MSA University

Faculty of Engineering
Industrial Engineering Department

Lectures Notes on

Fundamentals of Fluid Mechanics

(GSE 353: Mechatronics Eng. Students)

(GSE 264: Industrial Eng. Students)

(Semester: Fall 2023)

BERNOULLI AND ENERGY

E Q U AT I O N S

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 Chapter 4

BERNOULLI AND ENERGY

E Q U AT I O N S

Objectives:
When you finish reading this chapter, you should be able to:

 Understand the use and limitations of the Bernoulli equation,

and apply it to solve a variety of fluid flow problems.
 Work with the energy equation expressed in terms of heads,
and use it to determine turbine power output and pumping
power requirements.

References:

 Çengel, Yunus A., author. | Cimbala, John M “ Fluid Mechanics:

FUNDAMENTALS AND APPLICATIONS, , 4th edition, 2018. (Chapter 3)


: 8th ed., 2016.
 J. F. Douglas, J. M. Gasoriek, John Swaffield, Lynne Jack - Fluid
Mechanics, 5th Edition -Prentice Hall (2006)

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 Chapter 4

BERNOULLI AND ENERGY

E Q U AT I O N S

This chapter deals with two equations commonly used in fluid mechanics: Bernoulli
and energy equations.

The Bernoulli equation is concerned with the conservation of kinetic, potential,

and flow energies of a fluid stream and their conversion to each other in regions of flow
where net viscous forces are negligible and where other restrictive conditions apply.

The energy equation is a statement of the conservation of energy principle.

In this chapter we derive the Bernoulli equation by applying Newton’s second law
to a fluid element along a streamline and demonstrate its use in a variety of
applications.

We continue with the development of the energy equation in a form suitable for use in
fluid mechanics and introduce the concept of head loss.

Finally, we apply the energy equation to various

engineering systems.

4.1 THE BERNOULLI EQUATION:

The Bernoulli equation is an approximate relation
between pressure, velocity, and elevation, and is valid
in regions of steady, incompressible flow where
net frictional forces are negligible. (As shown in Fig.)

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Despite its simplicity, it has proven to be a very powerful tool in fluid mechanics.

In this section, we derive the Bernoulli equation by applying the conservation of linear
momentum principle, and we demonstrate both its usefulness and its limitations.

The key approximation in the derivation of the Bernoulli equation is that viscous effects
are negligibly small compared to inertial, gravitational, and pressure effects.

Since all fluids have viscosity (there is no such thing as an “inviscid fluid”), this
approximation cannot be valid for an entire flow field of practical interest. In other words,
we cannot apply the Bernoulli equation everywhere in a flow, no matter how small the
fluid’s viscosity.

However, it turns out that the approximation is reasonable in certain regions of many
practical flows. We refer to such regions as inviscid regions of flow, but rather they are
regions where net viscous or frictional forces are negligibly small compared to other
forces acting on fluid particles.

Derivation of the Bernoulli Equation:

Consider the motion of a fluid particle in a flow field in

steady flow. Applying Newton’s second law (which is
referred to as the linear momentum equation in fluid
mechanics) in the s-direction on a particle moving along
a streamline gives:

In regions of flow where net frictional forces are

negligible, there is no pump or turbine, and there is no heat transfer along the streamline,
the significant forces acting in the s-direction are the pressure (acting on both sides) and
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the component of the weight of the particle in the s-direction. Therefore, the Equation–3
becomes:

Where 𝜽 is the angle between the normal of the streamline and the vertical z-
axis at that point, m =ρ V = ρ dA ds is the mass, W = mg = ρg dA ds is
the weight of the fluid particle, and sin𝜽 = dz/ds. Substituting and rearrange
the terms we get the Bernoulli’s equation.

In which:

Thus, Bernoulli’s equation states that, for steady flow of a frictionless

fluid along a streamline, the total energy per unit weight remains
constant from point to point although its division between the three
forms of energy may vary.
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The final form of Bernoulli equation between any two points as:

Each of these terms has the dimension of a length, or head, and they are often

referred to as the pressure head p/ρg, the velocity head v2 /2g, the
potential head z .

Limitations on the Use of the Bernoulli Equation:

1. Steady flow: The first limitation on the Bernoulli equation is that it is

applicable to steady flow. Therefore, it should not be used during the transient
start-up and shut-down periods, or during periods of change in the flow
conditions.

2. Negligible viscous effects: Every flow involves some friction, no matter

how small, and frictional effects may or may not be negligible.

3. No shaft work: the Bernoulli equation is not applicable in a flow section

that involves a pump, turbine, fan, or any other machine or impeller since such
devices disrupt the streamlines and carry out energy interactions with the fluid
particles. When the flow section considered involves any of these devices, the
energy equation should be used instead to account for the shaft work input or
output.
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4. Incompressible flow: One of the approximations used in the derivation

of the Bernoulli equation is that ρ = constant and thus the flow is

incompressible. This condition is satisfied by liquids and also by gases at Mach

numbers less than about 0.3 since compressibility effects and thus density
variations of gases are negligible.

5. Negligible heat transfer: The density of a gas is inversely proportional to

temperature, and thus the Bernoulli equation should not be used for flow
sections that involve significant temperature change such as heating or cooling
sections.

RATE OF FLOW OR DISCHARGE:

Rate of flow (or discharge) is defined as the quantity of a liquid flowing per
second through a section of pipe or a channel. It is generally denoted by Q.
Let us consider a liquid flowing through a pipe.
A = Area of cross-section of the pipe, and
V = Average velocity of the liquid.
Discharge, Q = Area × average velocity i.e., Q = A.V
If area is in m2 and velocity is in m/s, then the discharge,
Q = m2 × m/s = m3/s

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 CONTINUITY EQUATION:
The continuity equation is based on the principle of conservation of mass.

For single-stream steady-flow systems, the equation

is reduced to:

Special Case: Incompressible Flow (ρ= constant)

The conservation of mass relations above can be

simplified even further when the fluid is incompressible,
which is usually the case for liquids, and sometimes
for gases. Canceling the density from both sides of the
steady-flow relations gives: Q1 = Q2

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Example 4.1 The diameters of a pipe at the sections 1-1 and 2-2 are 200
mm and 300 mm respectively. If the velocity of water flowing through the
pipe at section 1-1 is 4m/s,
Determine:
(i) Discharge through the pipe, and
(ii) Velocity of water at section 2-2

Solution:
Diameter of the pipe at section 1-1,
D1 = 200 mm = 0.2 m

Velocity, V1 = 4 m/s
Diameter of the pipe at section 2-2, D2 = 300 mm

(i) Discharge through the pipe, Q:

Using the relation, Q1 = A1V1, we have:
Q1 = 0.0314 × 4 = 0.1256 m3/s (Ans.)

(ii) Velocity of water at section 2-2, V2:

Using the relation,

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Example 4.2:
A pipe (1) 450 mm in diameter branches into two pipes (2 and 3) of
diameters 300 mm and 200 mm respectively as shown.
If the average velocity in 450 mm diameter
pipe is 3 m/s,
Determine:
(i) Discharge through 450 mm diameter pipe;
(ii) Velocity in 200 mm diameter pipe if the
average velocity in 300 mm pipe is 2.5 m/s.

Velocity, V1 = 3 m/s
Diameter, D2 = 300 mm = 0.3 m
∴ Area, A2 = π x (0.3)2 /4 = 0.0707 m2
Velocity, V2 = 2.5 m/s
Diameter, D3 = 200 mm = 0.2 m
Area, A3 = π.(0.2)2 /4 = 0.0314 m2

(i) Discharge through 450 mm diameter pipe

Q1 = A1V1= 0.159 × 3 = 0.477 m3/s (Ans.)

(ii) Velocity in pipe of diameter 200 mm i.e. V3:

Let Q1, Q2 and Q3 be the discharge in pipes 1, 2 and 3 respectively.
Then, according to continuity equation:
Q1 = Q2 + Q3 and Q1 = 0.477 m3/s
Q2 = A2V2 = 0.0707 × 2.5 = 0.1767 m3/s
then, 0.477 = 0.1767 + Q2 , Q3 = 0.477 – 0.1767 = 0.3 m3/s

But Q3 = A3V3 , ∴ V3 = Q3 /A3 = 0.3/0.0314 = 9.55 m/s (Ans.)

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Example 4.3
Water flows in a circular pipe. At one section the diameter is 0.3 m, the
static pressure is 260 kPa gauge, the
velocity is 3 m/s and the elevation is 10 m
above ground level.
The elevation at a section downstream is
0 m, and the pipe diameter is 0.15 m.
Determine: the gauge pressure at the
downstream section.
Frictional effects may be neglected.
Solution: D1 = 0.3 m; D2 = 0.15 m; z1 = 10; z2 = 0 m; P1 = 260 kPa,
V1 = 3 m/s; ρ = 1000 kg/m3.
From continuity equation, V1 A1 = V2 A2

From Bernoulli’s equation between sections 1 and 2 (neglecting friction effects as

given), we have:

1000x9.81 1000x9.81
p2 = 290597 N/m2 = 290.6 kPa (Ans.)

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Example 4.4:
Water is flowing through a pipe having diameters 600 mm and 400 mm at
the bottom and upper end respectively. The intensity of pressure at the
bottom end is 350 kN/m2 and the pressure
at the upper end is 100 kN/m2.

Determine: the difference in datum head

if the rate of flow through the pipe is 60
liters/sec.
Solution:
At Section 1:
D1 = 600 mm = 0.6 m
∴ Area, A1 = π x (0.6)2 /4= 0.283 m2
Pressure, p1 = 350 kN/m2
At Section 2:
D2 = 400 mm = 0.4 m
∴ Area, A2 =π.(0.4)2 = 0.1257 m2
Pressure, p2 = 100 kN/m2
Rate of flow, Q = 60 litres/sec = 60/1000= 0.06 m3/sec.

Applying Bernoulli’s equation at sections 1 and 2, we get:

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 CHANGES OF PRESSURE IN A TAPERING PIPE:
Change of velocity will be accompanied by a change in the kinetic energy per unit weight
and, consequently, by a change in pressure, modified by any change of elevation or energy
loss, which can be determined by the use of Bernoulli’s equation.

Example 4.5:
A pipe inclined at 45° to the horizontal converges over a length l= 2 m
from a diameter d1 = 200 mm to a
diameter d2 =100 mm at the upper
end. Oil of relative density 0.9 flows
through the pipe at a mean velocity
V1 at the lower end of 2 m/s.

Determine:
a. The pressure difference across
the 2 m length ignoring any loss
of energy,
b. The difference in level that
would be shown on a mercury
manometer connected across
this length.
The relative density of mercury is 13.6 and the leads to the
manometer are filled with the oil.
Solution: For continuity of flow, assuming the density of the oil to be
constant, v1 A1 = v2 A2 ,

Applying Bernoulli’s equation to the lower and upper sections, assuming

no energy losses,

(1)

and, since the relative density of the oil is 0.9, if ρH2O = density of water,
then ρoil = 0.9ρH2O = 0.9 × 1000 = 900 kg/m3. Substituting in Bernoulli’s equation,
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For the manometer, the pressure in each limb will be the same at level XX;
therefore,

PRINCIPLE OF THE VENTURI METER

As shown by equation (I) in Example 4.5, the pressure difference between any
two points on a tapering pipe (p1-p2) through which a fluid is flowing depends
on the difference of level z2 - z1, the velocities v2 and v1, and, therefore, on the
volume rate of flow Q through the
pipe.
Hence, the pressure difference can be
used to determine the volume rate of
flow for any particular configuration.
The venturi meter uses this effect for
the measurement of flow in pipelines.
As shown, it consists of a short
converging conical tube leading to a
cylindrical portion, called the throat,
of smaller diameter than that of the

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pipeline, which is followed by a diverging section in which the diameter
increases again to that of the main pipeline.
The pressure difference from which the volume rate of flow can be
determined is measured between the entry section 1 and the throat section 2,
often by means of a U-tube manometer (as shown). The axis of the meter
may be inclined at any angle. Assuming that there is no loss of energy, and
applying Bernoulli’s equation to sections 1 and 2,

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Example 4.6:

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BERNOULLI’S EQUATION FOR REAL FLUID;
Bernoulli’s equation earlier derived was based on the assumption that fluid
is non-viscous and therefore frictionless.
Practically, all fluids are real (and not ideal) and therefore are viscous as
such there are always some losses in fluid flows. These losses have,
therefore, to be taken into consideration in the application of Bernoulli’s
equation which gets modified (between sections 1 and 2) for real fluids as
follows:

Where: hL = Head Loss between section 1 and 2.

ENERGY ANALYSIS OF STEADY FLOWS:
Thus, the energy equation is expressed in its most common form in terms
of heads as:

Where:
 hpump,u : is the useful head delivered to the fluid by the pump (head
added to the fluid due to the presence of a pump, fan, compressor, etc.)
 hturbin,e : is the extracted head removed from the fluid by the turbine .
 hL: is the irreversible head loss between 1 and 2 due to all components
of the piping system other than the pump or turbine.

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 Note that the head loss hL
represents the frictional
losses associated with fluid
flow in piping, and it does
not include the losses that
occur within the pump or
turbine due to the
inefficiencies of these
devices these losses are taken
into account by hpump and
hturbine.

Note: The pump head is zero

if the piping system does
not involve a pump, a
fan, or a compressor,
and the turbine head is zero if the system does not involve a turbine.

Efficiencies of Mechanical and Electrical Devices:

 The transfer of mechanical energy is usually accomplished by a rotating
shaft, and thus mechanical work is often referred to as shaft work.
 A pump or a fan receives shaft work (usually from an electric motor) and
transfers it to the fluid as mechanical energy (less frictional losses).
 A turbine, on the other hand, converts the mechanical energy of a fluid to
shaft work.
 In the absence of any irreversibilities such as friction, mechanical energy
can be converted entirely from one mechanical form to another, and the
mechanical efficiency of a device or process can be defined as:

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 In fluid systems, we are usually interested in increasing the pressure,
velocity, and/or elevation of a fluid. This is done by supplying mechanical
energy to the fluid by a pump, a fan, or a compressor (we will refer to all
of them as pumps).
Or we are interested in the reverse process of extracting mechanical energy
from a fluid by a turbine and producing mechanical power in the form of a
rotating shaft that can drive a generator or any other rotary device.
The degree of perfection of the conversion process between the
mechanical work supplied or extracted and the mechanical energy of the
fluid is expressed by the pump efficiency and turbine efficiency,

Electrical energy is commonly converted to rotating mechanical energy

by electric motors to drive fans, compressors, robot arms, car starters, and
so forth. The effectiveness of this conversion process is characterized by the
motor efficiency ηmotor, which is the ratio of the mechanical energy output
of the motor to the electrical energy input. The full-load motor efficiencies
range from about 35 percent for small motors to over 97 percent for large
high-efficiency motors. The difference between the electrical energy
consumed and the mechanical energy delivered is dissipated as waste heat.
The mechanical efficiency should not be confused with the motor
efficiency and the generator efficiency, which are defined as:
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 A pump is usually packaged together with its motor, and a turbine with its
generator. Therefore, we are usually interested in the combined or overall
efficiency of pump–motor and turbine–generator combinations,
which are defined as:

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 Example 4.7:

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 EXAMPLE 4.8 :

A hydroelectric power plant takes in 30 m3/s of water through its turbine and
discharges it to the atmosphere at V2 = 2 m/s. The head loss in the turbine
and penstock system is hL = 20 m.
Estimate the power in MW extracted by the
turbine if the turbine-generator efficiency is
85%.
Solution:

Take: section 1 at the reservoir surface,

where V1 ≈ 0, p1 = patm, and z1 =100 m.
Section 2 is at the turbine outlet.
The general energy equation is given by:

P1= P2 = atm. Pressure,

v1 ≈ 0 …. Large reservoirs. , hpump = 0 … there is no pump
(2)2
0 + 0 + 100 + 0 = 0 + + 0 + ℎ𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑏𝑖𝑛 + 20
2𝑥9.81

ht = hturbine = 100 - 20 - 0.2 ≈ 79.8 m

The turbine extracts about 79.8 percent of the 100-m head available from the
dam. The total power extracted may be evaluated from the water mass flow:
Ẇt = ρ g ht Q = 1000x9.81x79.8x30 ≈ 23.5x106 Watts= 23.5MW
Ẇe = ηoverall x Ẇt = 0.85x23.5 ≈ 20 MW.

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