UNIT IV

SENSING TECHNIQUES

1. CLASSIFICATION OF REMOTE SENSORS:

• A Sensor is a device that produces an output signal for the purpose of sensing a physical
phenomenon.
• Sensors are used in everyday different objects, such as touch-sensitive elevator buttons and
lamps.
1.1 Types of Sensors:
The two broadest classes of sensors are:
❖ Active Sensor
❖ Passive Sensor

➢ Active Sensor:
• Active Sensor is a source of light or illumination and its sensor measures reflected energy.
• The energy is generated and sent from the Remote Sensing platform towards the targets.
• Radar is an example of Active Sensor.
• Active Remote Sensing Instruments are,
✓ Radar
✓ Lidar
✓ Sounder
✓ Laser altimeter
✓ Ranging instruments
✓ Scatterometer

➢ Passive Sensor:
• Passive Sensor is a source of energy is that naturally available of the Sun.
• Most of the Remote Sensing systems work in passive mode, using solar energy as the source
of EMR.
• The Sun, MSS, is an example of Passive Sensor.
• Passive Remote Sensing Instruments are,
✓ Spectrometer
✓ Radiometer
✓ Spectroradiometer
✓ Hyperspectral radiometer
✓ Imaging radiometer
✓ Accelerometer
Sensors also can be two different forms:
 ❖ Imaging
❖ Non-imaging
➢ Imaging Sensor:
• It is the electrons released are used to excite or ionize a substance, like silver in film or to
drive an image producing device like a TV or computer monitor or a cathode ray tube or
oscilloscope or a battery of electronic detectors.

➢ Non-imaging Sensor:
• It is the measuring of the radiation received from all points in the sensed target, integrates
this, and reports the result as an electrical signal strength or some other quantitative attribute,
such as radiance.
1.2 Sensor Resolution:
• Resolution is commonly used to describe the number of pixels display on a display device, or
area on the ground that a pixel represents in an image file.
• The resolution of a sensor with a digital output is usually the numerical resolution of the
digital output. A sensor’s accuracy may be considerably worse than its resolution. Most
sensors are influenced by the temperature of their environment.
• 4 distinct types of the Resolution must be considered:
✓ Spectral—specific wavelength intervals that a sensor can record.
✓ Spatial—area on the ground represented by each pixel.
✓ Radiometric—number of possible data file values in each band.
✓ Temporal—how often a sensor obtains imagery of a particular area.

2. RESOLUTION CONCEPT:
• Resolution is a broad term commonly used in Remote Sensing.
• The Resolution is several pixels display on a display device, or area on the ground that a pixel
represents in an image file.
• 4 distinct types of resolution must be considered:

✓ Spectral—specific wavelength intervals that a sensor can record.

✓ Spatial—area on the ground represented by each pixel.
✓ Radiometric—number of possible data file values in each band.
✓ Temporal—how often a sensor obtains imagery of a particular area.

2.1 SPECTRAL RESOLUTION IN REMOTE SENSING:

• Spectral resolution refers to the specific wavelength intervals in the Electromagnetic

spectrum that a sensor can record.
• For example, band 1 of the Landsat TM sensor records energy between 0.45 and 0.52 μm in
the visible part of the spectrum.
 • Wide intervals in the electromagnetic spectrum are referred to as coarse spectral resolution,
and narrow intervals are referred to as fine spectral resolution.
• For example, the SPOT panchromatic sensor is considered to have coarse spectral resolution
because it records EMR between 0.51 and 0.73 μm.
• On the other hand, band 3 of the Landsat TM sensor has a fine spectral resolution because it
records EMR between 0.63 and 0.69 μm.
• There are three types of Imageries in Remote Sensing based on Spectral Resolution i.e. Mono-
spectral, Multi-spectral and Hyper-spectral imageries.

2.2 SPATIAL RESOLUTION IN REMOTE SENSING:

• Spatial resolution is a measure of the smallest object that can be resolved by the sensor, or the
area on the ground represented by each pixel.
• The finer the resolution, the lower the number.
• For instance, a spatial resolution of 79 meters is coarser than a spatial resolution of 10 meters.
• Spatial resolution refers to the clarity of features on the earth surface. Therefore, it is the ability
of the sensor to differentiate between various objects and features of the earth surface.
• The clarity of features on earth’s surface depends on the size of the pixel and the number of
pixels in a given imagery.
• It is noted that one pixel can be attributed to only one colour. Therefore, if one pixel in an
imagery represents a large area of the land, then the pixel will hide smaller details of that large
area.

➢ Seale
• Large-scale in remote sensing refers to imagery in which each pixel represents a small area
on the ground, such as SPOT data, with a spatial resolution of 10m or 20 m.
• Small scale refers to imagery in which each pixel represents a large area on the ground, such
as Advanced Very High Resolution Radiometer (AVHRR) data, with a spatial resolution of
1.1 km.

➢ IFOV
• Spatial resolution is also described as the Instantaneous Field of View (IFOV) of the sensor,
although the IFOV is not always the same as they are represented by each pixel.
• The IFOV is a measure of the area viewed by a single detector in each instant in time.

2.3 RADIOMETRIC RESOLUTION IN REMOTE SENSING:

• Radiometric resolution refers to the ability of a sensor to capture the minute differences in
the radiated energy from the earth surface.
• Radiometric resolution also refers to the dynamic range, or number of possible data file values
in each band. This is referred to by the number of bits into which the recorded energy is
divided.
• In 8-bit data, the data file values range from 0 to 255 for each pixel, but in 7-bit data, the data
file values for each pixel range from 0 to 128.
 • The sensor measures the EMR in its range.
• The total intensity of the energy from 0 to the maximum amount of the sensor measures is
broken down into 256 brightness values for 8-bit data, and 128 brightness values for 7-bit
data.
2.4 TEMPORAL RESOLUTION IN REMOTE SENSING:

• Temporal resolution refers to the amount of information available over a given time period.
• For example, the Landsat satellite can view the same area of the globe once every 16 days.
• On the other hand, SPOT can revisit the same area every three days.
• It is the revisit time of a satellite over a certain area. In other words, temporal resolution means
the frequency of capturing images of a certain area by the satellite in a given time period.
• The availability of information over a given time period depends on the frequency of rotation
of a satellite around earth.
• If a satellite comes over a specific area 2 times a day, its temporal resolution will be 12 hours.
Similarly, if the satellite revisits a specific area every hour, its temporal resolution will be 1
hour.
• Temporal resolution is important to understand the direction and amount of change of
phenomena in the study area.
• Land-use analysis needs monthly or yearly temporal resolution because land use changes
slowly whereas disaster management needs hourly temporal resolution because disasters
occur very fast and need regular monitoring.

3. SCANNERS:
• In remote sensing, a scanner is an instrument or device that captures information from the
Earth's surface or the atmosphere without direct physical contact.
• These scanners are typically mounted on various platforms, including satellites, aircraft, or
ground-based systems.
• The primary function of a scanner is to collect data about the environment, which can then be
used to create images, maps, and other valuable information.
• Remote sensing scanners are equipped with sensors that detect electromagnetic radiation, and
they come in various types depending on the specific needs of the application.
• Here are some common types of scanners in remote sensing:

➢ Optical Scanners
• Optical scanners capture data in the form of visible and near-infrared light.
• These scanners are commonly used for tasks such as land cover classification, vegetation
monitoring, and urban mapping.
• Charge-Coupled Device (CCD) cameras are an example of optical scanners.

➢ Infrared Scanners
• Infrared scanners focus on capturing data in the infrared portion of the electromagnetic
spectrum.
 • These scanners are valuable for applications such as thermal mapping, monitoring
vegetation health, and detecting heat anomalies.

➢ Microwave Scanners
• Microwave scanners, particularly Synthetic Aperture Radar (SAR), use microwave
frequencies to capture data.
• SAR is useful for all-weather imaging and is often employed in applications like terrain
mapping, agriculture monitoring, and disaster assessment.

➢ Lidar scanners
• Lidar scanners use laser beams to measure distances between the sensor and the Earth's
surface.
• Lidar technology is frequently used for creating high-resolution topographic maps,
assessing vegetation structure, and studying terrain features.

➢ Hyperspectral Scanners
• Hyperspectral scanners capture data across numerous narrow and contiguous spectral
bands.
• These scanners are beneficial for applications requiring detailed information about the
composition of materials, such as mineral identification, environmental monitoring, and
precision agriculture.

➢ Multispectral Scanners
• Multispectral scanners capture data in a few broad spectral bands.
• These scanners are commonly used for tasks like land cover mapping, crop monitoring,
and environmental studies.

➢ Thermal Infrared Scanners

• Thermal infrared scanners focus on detecting heat radiation emitted by the Earth's surface.
• They are often used for applications such as monitoring temperature variations, studying
thermal properties of surfaces, and detecting heat anomalies.

• The choice of scanner depends on the specific objectives of the remote sensing mission,
considering factors such as spatial resolution, spectral characteristics, and the type of information
required.

3.1 ALONG AND ACROSS TRACK SCANNER:

• Scanning systems can be used on both aircraft and satellite platforms and have essentially the
same operating principles.
• A scanning system used to collect data over a variety of different wavelength ranges is called
a multispectral scanner (MSS) and is the most commonly used scanning system.
 • There are two main modes or methods of scanning employed to acquire multispectral image
data - across-track scanning, and along-track scanning.
• The terms "along-track scanner" and "across-track scanner" refer to the scanning geometry or
movement of a sensor on a remote sensing platform.
• These terms are commonly used in the context of satellite or airborne imaging systems.

➢ Along Track Scanner:

✓ An along-track scanner is a type of remote sensing instrument where the sensor collects data
along the direction of the platform's movement or orbit.
✓ In the case of a satellite, this would be along the orbital path.
✓ The sensor records a continuous strip of data or imagery as the platform moves forward.
✓ Satellite sensors with along-track scanning capabilities typically have a field of view that is
oriented in the direction of the satellite's motion.
✓ This type of scanning is suitable for wide-area coverage.
✓ Examples of along-track scanners include pushbroom sensors, which acquire continuous
strips of imagery along the direction of the satellite's motion.
✓ Along-track scanners also use the forward motion of the platform to record successive scan
lines and build up a two-dimensional image, perpendicular to the flight direction.
✓ However, instead of a scanning mirror, they use a linear array of detectors located at the focal
plane of the image formed by lens systems, which are "pushed" along in the flight track
direction.
✓ Each individual detector measures the energy for a single ground resolution cell and thus the
size and IFOV of the detectors determines the spatial resolution of the system.
✓ A separate linear array is required to measure each spectral band or channel.
✓ For each scan line, the energy detected by each detector of each linear array is sampled
electronically and digitally recorded.
✓ Along-track scanners with linear arrays have several advantages over across-track mirror
scanners.
✓ The array of detectors combined with the pushbroom motion allows each detector to "see"
and measure the energy from each ground resolution cell for a longer period of time (dwell
time).
✓ This allows more energy to be detected and improves the radiometric resolution.
✓ Thus, finer spatial and spectral resolution can be achieved without impacting radiometric
resolution.

➢ Across Track Scanner:

✓ Across-track scanners scan the Earth in a series of lines.

✓ The lines are oriented perpendicular to the direction of motion of the sensor platform.
✓ Each line is scanned from one side of the sensor to the other, using a rotating mirror.
✓ The sensor scans side to side, usually in a fan-like pattern, acquiring data across the swath
width.
 ✓ Unlike along-track scanners, across-track scanners capture data across the direction of motion,
allowing for the collection of a wider swath in a single pass.
✓ Whiskbroom scanners are an example of across-track scanners.
✓ As the platform moves forward over the Earth, successive scans build up a two-dimensional
image of the Earth´s surface.
✓ The incoming reflected or emitted radiation is separated into several spectral components that
are detected independently.
✓ A bank of internal detectors detects and measures the energy for each spectral band and then,
as an electrical signal, they are converted to digital data and recorded for subsequent computer
processing.
✓ The angular field of view measured in degrees is used to record a scan line and determines the
width of the imaged swath.
✓ Airborne scanners typically sweep large angles (between 90º and 120º), while satellites,
because of their higher altitude need only to sweep fairly small angles (10- 20º) to cover a
broad region.
✓ Because the distance from the sensor to the target increases towards the edges of the swath,
geometric distortions are introduced to the images.

• The choice between along-track and across-track scanning depends on the specific
requirements of the remote sensing mission.
• Along-track scanning is more suitable for applications requiring continuous coverage along a
path, while across-track scanning is advantageous for acquiring wider swaths of data in a
single pass.
• Both scanning geometries have their advantages and trade-offs, and the selection depends on
factors such as spatial resolution, coverage area, and mission objectives.

4. OPTICAL INFRARED SENSORS:

• Optical-infrared sensors are devices that detect and measure electromagnetic radiation in the
optical and infrared (IR) regions of the electromagnetic spectrum.
• These sensors play a crucial role in various applications, including imaging, remote sensing,
surveillance, astronomy, and industrial processes.

4.1 Overview of Optical-infrared Sensors:

➢ Optical-infrared sensors work by:

• Applying a voltage to a pair of IR light-emitting diodes (LEDs).

• Emitting infrared light.
• Propagating the light through the air.
• Reflecting the light towards the sensor when it hits an object.
• Detecting changes in IR radiation.
 ➢ Optical Spectrum:
• Visible Light (Optical): This part of the spectrum includes wavelengths that are visible to the
human eye (approximately 400 to 700 nanometres). Cameras, imaging devices, and other
optical sensors operate in this range.
• Ultraviolet (UV): Some optical sensors can also detect ultraviolet light, which has shorter
wavelengths than visible light.

➢ Infrared Spectrum:
• Near - Infrared (NIR): Wavelengths just beyond the visible spectrum, roughly 700 to 2500
nanometres. NIR is used in applications such as night vision and vegetation monitoring.
• Mid – Infrared (MIR): Wavelengths between approximately 2,500 and 25,000 nanometres.
MIR is often utilized in chemical analysis and environmental monitoring.
• Far – Infrared (FIR): Wavelengths beyond 25,000 nanometres, used in applications like
thermal imaging.

4.2 Types of Optical Infrared Sensors

• Photodetectors: Convert light signals into electrical signals. Examples include photodiodes,
phototransistors, and photomultiplier tubes.
• Cameras: Capture visual information in the optical spectrum.
• Thermal Infrared Sensors: Detect infrared radiation emitted by objects due to their
temperature. Infrared thermometers and thermal imaging cameras are common examples.
• Spectrometers: Analyse the composition of materials based on their spectral characteristics
in the optical or infrared range.
• LIDAR (Light Detection and Ranging): Uses laser light to measure distances and create
detailed, three-dimensional maps of the surroundings.
• Infrared Gas Sensors Detect the presence of specific gases based on their absorption of
infrared light.

4.3 Applications:
• Security and Surveillance: Infrared cameras are used for night vision and surveillance
applications.
• Astronomy: Telescopes equipped with infrared sensors allow astronomers to study celestial
objects that emit infrared radiation.
• Medical Imaging: Infrared sensors are used in devices like pulse oximeters and thermal
imaging cameras for medical diagnostics.
• Environmental Monitoring: Remote sensing applications, such as monitoring vegetation
health or assessing pollution levels.
• Automotive Safety: Infrared sensors are used in collision avoidance systems and night vision
systems in vehicles.
4.4 Challenges:
• Atmospheric Absorption: Certain wavelengths in the infrared spectrum can be absorbed by
atmospheric gases, impacting sensor performance.
• Temperature Sensitivity: Some optical-infrared sensors are sensitive to temperature changes,
which can affect their accuracy.
• Cost: Advanced infrared sensors can be expensive, limiting their widespread adoption in
certain applications.

5. THERMAL SENSORS:

• Thermal sensors, also known as infrared or thermal imaging sensors, are devices designed to
detect and measure infrared radiation emitted by objects.
• These sensors operate in the thermal infrared part of the electromagnetic spectrum, typically
beyond the range of visible light. Here are some key aspects of thermal sensors:

5.1 Principle of Operation:

• Infrared Radiation: All objects with a temperature above absolute zero emit infrared
radiation. Thermal sensors detect this radiation, which is proportional to the temperature of
the object.
• Thermography: The process of creating an image based on the temperature variations of the
objects in the scene.

5.2 Thermal Infrared Spectrum:

• Wavelength Range: Thermal sensors typically operate in the mid-infrared (MIR) and far-
infrared (FIR) regions of the electromagnetic spectrum. The MIR range is approximately 3
to 5 micrometers, while the FIR range is around 8 to 14 micrometers.
• Temperature Detection: Objects emit thermal radiation based on their temperature, and
thermal sensors can detect and quantify this emission.

5.3 Types of Thermal Sensors:

• Thermal Cameras: These devices capture infrared radiation and create visual representations
of temperature variations. They are widely used for applications like security, search and
rescue, and industrial inspections.
• Infrared Thermometers: Handheld or fixed devices that measure the temperature of a
specific spot or surface without the need for contact. They are commonly used in medical,
industrial, and HVAC applications.
• Infrared Arrays: Arrays of sensors used in thermal cameras to capture a two-dimensional
image of a scene. Microbolometer and thermopile arrays are common technologies.
5.4 Applications:

• Security and Surveillance: Thermal cameras are effective for nighttime surveillance and can
detect heat signatures, making them useful for security applications.
• Search and Rescue: Thermal imaging helps locate people or animals in low-visibility
conditions, such as darkness, smoke, or dense vegetation.
• Industrial Inspections: Detecting overheating components, monitoring equipment
performance, and identifying insulation issues in buildings.
• Medical Imaging: Infrared thermometers and thermal cameras are used for non-contact
temperature measurements in medical applications.
• Fire Fighting: Thermal cameras can help firefighters locate hotspots and people in smoke-
filled environments.

5.5 Advantages:

• No Light Requirement: Thermal sensors can operate in complete darkness because they
detect heat rather than relying on visible light.
• Wide Range of Temperatures: Thermal sensors can measure temperatures across a broad
range, from extremely cold to very hot.
• Non – Contact Operation: Infrared thermometers and thermal cameras can measure
temperatures without direct contact with the object, making them suitable for remote or
hazardous environments.

5.6 Challenges:

• Cost: High-quality thermal imaging sensors can be relatively expensive.

• Resolution: Achieving high spatial resolution in thermal imaging can be challenging,
particularly in cost-effective devices.
• Atmospheric Interference: Some atmospheric conditions, such as humidity and fog, can
affect the performance of thermal sensors.

6. MICROWAVE SENSORS:

• Microwave sensors penetrate the atmosphere (especially clouds) more effectively than visible
or infrared sensors.
• Microwave sensors are important tools in remote sensing, offering unique capabilities for
observing and monitoring the Earth's surface.
• Unlike optical sensors that rely on visible or infrared light, microwave sensors operate in the
microwave portion of the electromagnetic spectrum.
• Here are key aspects of microwave sensors in remote sensing:
6.1 Microwave Spectrum:
• Frequency Range: Microwave sensors operate in the microwave frequency range, typically
from 1 millimetre to 1 meter wavelength.
• This range is further divided into different bands, such as X-band, C-band, Ku-band, and L-
band, each offering specific advantages for different applications.
6.2 Types Microwave Sensors:
• Microwave sensors in remote sensing can be grouped into two major groups: passive and
active:
➢ Active Sensors:
✓ 5Active sensors, such as RADAR systems, send out pulses and record the echoes
scattered back by the objects to the sensor.
✓ Synthetic Aperture Radar (SAR): It is an example of Active microwave sensor. SAR is
a radar imaging technology that uses microwave signals to generate high-resolution images
of the Earth's surface. It is particularly useful for applications like terrain mapping,
monitoring changes in land cover, and disaster response.
➢ Passive Sensors:
✓ Passive sensors, such as radiometers, collect the radiation that is naturally emitted by the
observed surface.
✓ Passive Microwave Sensor: These sensors measure naturally emitted microwave radiation
from the Earth's surface. They are commonly used for studying soil moisture, sea surface
temperature, and precipitation.
➢ Examples of active microwave sensors include:
✓ Synthetic aperture radar (SAR)
✓ Microwave scatterometers
✓ Radar altimeters
➢ Examples of passive microwave sensors include:
✓ Multi frequency scanning/imaging radiometers
✓ Atmospheric sounder

6.3 Applications of Microwave Sensors:

• Earth Observation and Mapping: SAR sensors are widely used for mapping the Earth's
surface, providing information on topography, land cover, and changes over time. They are
especially valuable in regions with frequent cloud cover, as microwaves can penetrate clouds.
• Agriculture: Microwave sensors are employed to monitor soil moisture content, which is
crucial for precision agriculture and water resource management. They can also assess crop
health and estimate biomass.
• Glacier Monitoring: Microwaves can penetrate snow and ice, making them useful for
monitoring glaciers and ice sheets. SAR sensors can track changes in ice cover and detect ice
movement.
• Oceanography: Microwave sensors are used to study ocean surface winds, sea surface
temperature, and wave heights. They can penetrate clouds and provide continuous
observations in maritime regions.
 • Deforestation and Land Cover Change: Microwave sensors can detect changes in land
cover, including deforestation, even in cloudy conditions. This makes them valuable for
monitoring large-scale environmental changes.

6.4 Advantages in Remote Sensing:

• All Weather Capability: Microwaves can penetrate clouds, rain, and fog, allowing for
observations in adverse weather conditions. This is particularly advantageous in tropical
regions with persistent cloud cover.
• Day and Night Observations: Microwave sensors can operate day and night, providing
continuous monitoring capabilities.
6.5 Challenges:
• Resolution: Achieving high spatial resolution with microwave sensors can be challenging
compared to optical sensors.
• Complex Data Processing: The interpretation of microwave data often requires sophisticated
processing techniques due to the interaction of microwaves with surface features and the
atmosphere.

7. CALIBRATION OF SENSORS:

• Calibration is an adjustment or set of adjustments performed on a sensor or instrument to make

it function as accurately, or error free, as possible.
• Calibration of sensors is a critical process to ensure that they provide accurate and reliable
measurements.
• Calibration involves adjusting the sensor's output to match the known or reference values of
the quantity being measured.
• Some types of calibration include:
➢ Offset
✓ An offset means that the sensor output is higher or lower than the ideal output. Offsets
are easy to correct with a single-point calibration.
➢ Sensitivity or Slope
✓ A difference in slope means that the sensor output changes at a different rate than the
ideal.

• The goal of calibration is to improve a sensor's performance by removing structural errors

from its measurements.
• Structural errors are differences between a sensor's expected output and its measured
output. These errors can be caused by various reasons, including:

➢ Improper zero-reference
➢ Shifts in sensor range.
➢ Mechanical damage
7.1 General Steps Involved in Sensor Calibration:
➢ Define Calibration Objectives: Clearly define the calibration objectives, including the range
of measurements, accuracy requirements, and any specific standards or regulations that must
be met.

➢ Select Calibration Equipment: Choose appropriate calibration equipment, including

reference standards and measurement devices. The accuracy of the calibration equipment
should be higher than the accuracy required for the sensor being calibrated.

➢ Pre-Calibration Inspection: Inspect the sensor for any physical damage or issues that may
affect its performance. Ensure that the sensor is clean and in good condition.

➢ Zero Calibration (Baseline Adjustment): For many sensors, especially those measuring
continuous values, a zero calibration is performed. This involves adjusting the sensor to read
zero when there is no input or when the input is known to be zero.

➢ Span Calibration: Adjust the sensor to read correctly at the upper end of its measurement
range. This step ensures that the sensor provides accurate readings across the entire range of
measurements.

➢ Perform Calibration Measurements: Use the calibration equipment to make measurements

at various points within the sensor's operating range. Compare the sensor's readings to the
known values and make adjustments as necessary.

➢ Record Calibration Data: Record all calibration data, including the sensor's readings and the
corresponding reference values. This documentation is crucial for traceability and quality
control purposes.

➢ Calculate Calibration Uncertainty: Determine the uncertainty associated with the

calibration process. This includes considering uncertainties in both the reference standards
and the sensor being calibrated.

➢ Adjustments and Iterations: If the sensor's readings do not match the reference values within
the acceptable tolerance, make additional adjustments and repeat the calibration process until
satisfactory results are achieved.

➢ Final Verification: Verify the sensor's performance after calibration by comparing its
readings to reference values. Ensure that the sensor meets the required accuracy specifications.

➢ Issue Calibration Certificate: Provide a calibration certificate that includes details of the
calibration process, results, uncertainties, and any adjustments made. This certificate is often
required for compliance with quality standards.
 ➢ Regular Maintenance and Recalibration: Schedule regular maintenance and recalibration
intervals based on the sensor's usage and environmental conditions. Regular recalibration
ensures continued accuracy over time.

8. HIGH RESOLUTION SENSORS:

• A high-resolution sensor can detect small changes in a measurement, while a low-resolution

sensor may not be able to detect small changes.
• For example, a laser light grid with a low resolution will only detect or report displacements
in whole centimetres.
• High-resolution sensors refer to sensors that can capture and provide data with a high level of
detail and precision.
• These sensors are designed to record information with greater accuracy, finer granularity, and
increased sensitivity compared to standard sensors.
• High resolution is particularly valuable in various fields and applications where detailed data
is crucial.
8.1 Types of High-Resolution Sensors and Their Applications:
➢ High Resolution Imaging Sensors:
✓ Applications: In the field of photography, satellite imaging, aerial surveys, and medical
imaging, high-resolution cameras and sensors capture detailed visual information. This is
crucial for applications such as mapping, surveillance, and diagnostics.

➢ High Resolution Remote Sensing Sensors:

✓ Applications: Earth observation satellites equipped with high-resolution sensors can
provide detailed information about land use, environmental changes, and natural disasters.
This is valuable for urban planning, agriculture, forestry, and disaster response.

➢ High Resolution Lidar Sensors:

✓ Applications: Lidar (Light Detection and Ranging) sensors with high resolution are used
in autonomous vehicles, robotics, and mapping applications. They provide detailed 3D
mapping and precise distance measurements, enabling accurate navigation and object
detection.

➢ High Resolution Radar Sensors:

✓ Applications: Radar sensors with high resolution are employed in a variety of fields,
including aviation, weather monitoring, and defence. They can detect small objects,
provide detailed weather information, and offer improved target discrimination.

➢ High Resolution Spectroscopy Sensors:

✓ Applications: Spectroscopy sensors with high resolution are used in scientific research,
environmental monitoring, and industrial processes. They can analyse the composition of
materials with greater precision, leading to more accurate results.
 ➢ High Resolution Temperature Sensors:
✓ Applications: In scientific research, industrial processes, and climate monitoring, high-
resolution temperature sensors provide precise temperature measurements. This is crucial
for maintaining quality control, optimizing processes, and understanding environmental
changes.

➢ High Resolution Pressure Sensors:

✓ Applications: These sensors find use in various industries, including aerospace,
automotive, and medical fields. High-resolution pressure sensors can provide accurate
pressure measurements, enabling better control and monitoring of systems.

➢ High Resolution Positioning Sensors:

✓ Applications: In navigation systems, robotics, and virtual/augmented reality, high-
resolution positioning sensors (such as high-precision GPS receivers) are essential for
accurate location tracking and movement.

8.2 Benefits of High-Resolution Sensors:

• Precision: High-resolution sensors provide detailed and accurate data, allowing for precise
analysis and decision-making.
• Improved Detection: Small and subtle changes or objects can be detected and analyzed with
greater sensitivity.
• Enhanced Mapping: High-resolution imaging sensors contribute to detailed mapping,
whether in geographic mapping or mapping the human genome.
• Scientific Research: In fields such as astronomy, physics, and biology, high-resolution
sensors enable researchers to observe and analyse phenomena at a finer scale.
8.3 Challenges:

• Increased data volume

• The need of sophisticated processing and storage capabilities.
• The cost of high-resolution sensors can be higher compared to lower-resolution alternatives.

9. LIDAR
• LIDAR, which stands for Light Detection and Ranging, is a remote sensing technology that
uses laser light to measure distances and generate precise, three-dimensional information
about the shape and characteristics of objects in its range.
• LIDAR systems work by sending laser pulses towards a target and measuring the time it takes
for the light to bounce back.
• This information, combined with the known speed of light, allows the system to calculate the
distance to the target with high accuracy.
• It's a distance technology that samples with an incredible amount of accuracy and points.
• Lidar uses ultraviolet, visible, or near infrared light to image objects.
 • It can target a wide range of materials, including non-metallic objects, rocks, rain, chemical
compounds etc.
• A lidar determines the distance of an object or a surface with the formula.
c∗t
d=
2
• where
✓ c is the speed of light,
✓ d is the distance between the detector and the object or surface being detected,
✓ t is the time spent for the laser light to travel to the object or surface being detected, then
travel back to the detector.

• The two kinds of lidar detection schemes are "incoherent" or direct energy detection
and coherent detection.
• Some key points about LIDAR:

9.1 Components:
• A typical LIDAR system consists of a laser, a scanner, and a specialized GPS receiver.
• Some systems also include an inertial measurement unit (IMU) to account for the platform's
motion.
9.2 Applications:
• Surveying and Mapping: LIDAR is widely used in topographic mapping, urban planning,
and environmental monitoring.
• Autonomous Vehicles: LIDAR is a crucial component in many self-driving car systems,
helping vehicles sense and navigate their surroundings.
• Forestry and Agriculture: LIDAR is used to assess forest structure, estimate biomass, and
monitor crop health.
• Meteorology: LIDAR can be used to measure atmospheric conditions, such as cloud height
and aerosol concentration.
9.3 Types of LIDAR:
• Airborne LIDAR: Mounted on aircraft, it is used for large-scale mapping and surveying.
• Terrestrial LIDAR: Stationary systems used for ground-based applications, like building and
infrastructure modelling.
• Mobile LIDAR: Mounted on vehicles, it's used for mapping roadways and urban
environments.
9.4 Advantages:
• High Precision: LIDAR provides accurate and detailed 3D data.
• Versatility: It can be used in various industries for different applications.
• Speed: LIDAR systems can quickly generate large amounts of data.
9.5 Challenges:
• Cost: High-quality LIDAR systems can be expensive.
• Weather Dependence: Adverse weather conditions, such as heavy rain or fog, can affect
LIDAR performance.
9.6 Future Developments:
• Researchers and engineers are working on improving the size, cost, and performance of
LIDAR systems, making them more accessible for widespread use, especially in applications
like consumer electronics and robotics.

10. UAV

• Unmanned Aerial Vehicles (UAVs), commonly known as drones, have become increasingly
popular in the field of remote sensing due to their ability to collect high-resolution, real-time
data in a cost-effective and flexible manner.
• A UAV is an aircraft that does not carry a human operator. UAVs can be fully or partially
autonomous but are more often controlled remotely by a human pilot.

➢ UAVs can be:

✓ Powered
✓ Use aerodynamic forces to provide vehicle lift.
✓ Fly autonomously or be piloted remotely.
✓ Expendable or recoverable.
✓ Carry a lethal or nonlethal payload.
✓ Automated "drones" or remotely piloted vehicles (RPVs).
✓ Military aircraft that is guided autonomously, by remote control, or both.

• UAVs can fly for long periods of time at a controlled level of speed and height. They have a
role in many aspects of aviation, including warfare and surveillance.
 • Some key points regarding UAVs in remote sensing:

➢ High Spatial Resolution:

✓ UAVs equipped with remote sensing instruments, such as cameras or multispectral sensors,
can capture high-resolution imagery.
✓ This capability is especially useful for applications like agriculture, forestry, and
environmental monitoring, where detailed spatial information is crucial.

➢ Flexibility and Accessibility:

✓ UAVs provide researchers and practitioners with the flexibility to collect data on-demand.
✓ They can be deployed quickly to specific locations, making them ideal for monitoring
dynamic environmental conditions or responding to events like natural disasters.

➢ Cost - Effectiveness:
✓ Compared to traditional aerial or satellite remote sensing, UAVs can offer a more cost-
effective solution for obtaining high-resolution data over small to medium-sized areas.
✓ This is particularly advantageous for research projects with limited budgets.

➢ Real Time data Acquisition:

✓ UAVs allow for real-time or near-real-time data acquisition.
✓ This rapid data turnaround is beneficial for time-sensitive applications, such as disaster
response, crop monitoring, or environmental surveillance.

➢ Versatility of sensors:
✓ UAVs can carry a variety of sensors, including optical cameras, multispectral and
hyperspectral sensors, thermal cameras, and LIDAR.
✓ This versatility enables researchers to choose the most suitable sensor for their specific
remote sensing needs.

➢ 3D Modelling and Terrain Mapping:

✓ UAVs equipped with LIDAR or photogrammetric cameras can generate high-precision 3D
maps and terrain models.
✓ This capability is valuable for applications like topographic mapping, urban planning, and
infrastructure assessment.

➢ Environmental Monitoring:
✓ UAVs are employed for monitoring and assessing environmental changes, including
deforestation, land-use changes, and the health of ecosystems.
✓ The ability to capture frequent and high-resolution imagery facilitates detailed analysis of
these changes.
10.1 Challenges and Considerations:
• Regulations: Strict regulations govern the use of UAVs, including altitude restrictions,
airspace regulations, and privacy concerns.
• Data Processing: Managing and processing the large volumes of data collected by UAVs can
be challenging and may require specialized software and expertise.
 • Battery Life and Flight Time: Limited battery life and flight time can constrain the coverage
area during a single flight.
10.2 Future Developments:
• Ongoing advancements in UAV technology, such as improvements in endurance, autonomous
flight capabilities, and the development of more advanced sensors, are likely to further
enhance the capabilities of UAVs in remote sensing applications.

11. ORBITAL AND SENSOR CHARACTERISTICS OF LIVE INDIAN EARTH

OBSERVATION SATELLITES.
India has developed and launched a series of Earth observation satellites, primarily under the Indian
Space Research Organisation (ISRO). Some notable ones include:
➢ ISRO’s IRS Series (Indian Remote Sensing):
Orbit: Typically, these satellites are placed in sun-synchronous polar orbits, allowing for consistent
imaging of the Earth's surface.
Sensors: These satellites carry various sensors, including optical and microwave sensors, for tasks
such as agriculture monitoring, forestry mapping, urban planning, and disaster management.
➢ Cartosat Series:
Orbit: Sun-synchronous polar orbit.
Sensors: High-resolution panchromatic and multispectral cameras for cartographic applications.
➢ RISAT Series (RADAR Imaging Satellite):
Orbit: Generally, in sun-synchronous polar orbit.
Sensors: Synthetic Aperture Radar (SAR) for all-weather, day-and-night Earth observation.
➢ Resourcesat Series:
Orbit: Sun-synchronous polar orbit.
Sensors: Multispectral and hyperspectral imaging capabilities for resource monitoring.
➢ EOS Series (Earth Observation Satellite):
Orbit: Sun-synchronous polar orbit.
Sensors: Carries a variety of payloads for Earth observation, including cameras for high-resolution
imaging.
➢ NavIC (Navigation with Indian Constellation):
Orbit: Geostationary orbit.
Sensors: While primarily a navigation satellite system, it also has applications in atmospheric and
ionospheric studies.