while traveling in a circular or an
elliptical path.”
 Key Terminologies Description

ELECTRON BINDING ENERGY • the strength of attachment of an

electron to the nucleus.
• the closer an electron to the nucleus,
the more tightly it is bound.
• the larger and more complex the
atom, the higher the binding energy
for electrons in an atom.

KEYNOTES

“no outer shell can contain more than eight electrons.”

“when eight electrons are in the outer shell, the shell is filled.”
“all atoms have one electron in the outer shell lie in group I in the periodic table… atoms
with two electrons in the outer shell fall in group II, and so forth.”
“in the normal atom, the centripetal force balances the centrifugal force, so that
electrons maintain their distance from the nucleus while traveling in a circular or an
elliptical path.”

Key Terminologies Description

ATOMIC NOMENCLATURE •
often an element is indicated by an
alphabetic abbreviation (chemical
symbols).
▪ examples: Beryllium (Be), Carbon
(C), Oxygen (O), Aluminum (Al),
etc.
• the chemical properties of an
element are determined by the
number and arrangement of
electrons.
PROTON/ATOMIC NUMBER • symbol: Z
• the number of protons in an atom.
ATOMIC MASS NUMBER • symbol: A
• the number of protons and neutrons
(nucleons).
NEUTRON NUMBER • symbol: n°
• the difference between the atomic
mass number and atomic number.
FORMULA
• Z = A - n° • A = Z + n° • n° = A - Z
ISOTOPES • atoms have same proton/atomic
 number (Z) but different in atomic
mass number (A).
ISOBAR • atomic nuclei that have the same
proton/atomic mass number (Z) but
different atomic mass number (A).
ISOTONE • atoms that have the same number of
neutrons (n°) but different number of
protons (Z).
ISOMER • have the same proton/atomic
number (A) and atomic mass
number.

CHARACTERISTICS OF VARIOUS NUCLEAR ARRANGEMENTS

Arrangement Proton/Atomic Atomic Mass Neutron Number

Number Number (n°)
(Z) (A)
IsotoPe S D D

IsobAr D A D

IsotoNe D D S

Isomer S S S

wherein: S = same, D = different.

KEYNOTE

“the atomic mass number (A) and the precise mass of an atom are not equal.”

Key Terminologies Description

COMBINATION OF ATOMS
MOLECULES • atoms of various elements may
combine to form structures.
• smallest particle of a compound.
• examples: H20, NaCl
COMPOUND • any quantity of one type of molecule.
CHEMICAL BONDS • atoms combine with each other to
form compounds in two main ways.
 COVALENT BOND • binding the atoms together.
• characterized by sharing of electrons.
IONIC BOND • becomes ionized because electron has
lost and result to imbalance of
electric charges.

KEYNOTES

“smallest particle of an element is an atom.”

“smallest particle of a compound is a molecule.”

Key Terminologies Description

RADIOACTIVITY • the spontaneous emission of

particles and energy in order to
become stable.
• some atoms exist in an abnormally
excited state characterized by an
unstable nucleus.
RADIOACTIVE DECAY • to reach stability, the nucleus
spontaneously emits particles and
energy and transforms itself into
another form.
• the atoms involved are radionuclides.
• any nuclear arrangement is called a
nuclide; only nuclei that undergo
radioactive decay are radionuclides.
RADIOISOTOPES • factors that affect nuclear stability.
▪ most important is the number of
neutrons
• when a nucleus contains a few or too
many neutrons, the atom can
disintegrate radioactively, bringing
the number of neutrons and protons
into a stable ratio.
• two primary sources of naturally
occurring isotopes:
▪ some originated at the time of the
Earth’s formation and are still
decaying very slowly; uranium
decays to radium, radium decays to
radon.
❖ these and other products of
 uranium are radioactive.
▪ others, such as Carbon 14,
continuously produced in the
upper atmosphere through the
action of cosmic radiation.
• same element, different mass,
neutron number, and radioactivity.
IONIZING RADIATION
• acts on biological tissue between various types of radiation.
• differences can be analyzed according to five physical characteristics:
▪ mass
▪ energy
▪ velocity
▪ charge
▪ origin
PARTICULATE RADIATION
• subatomic particles are capable of causing ionization.
• electrons, protons, and even rare nuclear fragments – classified as particulate
ionizing radiation.
▪ at rest, they cannot cause ionization
ALPHA AND BETA EMISSION
• two important ways for descriptive purposes.
• radioactive decay by positron emission is important for some nuclear medicine
imaging.
ALPHA EMISSION • more violent process
• consists of two protons and two
neutrons bound together;
▪ A=4
• a nucleus must be extremely
unstable to emit an alpha particle,
but, when it does, it loses two units of
positive charge and four units of mass.
▪ resulting atom is not only chemically
different but is also lighter by 4 amu.
▪ A = 4 → -4
ALPHA PARTICLES • equivalent to a helium nucleus.
• contain two (2) protons and two (2)
neutrons.
• compared to an electron, the alpha
particle is large and exerts great
electrostatic force.
• after emitted from a radioactive
atom, the alpha particle travels with
high velocity through matter.
• because of its great mass and
 charge, it easily transfers this kinetic
energy to orbital electron of other
atoms.
BETA EMISSION • an electron created in the nucleus is
ejected from the nucleus with
considerable kinetic energy and
escapes from the atom.
• results to the loss of a small quantity of
mass and one unit of negative electric
charge (electron) from the nucleus of
the atom.
• simultaneously, a neutron
undergoes conversion to a proton.
• increases the atomic number (Z) by
one (Z → Z + 1), while the atomic
mass number remains the same (A =
constant); this nuclear transformation
results in changing of an atom from
one type of element to another.
BETA PARTICLES • light particles with an atomic mass of
zero (0).
• carry one unit of negative or positive
charge (±1).
• an electron is emitted from the
nucleus of a radioactive atom.
• after emitted from a radioisotope,
beta particles traverse air, ionizing
several hundred atoms per
centimeter.
• longer than alpha particles.
ELECTROMAGNETIC RADIATION
PHOTONS • smallest quantities of any type of
electromagnetic activity.
• may be pictured as quantum – small
bundle of energy.
• waveform: sinusoidal wave
 GENERAL CLASSIFICATION OF IONIZING RADIATION

Type of Symbol Atomic Mass Charge Origin

Radiation Number
(A)
PARTICULATE

Alpha radiation α -4 -2 Nucleus

Beta radiation β- 0 +1 Nucleus

β+ 0 -1 Nucleus

ELECTROMAGNETIC

Gamma rays γ 0 0 Nucleus

X-rays X 0 0 Electron cloud

KEYNOTES

“beta emission occurs more frequently than alpha emission.”

“virtually, all radioisotopes are capable of transformation by beta emission, but
only heavy isotopes are capable of alpha emission…”
“some radioisotopes are pure alpha emitters, but most emit gamma rays
simultaneously with the particle emission.”
“light elements cannot emit alpha particles because they do not have enough
excess mass.”

Key Terminologies Description

RADIOACTIVE HALF-LIFE • (radioisotope) is the time required for

a quantity of radioactivity to be
reduced to one half-life of its
original value.
• radioisotopes disintegrate into
stable isotopes of different elements
at a decreasing rate so that the
quantity of radioactive materials
never quire reaches zero.
• T½
 RADIOACTIVE DECAY LAW • “the rate of radioactive decay and the
quantity of material present at any
given time are described
mathematically by a formula.”
• formula: remaining activity = original
activity (𝟎. 𝟓)𝒏
▪ where 𝒏 is the number of
radioactive half-lives

KEYNOTES

“radioactive half-lives of radioisotopes vary from less than a second to many years.”