Throughput, End to End delay, Transmission delay, Propagation delay

Throughput refers to the amount of data successfully transmitted from one point to another over a
network in a given period of time. It is typically measured in bits per second (bps) but can also be
represented in higher units like kilobits per second (Kbps), megabits per second (Mbps), or gigabits per
second (Gbps).

Definition: Throughput is the actual rate at which data is successfully transferred over a
network, taking into account the limitations of the network (e.g., bandwidth, congestion, packet
loss, latency).
 Formula:
Throughput t= Total data transmitted
Time taken

 If, for example, 500 megabits of data are transmitted in 10 seconds, the throughput would
be:

Throughput = 500 Mb =50 Mbps

10 seconds

End-to-end delay refers to the total time it takes for a data packet to travel from the source to the
destination across a network. It includes various types of delays encountered along the path from the
sender to the receiver. End-to-end delay is crucial in applications like video conferencing, VoIP, and real-
time gaming, where timely delivery of data is important.

Components of End-to-End Delay

The end-to-end delay is the sum of several individual delays:
1. Processing Delay:
The time routers and switches take to process the packet header and determine where to
forward the packet. This delay is usually very small but can add up across multiple
routers.
2. Queuing Delay:
The time a packet spends waiting in a router’s or switch's queue before being transmitted.
Queuing delay depends on network congestion, with packets waiting longer in busy
networks.
3. Transmission Delay:
The time it takes to push all the bits of a packet onto the link. This is influenced by the
packet size and the transmission rate of the link:
Formula of transmission delay:

Transmission delay= Packet size (bits) / Link bandwidth (bps)

Question to solve:
You are tasked with sending a 2 GB file from one server to another over a network connection
with a bandwidth of 50 Mbps. What is the transmission delay for sending the entire 2 GB file
over the network?
(Transmission delay is the time taken to push all the bits of the file onto the wire.)
4. Propagation Delay:
The time it takes for a signal to travel from one end of the physical medium (e.g., cable, fiber
optics) to the other. This depends on the distance and the propagation speed of the signal
Formula:

Propagation delay= Distance / Propagation speed

Example questions to solve:

1. If a signal needs to travel 2000 km over a fiber optic cable with a propagation speed of
2×108 m/s the propagation delay would be?

2. Imagine you are involved in a real-time data transmission, where you are streaming a HD
video over a long-distance network. the video is transmitted at the rate of 15mbps, and
its needs to travel over a network link that spans 1500km with a propagation speed of
2×108 m/s.
3. Imagine you are involved in a real-time data transmission scenario where a large file is
being sent over a long-distance network connection. The file s hize is 500 MB, and it
needs to travel over a network link that spans 3000 km with a propagation speed of
2.5×10⁸ m/s. The network link supports a data transmission rate of 20 Mbps.

a. How long will it take for the first bit of the file to reach the destination (propagation delay)?
b. How long will it take to transmit the entire file (transmission time)?
c. What is the total time required to transmit the entire file and for it to be received at the destination
(total delay)?

Network Layer:
Router at network layer:
A router is a network device that forwards data packets between different computer networks. It
acts as a gateway, determining the optimal path for data to travel from the source to its
destination across interconnected networks, such as the internet. Routers are essential for
directing internet traffic, ensuring that data reaches the correct destination by analyzing the IP
addresses of incoming packets.
IPV4 & IPV6:
The main differences between IPv4 (Internet Protocol version 4) and IPv6 (Internet Protocol
version 6) lie in their structure, functionality, and the number of available addresses.
1. Address Length:
 IPv4: Uses a 32-bit address format, resulting in around 4.3 billion unique addresses.
o Example: 192.168.0.1

 IPv6: Uses a 128-bit address format, allowing for 340 undecillion

o Example: 2001:0db8:85a3:0000:0000:8a2e:0370:7334

2. Address Representation:
 IPv4: Addresses are written in dotted decimal notation, divided into four octets,
separated by periods.
o Example: 172.16.254.1

 IPv6: Addresses are written in hexadecimal and divided into eight 16-bit blocks,
separated by colons.
o Example: fe80::1ff:fe23:4567:890a

3. Address Space:
 IPv4: Limited address space, leading to the need for techniques like NAT (Network
Address Translation) to share IP addresses.

Key Concepts of NAT:

1. Private vs Public IP Addresses:
o Private IP addresses are used within local networks and are not route-able on the
public internet (e.g., 192.168.1.x, 10.x.x.x).
o Public IP addresses are globally unique addresses assigned to devices that
connect to the internet.
2. Purpose of NAT:
o NAT is primarily used to enable multiple devices within a private network to
access the internet using a single public IP address.
o It helps conserve public IPv4 addresses by allowing multiple private IP’s to be
mapped to a single public IP.
  IPv6: Vast address space eliminates the need for NAT, allowing each device to have a
unique public IP address.

4. Header Complexity:
 IPv4: The header is 20-60 bytes in size and includes fields like checksum, options, and
fragmentation, which can add overhead.
 IPv6: The header is fixed at 40 bytes and simplified to improve efficiency. Many
optional features are handled in extension headers.

5. Broadcast vs Multicast:
 IPv4: Supports broadcast communication, where a message is sent to all hosts on a
network.
 IPv6: Eliminates broadcast and replaces it with more efficient multicast and anycast
communication for targeted message delivery.

6. Security:
 IPv4: Security is optional, typically implemented through external protocols like IPsec.
 IPv6: IP-sec (Internet Protocol Security) is built-in and mandatory for IPv6, enhancing
security capabilities.

7. Address Types:
 IPv4: Three address types — unicast, broadcast, and multicast.
 IPv6: Supports unicast, multicast, and anycast addresses (in anycast communication,
data is sent from one sender to the nearest or best receiver out of multiple possible
receivers (one-to-nearest communication). Broadcast is no longer used in IPv6.

8. Routing:
 IPv4: Routing tables can grow large, leading to inefficient routing.
 IPv6: More hierarchical and efficient routing, reducing the size of routing tables.

9. Compatibility:
 IPv4: The current dominant protocol, but the address space is nearly exhausted.
 IPv6: Designed as the successor to IPv4, addressing the limitations of IPv4, particularly
the shortage of IP addresses

IPv4 Header Format (Total size: 20-60 bytes)

 Version (4 bits):
 Indicates the IP version being used. For IPv4, this value is always 4.

 HL (Header Length) (4 bits):

 Specifies the length of the IP header. The minimum length is 20 bytes (5 × 4-byte words)
when there are no options. This field can accommodate headers up to 60 bytes (maximum
value: 15 words).

 Type of Service (TOS) / Differentiated Services (DSCP) (8 bits):

 Used to specify the quality of service (QoS) desired for the packet. It can include priority
or precedence information for handling traffic differently (e.g., for real-time applications
like VoIP).

 Total Length (16 bits):

 Specifies the total length of the packet (header + data). The maximum value is 65,535
bytes.

 Identification (16 bits):

 A unique value assigned to the packet to help in reassembling fragmented packets. If the
packet is fragmented, each fragment will have the same identification number.

 Flags (3 bits):
 Contains control flags for fragmentation:
o Bit 0: Reserved, always set to 0.
 o Bit 1: DF (Don't Fragment) – If set, the packet cannot be fragmented.
o Bit 2: MF (More Fragments) – If set, more fragments follow. If not set, this is
the last fragment.

 Fragment Offset (13 bits):

 Used to indicate the position of a fragment in the original packet. Helps the receiving
system reassemble the packet correctly.

Time to Live (TTL) (8 bits):

 Specifies the maximum number of hops (routers) the packet can pass through before
being discarded. The value is decremented by each router, and the packet is discarded if
the TTL reaches zero, preventing routing loops.

 Protocol (8 bits):
 Indicates the protocol used in the data portion of the IP packet. Common values include:
o 1: ICMP (Internet Control Message Protocol)

o 6: TCP (Transmission Control Protocol)

o 17: UDP (User Datagram Protocol)

  Header Checksum (16 bits):

 A checksum that is computed for error-checking the IP header only. It helps ensure the
integrity of the header during transmission.

 Source Address (32 bits):

 The IP address of the sender (originating device).

 Destination Address (32 bits):

 The IP address of the intended recipient (destination device).

 Options (variable length):

 This field is optional and allows for additional features, such as time stamping, security,
and record route. The options field is included only if the IHL is greater than 5 (20 bytes).

 Padding (variable length):

 Used to ensure that the IP header is a multiple of 32 bits (4 bytes). Padding bytes are
added if needed.

ICMP (Internet Control Message Protocol)

is a fundamental protocol in the Internet Protocol Suite, primarily used for diagnostic and error-
reporting purposes in network communications. It is most commonly used by network devices
like routers and hosts to send messages about the status of the network, including errors and
operational information.
Key Functions of ICMP:
1. Error Reporting: ICMP notifies the sender about issues encountered during the transmission of
packets.
2. Diagnostic Tools: Common tools such as ping and trace route rely on ICMP to test
connectivity and measure round-trip time.
3. Network Discovery: ICMP can be used for discovering hosts on a network and their current
status.

Types of ICMP Messages:

ICMP messages are categorized into two main types: Error Messages and Informational
Messages.
1. ICMP Error Messages
These messages indicate problems with the processing of packets. They include the following
types:
 Destination Unreachable (Type 3): Indicates that a destination is unreachable. Sub-
codes specify the reason (e.g., network unreachable, host unreachable, protocol
unreachable, port unreachable).
 Time Exceeded (Type 11): Sent when a packet's Time-to-Live (TTL) expires, indicating
that it has been in the network too long.
 Parameter Problem (Type 12): Occurs when there is a problem with the header
parameters of a received packet.
 Source Quench (Type 4): This is a request to reduce the sending rate due to congestion
(deprecated in modern networks).
 Redirect (Type 5): Informs a host to update its routing information to send packets to a
better route.

2. ICMP Informational Messages

These messages provide information about network operations. Key types include:
 Echo Request (Type 8): Used by the ping utility to test the reachability of a host. It asks
for a reply from the destination.
 Echo Reply (Type 0): The response to an Echo Request, confirming that the destination
is reachable.