Chapter 3

Fluid
Dynamics
KMJ30203 – Fluid Mechanics
Sem 1, 2023/2024
Prepared by: Assoc Prof Dr Liew Yun Ming
Objectives

• Discuss the application of Newton’s second law to fluid flows

• Explain development, uses and limitations of the Bernoulli equation
• Use Bernoulli equation (stand-alone or in combination with continuity
equation) to solve simple flow problems
• Apply the concept of static, stagnation, dynamic and total pressures
• Calculate various flow properties using energy and hydraulic grade
lines

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Introduction

• Fluid dynamics: studies of fluid motion

• A fluid particle moves from one location to another, it
experiences acceleration or deceleration.
• We consider motion of inviscid fluid
✓ zero viscosity
✓ zero thermal conductivity of fluid
✓ Zero heat transfer
• In practice, there are no inviscid fluids. However, the
viscous effect are small compared to other effects (E.g.,
gravity, pressure difference, etc)

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Newton’s Second Law

• Newton’s 2nd Law: Net force acting on the fluid particle under
consideration must equal to its mass times acceleration

𝐹 = 𝑚𝑎

• Consider that fluid motion is governed by pressure and gravity forces

only

𝑁𝑒𝑡 𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 𝑜𝑛 𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑙𝑒 = (𝑷𝒂𝒓𝒕𝒊𝒄𝒍𝒆 𝒎𝒂𝒔𝒔)

+ 𝑁𝑒𝑡 𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑣𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 𝑜𝑛 𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑙𝑒 × (𝑷𝒂𝒓𝒕𝒊𝒄𝒍𝒆 𝒂𝒄𝒄𝒆𝒍𝒆𝒓𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏)

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• To apply Newton’s 2nd law, coordinate system is used to describe
motion of fluid
• Motion of fluid will be three-dimensional and unsteady
• Numerous coordinate system available: rectangular (x, y, z) and cylindrical
(r, θ, z) systems

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• In this chapter, we consider two-dimensional motion
confined to x-z plane.

Fluid in the x-z plane Flow in terms of streamline and normal coordinates

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• Motion of each fluid particle is described in terms of velocity vector, V.
• Velocity vector, V: time rate of change of position of the particle.
• Particle’s velocity is a vector quantity with a magnitude (the speed, 𝑉 = 𝑽 ) and direction.
• As a particle moves about, it follows a particular path.

• Steady flow (nothing changes with time at given

location ): velocity is everywhere tangent to the path
→ streamlines
• The particle motion is described in distance, s = s(t)
• The distance along the streamline is related to
particle’s speed.

′
𝑑𝑠
𝑃𝑎𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑙𝑒 𝑠 𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑒𝑑, 𝑉 =
𝑑𝑡
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• To apply Newton’s 2nd law, we must write particle acceleration in terms of
streamline coordinates.
• Acceleration: time rate of change of the velocity of the particle

𝑑𝑽
𝐴=
𝑑𝑡
• For 2D flow in x-z plane, acceleration has 2 components
• Along the streamline: streamwise acceleration (𝒂𝒔 )
• Normal to the streamline: normal acceleration (𝒂𝒏 )

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• Using chain rule of differentiation, the streamline acceleration is given by:

𝑑𝑉 𝜕𝑉 𝑑𝑠 𝜕𝑉
𝑎𝑠 = = = 𝑉
𝑑𝑡 𝜕𝑠 𝑑𝑡 𝜕𝑠

• Rate of change of speed with distance

• Can be positive (acceleration), negative
(deceleration), or zero (constant
speed).

• The normal acceleration (centrifugal acceleration) is given in terms of

particle speed and radius of curvature of its path.

𝑉2
𝑎𝑛 =
𝑅 Local radius of curvature of the
streamline 9
• Streamwise acceleration, 𝒂𝒔 is due to a change in speed 𝜕𝑉
along a streamline 𝑎𝑠 = 𝑉
𝜕𝑠
• There is acceleration along the streamline because particle
speed changes along its path (𝜕𝑉/𝜕𝑠 ≠ 0). 𝑉2
𝑎𝑛 =
𝑅
• Normal acceleration, 𝒂𝒏 is due to change in direction
• There is acceleration normal to the streamline because
particle does not flow in straight line (𝑅 ≠ ∞).
• For particles that move along a straight path, 𝒂𝒏 = 0. since
the radius of curvature is infinity and thus there is no
change in direction.

Steady means no change with time at a specified

location, but the value of a quantity may change
from one location to another. Eg : nozzle = the
velocity of water remains constant at a specified
point, but it changes from the inlet to the exit.
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Derivation of Bernoulli Equation

• Consider the motion of a fluid particle in a flow field in

steady flow.
• Apply Newton’s 2nd law in s-direction on particle moving
along the streamline gives:

• Force acting in the s-direction are the pressure (acting on

both sides) and the component of weight of the particle in
s-direction. Thus:

𝑃 𝑑𝑧
𝐹= sin 𝜃 = 𝑚 = 𝜌𝑉 = 𝜌 𝑑𝐴 𝑑𝑠
𝐴 𝑊 = 𝑚𝑔 𝑑𝑠
 𝑊 = 𝑚𝑔 = ρ𝑉𝑔 = ρ𝑔 𝑑𝐴 𝑑𝑠

• Substituting, we get

• Canceling 𝑑𝐴 and simplifying, we get

1
• Noting that 𝑉 𝑑𝑉 = 𝑑(𝑉 2 ) and dividing by 𝜌, we get
2

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 • Integrating:

Steady Flow

• In the case of incompressible flow, integration gives:

Steady,
Incompressible
Flow

This is the Bernoulli Equation for steady, incompressible flow along a

streamline in inviscid regions of flow. The sum of the kinetic, potential, and
flow energies of a fluid particle is constant along a streamline during steady
flow when compressibility and frictional effects are negligible.
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• The Bernoulli equation between any two points on the same
streamline:

or

The Bernoulli equation states that the sum of the kinetic,

potential, and flow energies of a fluid particle is constant
along a streamline during steady flow.

The Bernoulli equation can be viewed as the

“conservation of mechanical energy principle.”

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Example 1
Consider the flow of air around a bicyclist moving through
still air with velocity, 𝑉0 . Determine the difference in the
pressure between points (1) and (2).

Solution

In a coordinate fixed to the bike, it appears as though the

air is flowing steadily toward the bicyclist with speed 𝑉0 .
We consider (1) to be in the free stream so
If the assumptions of Bernoulli’s equation are valid (steady, that 𝑉0 = 𝑉1 and (2) to be at the tip of the
𝜌𝑉 2 bicyclist’s nose (𝑉2 = 0).
incompressible, inviscid flow), 𝑝 + + 𝛾𝑧 can be applied
2
as follows along the streamline that passes through (1) and 𝑧1 = 𝑧2
(2).
0 0 0

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Static, Dynamic, Stagnation and Total
Pressure
• The Bernoulli equation states that the sum of the flow, kinetic and
potential energies of a fluid particle along a streamline is constant.

• The kinetic and potential energies of the fluid can be converted to flow
energy (and vice versa) during flow, causing the pressure to change.

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Each term in this equation has pressure units and represents some kind of
pressure:

• P is the static pressure

𝑉2
• 𝜌 2 is the dynamic pressure
• 𝜌𝑔𝑧 is the hydrostatic pressure

• The sum of static, dynamic and hydrostatic pressures is called the total
pressure. Thus, Bernoulli equation states that the total pressure along a
streamline is constant.
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Equivalent form of Bernoulli equation is obtained by diving each term by 𝜌𝑔:

𝑃
• is the pressure head: it represents the height of a fluid
𝜌𝑔
column that produces the static pressure P.
𝑉2
• is the velocity head: it represents the elevation needed for a
2𝑔
fluid to reach the velocity V during frictionless free fall.
• z is the elevation head: it represents the potential energy of
the fluid.
• H is the total head for the flow

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Bernoulli Assumptions

• Three main variables in the Bernoulli equation:

• Pressure
• Velocity
• Elevation

• To simplify problems, assumptions are often made to eliminate

one or more variables

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Assumptions 1: Velocity = 0

Imagine a swimming pool with a small 1

cm hole on the floor of the pool. If you
apply the Bernoulli equation at the
surface, and at the hole, does the flow
through the hole affect the water at the
surface? We assume that it does not,
because the volume exiting through the
hole is trivial compared to the total
volume of the pool, and therefore the
Velocity of a water particle at the
surface can be assumed to be zero.

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Assumption 2: Pressure = 0

Whenever the only pressure acting on a point is the standard

atmospheric pressure, then the pressure at that point can be assumed to
be zero because every point in the system is subject to that same pressure.
Therefore, for any free surface or free jet, pressure at that point can be
assumed to be zero.

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Assumption 3: The Continuity Equation

In cases where one or both of the previous assumptions do not apply, then
we might need to use the continuity equation to solve the problem

𝑨𝟏 𝑽𝟏 = 𝑨𝟐 𝑽𝟐

Which satisfies that inflow and outflow are equal at any section.

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• Consider the pressure at the end of a small tube inserted into the flow and point
upstream.
• After the initial transient motion has died out, the liquid will fill the tube to a height of H,
as shown.

• The fluid in the tube, including that at its tip (2)

will be stationary. That is, 𝑽𝟐 = 𝟎 or point (2) is a
stagnation point.
• Apply Bernoulli equation between Point (1) and
(2), 𝑉2 = 0 and 𝑧1 = 𝑧2 :

0 0

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• Pressure at stagnation point is called stagnation pressure, which is the
sum of static and dynamic pressures.

• Stagnation pressure represents the pressure at a point where the fluid is

brought to a complete stop isentropically.
• When static and stagnation pressures are measured at a specific location,
the fluid velocity at that location is:

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Examples of Use of Bernoulli Equation

Apply Bernoulli equation between any 2 points on a streamline in

steady, inviscid, incompressible flow.

• Free jet
• Confined flow
• Flowrate measurement

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1. Free Jet
A jet of liquid of diameter d flows
from nozzle with velocity V.
Apply Bernoulli equation on points
(1) and (2).

𝑧2 = 0
𝑧1 = ℎ 0 0
0 0
𝑉1 = 0 𝑙𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑒 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑒𝑣𝑜𝑖𝑟
𝑃1 = 0 (𝑜𝑝𝑒𝑛 𝑡𝑜 𝑎𝑡𝑚𝑜𝑠𝑝ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒)
𝑃2 = 0 (𝒇𝒓𝒆𝒆 𝒋𝒆𝒕)

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Apply Bernoulli equation between points
(1) and (5).
Outside the nozzle, the stream continues
to fall as a free jet with zero pressure
throughout (𝑃5 = 0).

𝑧5 = 0
𝑧1 = ℎ + 𝐻
𝑉1 = 0 𝑙𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑒 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑒𝑣𝑜𝑖𝑟
𝑃1 = 0 (𝑜𝑝𝑒𝑛 𝑡𝑜 𝑎𝑡𝑚𝑜𝑠𝑝ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒)
𝑃5 = 0 (𝒇𝒓𝒆𝒆 𝒋𝒆𝒕)

0 0 0 0

All of the particle’s potential energy is

converted to kinetic energy, provided
viscous (friction) effects are negligible.
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Horizontal flow from a tank with different velocity of fluid due
to differences in elevation.
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2. Confined Flows

• In many cases, the fluid is physically constrained within a device. E.g.,

nozzles and pipes of variable diameter.
• We use the concept of conservation of mass (the continuity equation)
along with Bernoulli equation.

Conservation of mass
If the flow is steady, no additional
accumulation of fluid within the volume

𝑅𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑓𝑙𝑢𝑖𝑑 𝑅𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑓𝑙𝑢𝑖𝑑

=
𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑤𝑠 𝒊𝒏𝒕𝒐 𝑎 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑤𝑠 𝒐𝒖𝒕 𝑜𝑓 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒

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Consider a fluid flowing through a fixed volume (e.g., syringe) that has one inlet and
one outlet.
𝒎𝒂𝒔𝒔 𝒇𝒍𝒐𝒘 𝒓𝒂𝒕𝒆, 𝒎ሶ = 𝝆𝑸 = 𝝆𝑽𝑨
Unit: kg/s
𝑚3
𝑄 = 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑤𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒 = 𝑉𝐴
𝑠

To conserve mass, inflow rate = outflow rate

𝑚ሶ 1 = 𝑚ሶ 2
𝝆𝟏 𝑽𝟏 𝑨𝟏 = 𝝆𝟐 𝑽𝟐 𝑨𝟐
If the density remains constant, then 𝝆𝟏 = 𝝆𝟐 , the equation becomes the
continuity equation for incompressible flow.
𝑽𝟏 𝑨𝟏 = 𝑽𝟐 𝑨𝟐 or 𝑸𝟏 = 𝑸 𝟐
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3. Flowrate Measurement

• Many types of devices using principles involved in

Bernoulli equation to measure fluid velocities and
flowrates.
• An effective way to measure the flowrate through a
pipe is to place some type of restriction within the
pipe, to measure the pressure difference between the
low-velocity, high-pressure upstream section (1) and
high-velocity, low-pressure downstream section (2).
• Three commonly used types of flow meters: Orifice
meter, nozzle meter and Venturi meter.

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• We assume the flow is horizontal (𝒛𝟏 = 𝒛𝟐 ), steady, inviscid and incompressible
between points (1) and (2) .
• The Bernoulli equation becomes:
0 0

• Assume the velocity profiles are uniform at sections (1) and (2), the continuity equation
can be written as:

• Combine the 2 equations gives:

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Exercise

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