Industrial Electronics N3 1
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troyramasediIndustrial Electronics N3 1
Uploaded by
troyramasediIndustrial Electronics N3
Module 1:
................................................................................................................ 9
1.1 Introduction ..................................................................................................................................... 9
1.1.1 Elements ........................................................................................................................................ 9
1.1.2 Atoms ........................................................................................................................................... 10
1.1.3 Atomic mass ............................................................................................................................... 10
1.1.4 Valency ....................................................................................................................................... 11
1.1.5 Compounds ............................................................................................................................... 11
1.2 Electrons.......................................................................................................................................... 11
1.2.1 Kinds of charge ......................................................................................................................... 12
1.2.3 Positive and negative charge .............................................................................................. 12
1.2.4 Using energy ............................................................................................................................... 12
1.2.5 Electrons ...................................................................................................................................... 12
1.3 Static and current electricity .................................................................................................... 13
1.3.1 Conductors ................................................................................................................................. 14
1.3.2 Ions in solutions .......................................................................................................................... 16
1.3.3 Ions in gases ............................................................................................................................... 16
1.3.4 Electric current........................................................................................................................... 17
1.3.5 Discharging static electricity ................................................................................................. 17
1.3.6 Conduction through solutions ............................................................................................... 18
1.3.7 Photocopying ............................................................................................................................ 19
Module 2:
.................................................................................................. 23
2.1 Introduction ................................................................................................................................... 23
2.2 Current Law ................................................................................................................................... 24
2.3 Voltage ........................................................................................................................................... 24
2.4 Application of Kirschhoff’s Laws .............................................................................................. 26
Module 3:
......................................................................................... 34
3.1 Introduction ................................................................................................................................... 34
3.2 Definitions of alternating current terms .................................................................................. 34
3.3 Generation of an alternating current .................................................................................... 36
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3.4 Value of the induced emf ......................................................................................................... 36
3.5 Instantaneous value of an alternating quantity ................................................................. 38
3.6 Maximum, rms and average values ....................................................................................... 39
3.7 The mid-ordinate rule .................................................................................................................. 41
3.8 Alternating current circuits ........................................................................................................ 46
3.8.1 A non-inductive resistor in an ac circuit ............................................................................. 46
3.8.2 An inductive alternating current circuit ............................................................................. 48
3.8.3 A capacitive alternating current circuit............................................................................. 50
3.9 Series circuits .................................................................................................................................. 52
3.9.1 A resistor and inductor in series ............................................................................................. 53
3.9.2 A resistor and capacitor in series.......................................................................................... 55
3.9.3 A resistor, inductor and capacitor in series ....................................................................... 57
3.10 Power and power factor ......................................................................................................... 61
3.10.1 Importance of power factor ............................................................................................... 62
3.10.2 Effect of a low power factor ............................................................................................... 63
3.10.3 Power factor correction ....................................................................................................... 63
3.10.4 Active and reactive components ..................................................................................... 63
3.11 Resonance in a series circuit .................................................................................................. 65
3.12 More examples on series circuits ........................................................................................... 67
3.13 Parallel alternating current circuits ....................................................................................... 70
3.13.1 Resistor and inductor in parallel ......................................................................................... 70
3.13.2 Resistor and capacitor In parallel ...................................................................................... 72
3.13.3 Resistor, inductor and capacitor in parallel .................................................................... 75
3.14 Resonance in parallel circuits................................................................................................. 78
3.15 Three-phase alternating current circuits ............................................................................. 79
Module 4:
.......................................................................... 89
4.1 Introduction ................................................................................................................................... 90
4.2 Characteristics of materials....................................................................................................... 90
4.2.1 Metals ........................................................................................................................................... 90
4.2.2 Semiconductors ........................................................................................................................ 91
4.2.3 Temperature ............................................................................................................................... 92
4.2.4 Photo-conduction .................................................................................................................... 93
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4.3 Intrinsic semiconductors ............................................................................................................. 94
4.4 N-type semiconductors .............................................................................................................. 95
4.5 P-type material ............................................................................................................................. 96
4.6 The P-N junction ............................................................................................................................ 98
4.7 Fermi-levels ..................................................................................................................................... 99
4.8 Bias ................................................................................................................................................. 101
4.8.1 Bias on the P-N junction ........................................................................................................ 101
4.9 Diode characteristics ................................................................................................................ 103
4.10 Diode ratings factors ............................................................................................................... 106
4.11 Basis for device ratings ........................................................................................................... 107
4.11.1 Voltage ratings (V ..) ............................................................................................................ 107
4.11.2 Forward-current ratings ( or ) ....................................................................................... 108
4.11.3 Power-dissipation ratings (P).............................................................................................. 110
4.11.4 Junction-temperature ratings ........................................................................................... 110
4.11.5 Reverse recovery time () ................................................................................................. 110
4.12 Characteristics .......................................................................................................................... 111
4.12.1 Low-current rectifiers: 0,1-12 A .......................................................................................... 112
4.12.2 Medium- current rectifiers: 15-35 A .................................................................................. 112
4.12.2 High-current rectifiers: 50 – 1 000 A .................................................................................. 113
Module 5:
.................................................................................. 117
5.1 Introduction ................................................................................................................................. 117
5.2 Half-wave rectification ............................................................................................................. 117
5.3 Full-wave rectification............................................................................................................... 121
5.4 Filter circuits .................................................................................................................................. 122
5.5 The zener diode .......................................................................................................................... 124
5.5.1 Electrical characteristics ....................................................................................................... 125
5.5.2 The Zener as voltage regulator ........................................................................................... 125
5.6 Clipper circuits ............................................................................................................................ 126
5.6.1 Series and parallel clippers .................................................................................................. 127
5.7 Voltage doubler ......................................................................................................................... 129
5.8 Varactor diodes.......................................................................................................................... 131
5.9 Photodiodes ................................................................................................................................ 133
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5.10 Light-emitting diodes (LEOs) ................................................................................................. 135
Module 6:
.......................................................................................................... 139
6.1 Introduction ................................................................................................................................. 140
6.2 The basic junction transistor .................................................................................................... 141
6.3 Characteristic curves ................................................................................................................ 145
6.4 The three basic circuits ............................................................................................................. 147
6.4.1 The common emitter circuit ................................................................................................ 147
6.4.2 The common base circuit .................................................................................................... 149
6.4.3 The common collector circuit ............................................................................................. 149
6.5 Biasing............................................................................................................................................ 150
6.6 Interstage couplings .................................................................................................................. 152
6.7 Frequency response .................................................................................................................. 154
6.8 Switching speed ......................................................................................................................... 155
6.9 Electronic switch......................................................................................................................... 157
6.10 Operating point........................................................................................................................ 159
6.10.1 The loadline ............................................................................................................................ 159
6.10.2 Stabilisation of the bias voltage ....................................................................................... 160
6.11 Classes of amplifier operation .............................................................................................. 163
6.12 Push-pull amplifiers .................................................................................................................. 165
6.13 Distortion ..................................................................................................................................... 166
6.13.1 Cross-over distortion ............................................................................................................. 167
6.13.2 Feedback ............................................................................................................................... 168
6.14 Cut-off frequencies of transistor amplifiers ....................................................................... 170
6.15 Regulators .................................................................................................................................. 170
6.15.1 Series voltage regulation .................................................................................................... 171
6.15.2 Shunt voltage regulation .................................................................................................... 172
6.15.3 Constant current power supply ........................................................................................ 173
6.15.4 Current limiting power supply ........................................................................................... 174
6.16 The phototransistor .................................................................................................................. 175
6.17 Field-effect transistors (FETs) .................................................................................................. 176
6.17.1 Characteristics of the J-FET ................................................................................................ 177
6.17.2 MOS-FET construction .......................................................................................................... 180
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6.17.3 Practical circuits .................................................................................................................... 181
Module 7:
.......................................................................................... 186
7.1 Introduction ................................................................................................................................. 186
7.2 The SCR ......................................................................................................................................... 187
7.3 Commutation .............................................................................................................................. 193
7.3.1 Commutation circuits ............................................................................................................ 193
7.4 Alternating-current circuits ...................................................................................................... 198
7.5 Duty cycle .................................................................................................................................... 201
7.6 Phase control .............................................................................................................................. 204
7.7 Phase delay ................................................................................................................................. 206
7.8 Interference ................................................................................................................................. 208
7.9 Transients ...................................................................................................................................... 208
7.9.1 L-C filters .................................................................................................................................... 209
7.9.2 Zener diodes............................................................................................................................. 209
7.9.3 Trans-zorps ................................................................................................................................. 209
7.9.4 Varistors (MOFs) ....................................................................................................................... 209
7.10 Different control methods ..................................................................................................... 210
7.10.1 Phase control ......................................................................................................................... 210
7.10.2 Cycle control ......................................................................................................................... 211
7.10.3 Cyclotronic control .............................................................................................................. 212
Module 8:
................................................................................................ 216
8.1 Introduction ................................................................................................................................. 216
8.2 Differential amplifier .................................................................................................................. 217
8.2.1 Single-ended input ................................................................................................................. 218
8.2.2 Differential or double-ended input.................................................................................... 218
8.3 The op-amp ................................................................................................................................. 219
8.3.1 The ideal op-amp ................................................................................................................... 219
8.4 Operating modes....................................................................................................................... 221
8.4.1 Inverting amplifier ................................................................................................................... 222
8.4.2 Non-inverting amplifier .......................................................................................................... 223
8.4.3 The voltage follower .............................................................................................................. 224
8.4.4 Voltage summer (adder)...................................................................................................... 224
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8.4.5 Integrator .................................................................................................................................. 226
8.4.6 Differentiator ............................................................................................................................ 227
8.4.7 Summary.................................................................................................................................... 228
8.5 Audio amplifier............................................................................................................................ 228
Module 9:
................................................................................................................. 232
9.1 Introduction ................................................................................................................................. 232
9.2 Wheatstone bridge.................................................................................................................... 233
9.3 Potentiometer ............................................................................................................................. 235
9.4 Strain gauges............................................................................................................................... 238
9.5 Thermistors .................................................................................................................................... 240
9.6 PH measurements ...................................................................................................................... 244
9.7 Capacitive Transducers ........................................................................................................... 244
9.8 Inductive transducers ............................................................................................................... 247
9.8.1 Variable reluctance transducer ......................................................................................... 247
9.8.2 Linear variable differential transformer (LVDT) ............................................................... 249
9.9 Solid state devices ..................................................................................................................... 251
9.9.1 Photovoltaic cells .................................................................................................................... 251
9.9.2 Photoconductors or light dependent resistors (LDRs) .................................................. 252
9.9.3 Photoelectric junction devices ........................................................................................... 254
9.9.4 Opto-isolator ............................................................................................................................ 255
9.10 Crystal transducers .................................................................................................................. 257
9.11 Conclusion ................................................................................................................................. 258
Module 10:
............................................................................................... 261
10.1 Introduction ............................................................................................................................... 262
10.2 Specifications ............................................................................................................................ 263
10.3 Measuring errors ....................................................................................................................... 264
10.3.1 Gross errors ............................................................................................................................. 264
10.3.2 Systematic errors ................................................................................................................... 267
10.3.3 Random errors ....................................................................................................................... 268
10.4 Calibration ................................................................................................................................. 268
10.5 Precautions ................................................................................................................................ 269
10.6 Maximum and peak-to-peak values of a sine wave .................................................... 270
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10.7 RMS and averages values of a sine wave........................................................................ 272
10.8 Operational amplifier in meters ........................................................................................... 274
10.9 Different measurements......................................................................................................... 275
10.10 Analogue-to-digital conversion (ADC) ........................................................................... 276
10.10.1 Basic principles of the ADC ............................................................................................. 277
10.10.2 Accuracy .............................................................................................................................. 277
10.10.3 Series-mode rejection ....................................................................................................... 278
10.10.4 Speed .................................................................................................................................... 278
10.10.5 Kick-back signals and input impedance..................................................................... 278
10.11 Staircase ramp ....................................................................................................................... 279
10.11.1 Advantages ......................................................................................................................... 280
10.11.2 Disadvantages .................................................................................................................... 281
10.12 Successive approximation method.................................................................................. 281
10.13 Variable-frequency method .............................................................................................. 282
10.13.1 Advantage and disadvantage ..................................................................................... 283
10.14 Dual-slope integration .......................................................................................................... 283
10.14.1 Advantage ........................................................................................................................... 284
10.15 Delta-pulse modulation system ......................................................................................... 284
10.16 General circuits ...................................................................................................................... 285
10.17 Specifications .......................................................................................................................... 288
10.18 Advantages and disadvantages of digital meters...................................................... 288
10.19 Digital-to-analogue converter (DAC) .............................................................................. 289
10.20 Schmitt trigger......................................................................................................................... 290
10.21 Frequency counter................................................................................................................ 293
10.22 Oscilloscope ............................................................................................................................ 295
10.22.1 Why use an oscilloscope?................................................................................................ 295
10.22.2 The cathode-ray tube ....................................................................................................... 296
10.22.3 Stable display of a repetitive signal (triggering) ........................................................ 298
10.22.4 Main controls and their functions .................................................................................. 300
10.22.5 Dual trace and dual beam ............................................................................................. 300
Past Examination Papers ........................................................................................... 305
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Icons used in this book
We use different icons to help you work with this book; these are shown in the table
below.
Icon Description Icon Description
Assessment / Activity Multimedia
Checklist Practical
Demonstration/ observation Presentation/ Lecture
Did you know? Read
Example Safety
Experiment Site visit
Group work/ discussions,
Take note of
role-play, etc.
Theoretical – questions,
In the workplace
reports, case studies, etc.
Keywords Think about it
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Learning Outcomes
On the completion of this module the student must be able to:
x Define matter, elements and the atom
x Explain valency electrons and free electrons
x Describe covalent bonds
x Define conductors and insulators
x Define electrical current
x Explain resistance
o Resistivity
x Describe voltage
x Explain energy levels and bands in solids
x Describe the bonds between atoms and molecules with regard to:
o Ionic-bond
o Covalent bond
o Metallic bond
o Van der Waal’s forces (bonds)
1.1 Introduction
Chemistry is the branch of science dealing with the composition and
properties of different matter, their laws, combination and behaviour
under various conditions. Furthermore it deals with changes in
matter, the mechanisms by which these changes occur, the
products formed and the energy changes encountered.
1.1.1 Elements
Definition: Element
An element is a specific type of matter consisting of only one type
of atom. It is the smallest part of a pure chemical substance which
cannot be further decomposed by ordinary chemical action into a
simpler substance.
Elements are the basic building blocks of all chemical compounds. It is not
possible to simplify elements further by the usual methods used to cause
chemical changes, which include application of heat, light or electric energy.
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To each element is assigned a symbol representing atoms of the particular kind.
The symbol consists of one or two letters derived from the English or Latin name
of the element.
1.1.2 Atoms
It is the difference between atoms of different elements that cause the
difference between elements.
Definition: Atom
An atom is the smallest part of an element able to exist alone or in
combination with other atoms of the same or different kinds and still
have the characteristics of the element.
Atoms consist of two main parts:
x the positively charged central part called the nucleus (consisting of protons
and neutrons) and
x the electrons which are negatively charged, around the nucleus
1.1.3 Atomic mass
The mass number of an atom is the sum of the number of protons and neutrons
in the nucleus. The mass is obtainable from the Periodic Table of Elements but
can also be calculated; eg Al is element number 13 with 13 protons and 14
neutrons and an atomic mass of 27.
Figure 1.1 Periodic Table
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1.1.4 Valency
Atoms of one elements unit with another in a definite ratio defined by their
valence. Valence is the combining power of an element based on that of the
hydrogen atom which has an assigned value of 1.
Definition:Valency
The valency number of an atom is the number of electrons too many
or too few in the outermost energy level to form the structure of a
noble gas.
Thus an element with a valence of 2+ can replace two H atoms. Sodium has a
valency of 1, therefore one atom of sodium will combine with one chloride atom
to form sodium chloride. Nitrogen at a valency of 3- will combine with 3 H atoms
to form ammonia gas (NH3).
1.1.5 Compounds
Compounds consist of two or more elements combined in a definite ratio, with
definite composition. The formula of the chemical compound represents, by
appropriate subscripts, the relative number of each constituent element present
in the compound.
Definition: Compound
A compound is a substance which may be decomposed into two or
more simpler substances by ordinary chemical means.
1.2 Electrons
Put some small pieces of kitchen foil on the workbench. You can use small pieces
of cork, instead. Rub a plastic pen with a dry woollen cloth. Rub hard for ten or
twenty seconds.
Hold the pen a few millimetres above the pieces of foil. They jump up and stick
to the pen. Some of them may jump up and down again several times.
The reason that the pieces jump is that they are attracted by electrons on the
pen. Rubbing the cloth on the pen has made electrons from the cloth transfer
to the pen. We say that the pen is charged with electrons. It has an electric
charge.
Experiment
You need two strips of polythene, about 30 cm by 2 cm, and a soft dry cloth.
Put the strips on the workbench and rub them briskly with the cloth. Pick up
the strips by one end, one in each hand. Hold them about 50 cm apart. Then
slowly move them together.
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Repeat this, using one strip of polythene and one strip of acetate sheet. What
do the strips do now?
Some other things can be charged by rubbing. Rub a balloon with a cloth (or
against your clothes). Then place it in contact with the wall of the room. It does
not fall down to the floor but stays where you put it, on the wall. The electric
charge has produced an electric force that holds the balloon against the wall.
1.2.1 Kinds of charge
You have found that:
• Two charged polythene strips repel each other. They try to stay apart.
• A polythene strip and an acetate strip attract each other. They try to come
together.
It seems that the charge on acetate is different from that on polythene, so there
are two kinds of charge.
Two charged polythene strips repel each other, so like charges repel.
Two differently charged strips attract each other, so unlike charges attract.
1.2.3 Positive and negative charge
The two kinds of charge are called positive charge and negative charge.
These names do not mean that positive charge has something that negative
charge does not have. They just mean that the charges are of opposite kinds.
Rubbing a polythene strip with a cloth transfers some of the electrons from the
atoms in the cloth on to the strip. Electrons have negative charge, so the strip
becomes negatively charged. Also, the atoms of the cloth have now lost some
electrons. This makes the cloth positively charged.
Rubbing an acetate strip with a cloth does the opposite. It removes electrons
from the strip, leaving it positively charged. The cloth gains electrons and
becomes negatively charged.
1.2.4 Using energy
Positive and negative charges always attract each other. They try to come
together. When you rub the cloth on the plastic, you separate the negative
charge from the positive. It takes energy to pull them apart when they are trying
to come together. This energy comes from the muscles of your arm.
1.2.5 Electrons
Electrons are too small to see, even with a powerful microscope. Electrons are
too light to weigh. You need 1 000 000 000 000 000 000 000 000 000 000 electrons
to weigh 1 kg.
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The most important fact about electrons is that they carry negative electric
charge. The charge on a single electron is extremely small. But, if you have
enough of them (as on the pen or the charged polythene), you can show the
force that their charge causes. There are lots more things that we can do with
electrons.
1.3 Static and current electricity
When two different substances rub together, electrons are transferred from one
substance to the other. One substance gains electrons and becomes negatively
charged. The other loses electrons and becomes positively charged.
However, this happens only with certain substances, such as polythene,
acetate, wool, and rubber. Other substances that can be charged in this way
include glass, ceramics, nylon, paper, and air. These substances are known as
insulators. The electrons stay fixed on the surface of the substance and cannot
move away. Insulators do not let charge flow through them. We say the charge
is static, a word meaning 'standing'.
A person may become charged when walking on a carpeted floor. The rubbing
of their plastic soles against the carpet (often nylon) generates a charge on the
person. In very dry climates the charge on the person may become very large.
They feel a 'tingle', hear a tiny 'tick' or may even see a spark, when they touch
an earthed metal object, such as a door handle.
Similarly, just sitting working at a desk may generate charge because of the
person's woollen, nylon or polyester clothes rubbing together. Electronics
engineers have to be particularly careful to avoid this, as the charge they pick
up on their bodies may destroy delicate electronic components when they
touch them.
Did you know? Lightning formation
Small particles in a cloud collide together. It is though that the larger particles
gain electrons and become negatively charged. The small particles lose
electrons and become positively charged. Movements in the cloud tend to
sort out the particles by size. The top of the cloud has a positive charge, and
the bottom a negative charge.
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Figure 1.2
The charges build up so much that there is a strong attraction between the
electrons and the nearest positive charges. A lightning flash occurs as
electrons rush across the gap. The air along the flash is heated so much that
it causes a shock wave, which we hear as thunder.
Most lightning flashes are within a cloud, and some are between a cloud and
one of its neighbours. They do not do any damage, except possibly to
aeroplanes flying through the cloud.
The most dangerous flashes are between a cloud and charged areas on the
ground.
1.3.1 Conductors
Some substances let electric charge flow through them. These substances are
called conductors.
One of the best-known conductors is copper. It conducts so well because the
electrons of copper atoms are able to escape easily from the atoms.
Copper is the most commonly used conductor because it conducts electric
charge better than any metal, except silver. But silver is too expensive to be
used. Copper wires are used in almost all electronic equipment. The tracks on a
circuit board are also made of copper.
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Figure 1.3 In a piece of copper, the atoms (large spheres) are arranged in
regular rows and columns, called a lattice. The electrons that have escaped
from the atoms (small circles) are able to wander about freely in the space
between the copper atoms.
If we connect a battery to each end of a strip of copper, its negative terminal
supplies electrons to the copper. Its positive terminal removes electrons from the
other end. They are attracted by the positive (opposite) charge.
Figure 1.4 The flow of electrons along the copper strip is called an electric
current. The flow is from negative to positive.
The next best conductor is aluminium. This is often used in power lines, because
of its lightness and cheapness. It is not as strong as copper, so a few strands of
steel wire are included when making the cable.
Carbon is a non-metal but it has important uses as a conductor. It does not
conduct charge as well as the metals do. Rods of carbon are used for making
certain kinds of electric cell. Carbon is also used in making
resistors.
Solutions of salts in water are reasonably good conductors (see Ions in solutions,
opposite). Much of the human body consists of such solutions, so the body is a
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reasonable conductor of electricity. This is why we must be very careful when
handling electrical equipment and working with electricity in the laboratory.
Even quite a small current through a part of the body can paralyse the nerves
and may kill you. Electricity can also cause unpleasant burns.
1.3.2 Ions in solutions
When a salt such as sodium chloride is dissolved in water, some of its molecules
separate into two atoms, sodium and chlorine:
NaCl → Na + Cl
An electron from the sodium becomes attached to the chlorine. The chlorine
(gaining an electron) is negatively charged.
The sodium (losing an electron) is positively charged:
NaCl → Na+ + Cl-
The charged sodium and chlorine atoms are called ions.
Figure 1.5
In the same way, when copper sulphate is dissolved in water, some of it
separates into copper and sulphate ions:
CuSO4 → Cu++ + SO4--
With copper sulphate, the sulphate ion gains two electrons and becomes
negatively charged. The copper ion loses two electrons and becomes positively
charged.
When the molecules split into two ions, we say the substance is ionised.
1.3.3 Ions in gases
Gases can be ionised too. A neon strip light consists of a sealed glass tube
containing neon gas. The neon is under low pressure.
Some of the neon atoms lose an electron and become positively charged ions:
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Ne → Ne+ + e-
When a current is passed through the tube, the electrons move rapidly along
the tube striking the neon ions. The ions glow with a bright red light.
Neon lamps are used for signs and also as low-power indicator lamps. Other
gases, such as argon and krypton, also ionise and can be used in lamps. These
gases produce a range of colours for use in illuminated signs.
1.3.4 Electric current
An electric current is a flow of negative charge (electrons) from negative to
positive.
In electronics, we usually think of the current as flowing from positive to negative.
Although this is not what actually happens, most people like to think of it in that
way.
This idea of a current flowing from positive to negative is known as conventional
current.
In this section, when we say 'current' we mean conventional current, flowing
from positive to negative.
1.3.5 Discharging static electricity
A charged plastic pen or balloon may hold its charge for an hour or more. The
charge is on an insulating substance that stops it from flowing away. But the
charge can be removed by contact with the air.
The air often contains charged ions. A positively charged ion in the air is
attracted toward an electron on a charged object. When it contacts it, the
electron transfers to the ion and their charges cancel out.
Gradually, all the electrons on the surface of the charged object are removed
in this way. The object becomes discharged.
Charged conductors lose their charge quickly if they are connected to ground
by a wire.
Electronics engineers often wear metallised wrist bands, connected by wire to
ground.
This allows any charge on the body of the engineer to be conducted away to
ground, and so prevents static charges from damaging the electronic
components.
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Sometimes a charge builds up on an object faster than it can leak away or can
be conducted away. The charge may eventually become so great that it
breaks though the air as a spark. Lightning is the most powerful example of this.
An aeroplane picks up static charge as it flies through the air. On landing, the
plane does not remain charged, because its tyres are made from special
conductive rubber. If it were not for these, there would be a danger of fire or
explosion resulting from electrostatic sparks while refuelling.
1.3.6 Conduction through solutions
A solution of substances that ionise is called an electrolyte. If we place two
conducting rods (or electrodes) in an electrolyte and connect a battery or
power unit to them, conventional current flows through the solution from positive
to negative.
Copper ions (positive) are attracted toward the negative electrode (cathode).
On arrival, they gain two electrons each and are discharged.
The electrons have come from the negative terminal of the battery. The
discharged ions are deposited on the cathode as metallic copper. This process
is called electrolysis.
Figure 1.6 Negative ions are attracted toward the positive electrode (anode).
There they are discharged, giving up two electrons.
It can be shown by weighing that the amount of copper deposited on the
cathode is proportional to the size of the current and to the length of time for
which the current passes. This shows that copper ions carry a fixed amount of
charge.
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1.3.7 Photocopying
To make a photocopy, place the original document face-down on the glass
and close the cover. Press the START button. The photocopy is made in six stages:
1. A high voltage is applied to the corona wire 1. Positive ions from the corona
wire are attracted toward the drum. The drum is a cylinder of aluminium,
coated with a special light-sensitive layer.
2. A bright light shines on the original document and a system of lenses focuses
an image of the document on to the drum.
3. The light in the brighter parts of the image causes electrons to appear on
the light-sensitive layer. These discharge the positive ions already there.
There is less effect in the darker parts of the image. There is now an image
on the drum, in which the darkest parts still have positive ions. The lightest
parts have none.
4. A black powder (toner) is scattered on to the drum. It is negatively charged,
so it is attracted toward the positive ions. It forms an image on the drum,
black where the original was black.
5. A sheet of paper is fed past the drum as it turns. Before reaching the drum,
the paper is positively charged by another corona wire. The charge on the
passing paper strongly attracts the powder, which is still negatively charged.
The attraction to the paper is stronger than the attraction to the drum, so the
powder is transferred to the paper. Next the paper passes between two hot
pressure rollers. These melt the powder which then sticks firmly to the paper.
This produces an image on the paper which is an exact copy of the original
image.
Many copiers have a lens system that projects an image larger or smaller than
the original.
Then the photocopy is identical to the original except for its size. There is not
enough room on the drum to copy a whole sheet at once. The drum turns
several times to copy one sheet, a little at a time.
The drum is automatically cleaned and discharged after the part-image has
been transferred to the paper. Then it is re-charged (stage 1) ready to receive
the next part of the image.
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Figure 1.7
Figure 1.8
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Activity 1.1
1. Make simple sketches with labels that describe the following:
a) Cation
b) Element
c) Tom
d) Electrons
e) Ionization
f) Covalent bond
2. What particles does the nucleus of an atom consist of?
3. Explain the difference between conductors, semiconductors and non-
conductors, showing their energy levels in labelled sketches.
4. The substances is called a chemical ……………… when all the atoms within
the substances are alike.
5. What is the substance called that results when different elements
combine?
6. Protons are basic ………. charges and electrons are basic ……………
charges.
7. What are the electrons in the outermost shell of an atom often called?
8. What does a neutral atom become when it gains electrons?
9. What is the process called by which atoms either gain or lose electrons?
10. In a conductor material, there are many ……………..
11. What needs to be applied to cause the breakdown of insulating materials
in order for them to conduct current?
12. Describe how an atom is composed.
13. Explain a) an atom; b) a molecule c) a compound
14. What is meant by a neutral atom?
15. What is the relationship between free electrons and electron energy levels?
16. What is the definition of an electrical conductor?
17. Name three good conductor materials.
18. What is the definition of electrical insulation?
19. Name five common insulating materials?
20. How do temperature and light influence the nature of semiconductors.
21. Explain what the term ‘electron volt’ means.
22. Use sketches to illustrate metallic, covalent and ionic bonds.
23. When electrons move about the nucleus of atom in paths these are usually
referred to as …………….
24. How do atoms differ from one another?
25. What is the term used to express the number of protons in the nucleus of an
atom. The atomic ……..
26. Give some common examples of chemical elements.
27. What is the smallest particle of a compound which retains all the properties
of that compound?
28. An atom contains the same number of …………….. and ……………..
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29. The distance from the nucleus of an atom determines the energy …………..
of an electron.
30. A neutral atom becomes a ………. ion when it loses electrons.
31. Give the correct definition of a conductor.
32. Besides metals, certain …………. are also used a conductors.
33. In what terms is the ability of a material to act as an insulator measured?
34. Explain how atoms differ from one another.
35. What is the definition of an atomic number?
36. What are valency electrons?
37. How does an atom become a) a negative and b) a positive ion?
38. Describe the movement of electrons through a conductor.
39. What conditions are necessary to cause a material that is usually an
insulator to become a conductor?
40. Explain the meaning of intrinsic and extrinsic materials.
41. Explain the meaning of:
a) Valence band
b) Conduction band
c) Forbidden gap
Self-Check
I am able to: Yes No
x Define matter, elements and the atom
x Explain valency electrons and free electrons
x Describe covalent bonds
x Define conductors and insulators
x Define electrical current
x Explain resistance
o Resistivity
x Describe voltage
x Explain energy levels and bands in solids
x Describe the bonds between atoms and molecules with regard
to:
o Ionic-bond
o Covalent bond
o Metallic bond
o Van der Waal’s forces (bonds)
If you have answered ‘no’ to any of the outcomes listed above, then speak
to your facilitator for guidance and further development.
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Learning Outcomes
On the completion of this module the student must be able to:
x Define current law
x Define voltage law
x Demonstrate the application of Kirchhoff’s laws
2.1 Introduction
Many types of circuits have components that are not in series, in
parallel, or in series-parallel. One example is a motor car, in which
the battery is on the one end and the generator on the other end
with all the lights, radio, CD-player, wires, etc.
Another example is an unbalanced bridge Circuit. Where the rules of series in
parallel circuits cannot be applied, more general methods of analysis become
necessary.
These methods include the application of Kirchhoff's laws, as described here,
and the network theorems. Any circuit can be solved by applying Kirchhoff's
laws because they do not depend on series or parallel connectors. The law was
stated in 1847 by the German physicist Gustav Kirchhoff.
It is necessary to analyse circuits to calculate the currents, voltages and powers
in the relative components to be able to obtain a good design. It is often
possible to use two or more methods to solve a problem.
The calculations concerning the problems in this section must always be done
using Kirchhoff's laws. These laws provide a method to work out in what ratios
the currents and voltages would divide in any circuit. There are two of these
laws, ie the current and voltage laws.
The best way to explain these laws is to work through examples where the laws
are applied. Ohm's Law can sometimes be used to check the answers.
Note:
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Ensure that you have a good knowledge of Ohm's law and how to
apply it to solve problems. Ohm's law is the most important concept
in electronics and electrical trade.
2.2 Current Law
The algebraic sum of the currents into any point of the circuit must equal the
algebraic sum of the currents out of that point, ie the current in equals the
current out (Figure 2.1).
Figure 2.1
2.3 Voltage
The algebraic sum of the voltages around any closed path is zero, or the
algebraic sum of the voltages in a circuit is equal to the voltage applied (Figure
2.2).
Figure 2.2
Worked Example 2.1
Calculate the resultant current for the circuit shown in Figure 2.3.
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Figure 2.3
Solution:
Using Kirchhoff's law:
ൌ ͳ ʹǦ ͵ൌ ͳ ʹǦ ͵
ൌͲʹǦͳͷ
ൌ
Worked Example 2.2
Calculate the voltage drop across the internal resistance R1 of the battery
shown in Figure 2.4 by using Kirchhoff's voltage law.
Figure 2.4
Solution:
ൌͳͳʹ
ͳ ൌȂͳʹ
But ͳ and ʹ are in parallel
ோ ൈோ
ͳൌ ்ܫோభାோమ
భ మ
ଶൈ
ൌͳ ൈ ଶା ൌ ͳͷܸ
ͳൌʹͲȂͳͷͶǡͻൌͲǡͳ
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To check the answer, use Ohm's law
ͳ ൌ xͳ
ൌͳxͲǡͳൌͲǡͳ
2.4 Application of Kirschhoff’s Laws
Complex quantities can be solved by using these laws as shown in Figure 2.5.
Figure 2.5
If Ohm's law is used to solve the problem in Figure 2.5, then the total resistance
must first be worked out, the total current can then be calculated and then the
relevant currents can be calculated.
By using Kirchhoff's laws, it is just a matter of setting up equations, as many as
there are unknowns, and then by solving the equations, the relevant quantities
are calculated.
Worked Example 2.3
By using Kirchhoff's laws, calculate the currents, voltages and power
dissipated by each resistance in Figure 2.5.
To solve this problem using Kirchhoff's laws, the circuit is identified by one or
more "loops" as can be seen in Figure 2.5, ie loops ABEFA and ABCDEFA.
Solution:
Take loop ABEFA first. It has a series circuit and therefore the voltage law
must by used.
According to Kirchhoff's voltage law, we get:
ͳȂͳʹ ……………………………… (1)
According to Ohm's law,
ͳ = ͳ x ͳ and ʹ = ͳ x ʹ
= ͳ8 x ͳand
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ʹ = 12 ͳ – ʹ as well as
ʹ = 6 x ʹ
Substitute the values given in Figure 2.5 into these equations:
= ͳ x ͳ + ʹ x ʹ
ʹͶ = ͺ ͳ + ͳ……………………………… (2)
Loop ABCDEFA is also made up by means of a series circuit and the voltage
law must again be used. It is again applied to equation 1.
ͳ ͳ = + ͵ ͳ - ʹ
ʹͶ = ͺ ͳ + ͳʹ ͳȂ ʹ
ൌͺ ͳ + ͳʹ ͳȂͳʹ ͵
ʹͶ = ʹͲ ͳ - ͳʹ ʹ……………………………… (3)
There are now two equations with two unknowns. Normal algebra is used to
solve these equations as follows:
Multiply (2) with 2
Ͷͺ ൌͳ ͳ + ͳʹ ͳ……………………………… (4)
Add (4) and (3)
ʹ ൌ ͵ ͳ
ʹ = ͳ
Replace ͳൌʹin (2)
ʹͶ ൌ ͺ x ʹ + ͳ ʹ
24 - 16 = ʹ
଼
ͳ = = ʹ ǡ͵͵
ͳ Ȃ ʹ = ʹǦͳǡ͵͵͵
ൌͲǡ
Ohm's law must be used to calculate the voltage drop across each resistor
and then the power dissipated by each resistor can be calculated.
ͳ = ͳ ͳ ʹ = ʹ ʹ ͵ = ͵ ͳȂ ʹ
ൌͺxʹ ൌxͳǡ͵͵͵ ൌͳʹxͲǡ
ൌͳ ൌͺ ൌͺ
ͳ = ͳ ʹ = ͺ ʹ = ͺ
These answers can now be checked by means of Ohm's law or by using
Kirchhoff's voltage law.
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ͳ = ͳͳ ʹ = ʹʹ ͵ = ͳȂ ʹȂ͵
ൌʹxͳ ൌͳǡ͵͵͵x ൌͲǡx ͳʹ
ൌ͵ʹ ൌͺ ൌͺ
Now the power consumed by each resistor can be calculated as follows:
ൌ ʹͶ (Given left-hand side of equation)
ൌͳʹ
ൌͳͺ
ൌʹͶ(Calculated values right-hand side)
ൌ
answers for ͳǡ ʹǡ ͵ǡandͳǡʹare correct.
Note:
If a problem does not indicate the current direction, then use the
conventional current flow direction which is from the positive
terminal, through the network, back to the negative terminal of the
power supply. This is important especially when two or more power
sources are involved.
Worked Example 2.4
Refer to Figure 2.6 and use Kirchhoff's laws to calculate the following:
1. the voltage drop across ͳ;
2. the value of ͵;
3. the value of the current flowing through ʹ, ie between C and D.
Figure 2.6
Solution:
Follow the same method as previously. Take loop ABEFA. This is a series circuit
with ͵and͵Ǥ
= ͳ + ʹ
ͳ = ͲͲʹx ͳ͵x ͳȂ ʹሾ ʹൌ͵ሿ
ʹͲͲ ൌͶx ͳͲ͵ ͳ + ͵ x ͳͲǦ͵ x ͵……………………………… (1)
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Take loop ACDFA which is also a series circuit.
= ͳ + ʹ
ͳ = ͲͲʹx ͳ͵x ͳȂ ʹሾ ʹൌ͵ሿ
ʹͲͲ = Ͷ x ͳͲ͵ ͳͷͲx ͳͲ͵ ͳǦ͵x ͳͲǦ͵
ʹͲͲ = Ͷ x ͳͲ͵ ͳͷͲx ͳͲ͵ ͳǦͷͲx ͳͲ͵x͵x ͳͲǦ͵
ʹͲͲ = Ͷ x ͳͲ͵ ͳǦͳͷͲ
͵ͷͲ ൌͷͶ x ͳͲ͵ ͳ
ଷହ
ͳ ൌହସൈଵయ
ൌǤͶͺxͳͲǦ͵
ൌǤͶͺ
Substitute ͳin (1)
ʹͲͲ = Ͷ x ͳͲ͵x ǡͶͺ x ͳͲǦ͵͵x ͳͲǦ͵x͵
ʹͲͲ = ʹͷǡͻʹ͵ x ͳͲǦ͵x͵
ͳͶǡͲͶ= ͵ x ͳͲǦ͵x ͵
ଵଵସǡସ
͵ൌ ଷൈଵషయ
ൌͷͺǡͲʹͷ Ω
To calculate the voltages, again use Ohm's law.
ͳ = ͳ x ͳ
ൌǡͶͺ x ͳͲǦ͵xͶ x ͳͲ͵
ൌʹͷǡͻʹ
ʹ = ͳ – ʹx ʹ
ൌǡͶͺ x ͳͲǦ͵– ͵ x ͳͲǦ͵ͷͲ x ͳͲ͵
ൌ͵ǡͶͺx ͳͲǦ͵xͷͲ x ͳͲ͵
= ͳͶǡͲ
Test:
ͳʹ= ʹͷǡͻʹͳͶǡͲ
ൌʹͲͲ(Adds up)
Definitions:
x A closed path is a loop.
x A principal node is a branch point where currents divided or
combine.
x A mesh is the simples possible loop. A mesh current is assumed
to flow around the mesh without branching.
Activity 2.1
1. Are the following True or False?
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a. The algebraic sum of all voltages around any loop must equal zero.
b. With ͳ = 3 A and ʹ = 2 A directed into a node, the current ͵ directed
out must equal 5 A.
c. In a loop without any voltage source, the algebraic sum of the voltage
drops must equal zero.
d. The algebraic sum of +40 V and -10 V equals +30 V.
e. A principal node is a junction where branch currents can divide or
combine.
f. The rules of series voltage and parallel currents are based on Kirchhoff's
laws.
2. State Kirchhoff’s current law in two ways.
3. State Kirchhoff's voltage law in two ways.
4. What is the difference between a loop and a mesh?
5. Define a principal node.
6. By using Kirchhoff's current law, determine the relevant currents in Figure
2.7. ( ͳ = 3 A; ʹ = 2 A)
Figure 2.7
7. Refer to Figure 2.8 and use Kirchhoff’s laws to determine ͳ – ʹ, Ͷ and
ͶǤሺͷͲǢ͵ͷͲǢͳͷͲǢͳǡͷሻ
Figure 2.8
8. Refer to Figure 2.9 and calculate the value of the currents by using
Kirchhoff’s laws. ( ͳ = 3 A; ʹ = 2 A)
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Figure 2.9
9. Consider a 12 V battery where the positive terminal is marked A and the
negative terminal F. An ammeter has its positive terminal connected to A
and the negative terminal connected to B. The ammeter indicates a
current with a value of ͳ. The ammeter has an internal resistance ͳ of 2k7
Ω. A resistor ʹ with a value of 1k8 Ω is connected from B to E and E is
connected to F. A third resistor ͵ with the two ends of C and D has a value
of 3k3 Ω and is connected to B and E respectively, a current ʹ flows
through ͵.
Draw the circuit diagram of the above and use Kirchhoff's laws to
determine ͳǡ ʹǤ ͳȂ ʹ and the voltage across the ammeter.
10. Refer to Figure 2.10 and calculate the value of the currents by using
Kirchhoff's laws. ( ͳ = 12 mA = ʹ)
Figure 2.10
11. Refer to Figure 2.11 and calculate the relevant currents by using Kirchhoff's
laws. ( ͳ = 1,333 A; ͳ ʹൌʹ)
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Figure 2.11
12. Refer to Figure 2.12 and use Kirchhoff's laws to calculate the following:
a) The voltage drop across ͳ;
b) The current flow between B and E;
c) The power dissipated by Ͷ.
Make use of the following two equations to determine the value of the
currents as indicated:
140 ͳ– 100 ʹ = 100 and
40 ͳ + 150 ʹ = 100
Prove the validity of these equations.
( ͳ = 1 A; ͳ – ʹ = 600 mA; ͳ = 40 ; Ͷ = 24 W)
Figure 2.12
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Self-Check
I am able to: Yes No
x Define current law
x Define voltage law
x Demonstrate the application of Kirchhoff’s laws
If you have answered ‘no’ to any of the outcomes listed above, then speak
to your facilitator for guidance and further development.
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Learning Outcomes
On the completion of this module the student must be able to:
x Describe the phase angle
x Define Ac circuits with:
o Resistance
o Inductance
o Capacitance
x Define impedance as per:
o The series XL circuit
o The series XC circuit
o The series XC, SL and R circuit
o The parallel RL circuit
o The parallel RC circuit
o The parallel XC, XL and R circuit
x Define:
o Series resonance
o Parallel resonance
3.1 Introduction
Alternating current or voltage varies in magnitude as well as direction.
lf a coil is rotated in a magnetic field , an alternating emf is induced
in the coil and a suitable design of the magnetic circuit enables a
sinusoidal alternating emf to be produced.
This is the most suitable wave shape since its rate of change is also sinusoidal.
Calculations are therefore relatively simple and relationships between different
quantities can be easily expressed.
3.2 Definitions of alternating current terms
Definition: Instantaneous value
The instantaneous value of an alternating current or voltage is that
specific value which can be determined at a certain moment in
terms of current or voltage. The symbol used is e or i.
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Figure 3.1 Sine wave with alternating current terms
Definition: Maximum value
It is the maximum or peak value of an alternating current wave and
is shown by Emax or I (also Emax or lmax).
Figure 3.2 (a) Elementary generator (b) Sine wave of generator
Definition:
Period (t): The time taken to complete one full cycle (in seconds).
Cycle: One complete set of changes which an alternating quantity
undergoes.
Frequency (j): The total number of complete changes in a given
time (usually one second). The unit of frequency is the hertz (Hz).
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3.3 Generation of an alternating current
To explain the generation of an alternating current we can use an elementary
generator consisting of two poles and a single-loop coil rotating in an
anticlockwise direction between the poles (Figure 3.2a).
Suppose the coil is in position A, ie horizontal and thus perpendicular to the
magnetic field. No emf is now induced in the coil. The value of the induced emf
will gradually increase between 0° and 90° as a result of the movement of the
coil through the field.
At B the coil will be at a right angle to the field and a maximum emf will be
induced. While the coil is moving to C the value of the emf will decrease so that
it will be zero at C (after 180°).
Up to now the coil has moved through the field in the same (or positive) direction
only; therefore the induced emf was also in one direction. A movement of the
coil from C to D is in the opposite direction, ie the induced emf is negative.
At D a negative value is reached and the cycle is completed at A. The sine
wave in Figure 3.2b is a graphic representation of the movement of the coil.
In summary:
• At A (0 °) - no induced emf
• At B (90 °) - maximum emf (positive direction)
• At C (180 ° ) - zero again
• At D (270 °) - minimum induced emf (negative direction)
• At A (360 °) - zero.
Figure 3.3 Instantaneous value of sine wave
3.4 Value of the induced emf
When a conductor cuts a magnetic field or is cut by a magnetic field, an emf is
induced in the conductor.
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The value of this emf is directly proportional to the rate at which the conductor
cuts the magnetic field.
We know that induced emf (e) = Blv volts ………… (3.1)
where e= instantaneous value in volts (V)
B = flux density in teslas (Wb/m2)
L = length of conductor in metres (m)
v= velocity of the conductor at a right angle to the magnetic
field in metres/second (m/s).
In the formula above the symbol v represents the velocity at which the
conductor moves at a right angle through the field. For this reason the value of
the induced emf in Figure 3.2b has a maximum value at B.
Assume that the conductor is in a position between A and B, as in Figure 3.3 (this
can be at any angle except the right-angled position).
In the triangle MNO,
OM = velocity of conductor
MN = velocity of conductor at right-angle with the field
ON = velocity of conductor parallel with fie ld
ெே
Sin = ߠ ൌ ைெ
MN = OM sin ߠ
Velocity of conductor at right angle with field =v sin ߠ
Induced emf at angle ߠ = ݁ఏ = Blv sin ߠ volts
But maximum emf (at 90°) = Emax= Blv volts
Therefore instantaneous value = e = Emax sin ߠvolts ................... (3.2)
Any instantaneous value can be calculated by the above formula.
Worked Example 3.1
A coil with an effective length of 250 cm moves through a magnetic field of
0,08 Wb/ m2 at a velocity of 50 m/s. Calculate:
(a) the maximum emf
(b) the instantaneous value of the induced emf if the coil has moved through
45° from zero.
Solution:
I = 250 cm = 2,5 m
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B = 0,08 Wb/m2
v = 50 m/s
Emax =?Y
e =?V
(a) Maximum emf Emax = Blv
= 0,08 X 2,5 X 50
= 10 V
(b) Instantaneous emf e = Emaxxsin ߠ
= 10 x sin 45°
= 10 X 0,707
= 7,07 V
3.5 Instantaneous value of an alternating quantity
When a conductor moves through 360 ° (2ߨ radians) one cycle is completed.
ଵ
Time taken or period = t = seconds.
The angular velocity (w) of a conductor that completes a number of cycles (f),
is
ଶగ
߱ = ௧
ଶగ
= ௧
ଵ
=
= 2 ߨ radians per second …………………………………. (3.3)
The angle (ߠ) that is completed in t seconds is as follows:
ߠ = angular velocity x time
= 2ߨft radians
= ߱t radians …………………………………………………….. (3.4)
The instantaneous value of the wave at any given time is determined after the
conductor has moved through a certain angle. Thus it can be deduced that:
e = Emaxsin 2ߨ݂ݐvolts …………………..…………….. (3.5)
and also i = Imax sin 2ߨ݂ ݐamperes ……………………………. (3.6)
2ߨ radians = 360 °
ߨ radians = 180 °
ଵ଼ι
1 radian = గ (or 57,3 °)
Worked Example 3.2
An alternating voltage is represented bye = 200 sin628,4 t. Calculate:
(a) frequency
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(b) the instantaneous value 0,002 seconds after zero.
Solution:
(a) Frequency 2ߨ݂ = 628,4
ଶ଼ǡସ
݂ = ଶగ
= 100Hz
(b) Instantaneous value e
= 200 sin 628,4 t
= 200 sin (2ߨx 100 x 0,002)
= 200 sin (360 ° x 100 x 0,002)
= 200 sin 72 °
= 200 x0,951
= 190,21 volts
3.6 Maximum, rms and average values
Figure 3.4 shows the approximate positions of the above values on a sine wave.
They can be defined as follows:
Figure 3.4
Definition: rms, virtual or effective value
The rms value of an alternating current or voltage is that value which
has the same heating effect as a direct current of the same value.
For a uniform sine wave
Erms = 0,707 xEmax volts ………………………………………. (3.7)
and Irms = 0,707 xlmax amperes ………………………………….. (3.8)
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Definition: average value
The average value of an alternating current or voltage is the
average of the instantaneous values over a half-cycle. For a uniform
sine wave
Eave = 0,637 xEmax volts ………………………………………. (3.9)
and Iave = 0,637 xlmax amperes ………………………………….. (3.10)
Definition: form factor
Form factor is the ratio of the rms value to the average value of the
wave:
ாೝೞ ூೝೞ
Form factor= or …………………………………………………… (3.11)
ாೌೡ ூೌೡ
For a uniform sine wave the form factor will always be 1,11. Form factor has no
units because it is only a ratio between two quantities.
Definition: crest factor
It is the ratio of the maximum value to the rms value of the wave.
ா ூೌೣ
Crest factor = ாೌೣ or …………………………………………………… (3.12)
ೝೞ ூೝೞ
For a uniform sine wave the crest factor will always be 1,414.
The form factor and the crest factor are both determined by the
shape of the wave, i.e. rectangular, uneven, etc. The values will thus
differ from the values as given for a uniform sine wave.
Worked Example 3.3
An alternating current is represented by the following equation:
i = 25 sin 628,4 t
Calculate:
(a) the frequency
(b) the rms value
(c) the average value
(d) the form factor
(e) the crest factor
(f) the instantaneous value 0,001seconds after zero.
Solution:
(a) The frequency 2ߨ݂ = 628,4
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ଶ଼ǡସ
݂ =
ଶగ
= 100Hz
(b) The rms value lrms = 0, 707 xlmax
= 0,707 x25
= 17,68 amperes
(c) The average value lave =0,637 xlmax
= 0,637 x25
= 15,93 amperes
ூೝೞ
(d) Form factor = ூೌೡ
ଵǡ଼
=
ଵହǡଽଷ
= 1,11
ூ
(e) Crest factor = ூೌೣ
ೝೞ
ଶହ
= ଵǡ଼
= 1,414
(f) Instantaneous value
i = 25 sin 628,4 t
= 25 sin (2ߨx100 X 0,001)
= 25 sin (360 ° x 0,1)
= 25 sin 36 °
= 25 x0,588
i = 14,69 amperes
In the above problem the radians were changed to degrees. If we calculate
it in radians we get the following:
i = 25 sin 628,4 t
= 25 sin (2ߨx100 X 0,001)
= 25 sin 0,628 3
= 25 sin 36 °
= 25 x0,588
i = 14,69 amperes
To change 0,628 3 radians to degrees, we have to multiply by 57,3°, ie 0,628
3 x 57,3 = 36 °.
3.7 The mid-ordinate rule
The preceding formulae can only be applied when the wave is absolutely
sinusoidal.
An uneven or non-sinusoidal graph is solved by means of the mid-ordinate rule.
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The method is such that the solutions will not always be very accurate, but it is
sufficient for a theoretical application.
After the graph has been completed (on the largest possible scale), the mid-
ordinate values are determined and applied in the following formulae:
భ ାమ ାయ ାǥǥǤା
(a) Eave =
volts ….. (3.13)
భమ ାమమ ାయమ ାǥǤǤమ
(b) Erms = ට
volts …... (3.14)
For a current graph the following are used:
భ ାమ ାయ ାǥǥǤା
(a) Iave = amperes ….. (3.15)
మ ାమమ ାయమ ାǥǤǤ
మ
(b) Irms = ට భ
amperes …... (3.16)
The standard formulae are used to determine the form and crest factors.
Worked Example 3.4
An alternating voltage is represented an uneven wave and has the following
ordinate values:
ߠ 0° 15° 30° 45° 60° 75° 90° 105° 120° 135° 150° 165° 180°
e 0 25 43 66 84 105 120 100 75 62 35 20 0
Use the largest possible scale and draw the graph. Determine the mid-
ordinate values and calculate:
(a) the average value
(b) the rms value
(c) the form factor
(d) the crest factor.
Solution:
Mid-ordinates: e1 = 12 V e1 = 110 V
e2 = 34 V e8 = 87 V
e3 = 54 V e9 = 68 V
e4 = 75 V e10 = 48 V
e5 = 94 V e11 = 27 V
e6 = 112 V e12 = 10 V
భ ାమ ାయ ାర ାǥǥǤା
(a) Average value: Eave =
ଵଶାଷସାହସାହାଽସାଵଵଶାଵଵା଼ା଼ାସ଼ାଶାଵ
= ଵଶ
ଷଵ
= ଵଶ
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= 60,92 volts
(b) Rms value:
భమ ାమమ ାయమ ାరమ ାǥǤǤమ
Erms =ට
ଵଶమ ାଷସమ ାହସ మ ାହమ ାଽସమ ାଵଵଶమ ାଵଵమ ା଼మ ା଼మ ାସ଼మ ାଶమ ାଵమ
=ට
ଵଶ
ହ଼ସ
=ට ଵଶ
= 69,91 volts
(c) Form factor:
ா
Form factor = ாೝೞ
ೌೡ
ଽǡଽଵ
= ǡଽଶ
= 1,15
(d) Crest factor:
ா
Crest factor = ೌೣ
ாೝೞ
ଵଶ
= ହଽǡଽଵ
= 1,72
Figure 3.5
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Worked Example 3.5
A sinusoidal current has a maximum value of 10 A and the instantaneous
values are i = Imaxsin ߠ. Take the values of ߠ with 15 ° intervals from 0 ° to 180 °
and draw the graph of the current wave. Then use the mid-ordinate method
to determine the average and virtual values of the current. Test the answers
obtained by applying the standard formulae.
Solution:
By using the given formula i = Imaxsin ߠ the ordinates can be calculated:
1. i= 10 x sin 8 = 10 x 0= 0A
2. i= 10 x sin 15 ° = 10 x 0,259 = 2,59 A
3. i= 10 x sin 30 ° = 10 x 0,5 = 5 A
4. i = 10 x sin 45 ° = 10 x 0,707 = 7,07 A
5. i = I 0 x sin 60 ° = 10 x 0,866 = 8,66 A
6. i = 10 x sin 75 ° = 10 x 0,966 = 9,66 A
7. i = 10 x sin 90 ° = 10 x 1 = 10 A
8. i = 10 x sin 105 ° = 10 x 0,966 = 9,66 A
9. i = 10 X sin 120 ° = 10 x 0,866 = 8,66 A
10. i = 10 x sin 135 °= 10 x 0,707 = 7,07 A
11. i = 10 x sin 150 °= 10 x 0,5 = 5 A
12. i = 10 x sin 165 °= 10 x 0,259 = 2,59 A
13. i = 10 x sin 180 °= 10 x 0 = 0 A
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Figure 3.6
The mid-ordinates are given in the following table:
Mid- 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
ordinates
i 1,295 3,795 6,035 7,865 9,16 9,83 9,83 9,16 7,865 6,035 3,795 1,295
(a) Average value:
ା ା ା ାǥǥǤା
= భ మ య ర
ଵǡଶଽହାଷǡଽହାǡଷହାǡ଼ହାଽǡଵାଽǡ଼ଷାଽǡ଼ଷାଽǡଵାǡ଼ହାǡଷହାଷǡଽହାଵǡଶଽହ
= ଵଶ
ହǡଽ
= ଵଶ
= 6,33 A
(b) Virtual value:
మ ାమమ ାయమ ାరమ ାǥǤǤ
మ
=ටభ
ଵǡଶଽହమ ାଷǡଽହమ ାǡଷହమ ାǡ଼ହమ ାଽǡଵమ ାଽǡ଼ଷమ ାଽǡ଼ଷమ ାଽǡଵమ ାǡ଼ହమ ାǡଷହమ ାଷǡଽହమ ାଵǡଶଽହమ
=
ଵଶ
ହ଼ଽǡଽ
=ට ଵଶ
= ξͶͻǡͳͶͻ
= 7,01 A
Test: lave = 0,637 xlmax
= 0,637 x10
= 6,37 A
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Ivirtual = 0,707 xlmax
= 0,707 x 10
= 7,07 A
3.8 Alternating current circuits
The primary components of alternating current circuits are resistors, inductors
(coils) and capacitors.
These components can either function separately or in combination to form
series or parallel circuits. Indirect current circuits only the ohmic resistance
opposes the flow of current, but in ac circuits the back emf, capacitor charge,
etc, must be taken into account. The effect of these components in alternating
current circuits will be discussed separately before combinations are analysed.
Definition: ohmic resistance
Electric resistance: a material's opposition to the flow of electric
current; measured in ohms.
3.8.1 A non-inductive resistor in an ac circuit
A resistor is sometimes also called a non-inductive resistance. If an alternating
current supply is connected across a pure resistance (Figure 3.7a) the current
will be the same as in the case of a dc circuit.
The current is also directly proportional to the voltage and the waveforms are
also the same, ie the voltage and the current are in phase with each other
(Figure 3.7b).
Definition: In phase
"In phase" means that the waves are passing through the maximum,
zero and minimum values at the same moment in a given direction.
The phasor diagram of the circuit is shown in Figure 3.7c.
Figure 3.7a Circuit diagram
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Figure 3.7b Waveforms of current and voltage for a resistor circuit
Figure 3.7c Phasor diagram
According to Ohm's law I = ோ
for any direct currentcircuit. If Vmax and lmax
represent the maximum values in an alternating current circuit, then
ೌೣ
Imax =
ோ
We know that lrms = 0,707 x Imax
ூೝೞ
lmax = ǡ
andVrms = 0,707 x Vmax
Vmax = ೝೞ
ǡ
ೌೣ
Therefore if Imax = ோ
ூೝೞ
ೝೞ
= ǡ௫ோ
ǡ
0,707 x Irms x R = 0,707 x Vrms
Irms = ೝೞ …………………………….. (5.17)
ோ
orVrms = Irms x R
The above satisfies the definition of the rms values of an alternating current, but
it is only applied as ܫൌ
ோ
Note:
In alternating current circuits we will refer continually to vectors and phasors.
If a phasor diagram is drawn to a specific scale the results will be similar to that
of an algebraic calculation of circuits.
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The properties of an electric phasor or vector are:
• it has magnitude as well as direction;
• vectors always rotate in an anti-clockwise direction.
A phasor or vector can thus be defined as a graphical representation of the
ratio between an alternating current and voltage
3.8.2 An inductive alternating current circuit
A pure inductance is a coil of which the resistance can for all practical purposes
be ignored. When such a coil is connected to an alternating current supply
there is a continuous change in current which
a) sets up an emf of self-induction and
b) opposes the change in current
It can be said that a change in current results in a change in flux
because they are inter-dependent.
The direction of this induced emf is always such that it tends to prevent any
change in the current in the circuit.
The induced emf is the only opposition offered by the circuit against a flow of
current because there is theoretically no resistance. The magnitude of the
current is such that the supply voltage and the induced emf have the same
value but opposite polarities.
This causes the current to lag the voltage by 90°. This opposition against the flow
of current is called inductive reactance. The formula is:
XL = ʹߨ݂ Ω ………………………………………………………………….(3.18)
Figure 3.8a, b and c show the circuit diagram, waveform and phasor diagram
of an inductive circuit:
Figure 3.8a Circuit diagram
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Figure 3.8b Waveforms of current and voltage for an inductive circuit
Figure 3.8c Phasor diagram
The current =I = …………………………………………….(3.19)
ಽ
orV = I x XL
Worked Example 3.6
A coil has an inductance of 0,25 H and is connected across a 100 V, 50 Hz
supply. Calculate:
(a) the inductive reactance
(b) the current.
Solution:
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Figure 3.9
(a) Inductive reactance XL = 2ʹߨ݂ܮ
= 2 x ߨ x 50 x 0,25
= 78,54 Ω
(b) Current I =
ಽ
ଵ
= ଼ǡହସ
= 1,273 A
3.8.3 A capacitive alternating current circuit
A capacitor basically consists of two metal plates which are separated by an
insulator. There are a variety of capacitors available but the basic principle is
the same. The function of a capacitor is to store an electric charge, ie when a
voltage is applied across a capacitor a surplus of electrons is stored on one plate
and a deficit occurs on the other.
Capacitance
The ability of a capacitor to store an electric charge and the unit is
the farad (F).
Capacitance is defined as follows:
The farad is the capacitance of a capacitor which requires a potential
difference of 1 volt to maintain a charge of 1 coulomb.
Capacitance
ሺொሻ௨
(C) farad = ௧௧ௗሺሻ௩௧
orQ = CV coulombs ……………………………………….. (5.20)
Figure 3.10a shows a schematic diagram of a capacitive circuit and Figure 3.10b
shows the waveform.
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Figure 3.10a Circuit diagram
Figure 3.10b Waveforms of current and voltage for a capacitive circuit
Figure 3.10c Phasor diagram
Referring to Figure 3.10b: at A the voltage changes from a negative to a positive
direction and the capacitor receives a maximum charging current.
The voltage now increases to B (maximum positive) while the current decreases
to zero. From B to C the voltage drops, the current is reversed and the capacitor
discharges. The current reaches its maximum negative value at C while the
voltage decreases at its maximum rate at the same point.
The cycle is completed from C through D to E and we notice that the current
leads the voltage all the way by 90° (Figure 3.10c). The capacitive reactance is
calculated by:
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ଵ
Xc= ଶగΩ …………………………………………………….(3.21)
In this case
I = ……..……………………………………………….(3.22)
orV = I x Xc
Worked Example 3.7
A capacitor of 100 MF is connected across a 250 V,50 Hz supply. Calculate (a)
the capacitive reactance and (b) the current in the circuit.
Solution
C = 100 ߤܨ
V = 250V
I = 50 Hz
Xc =? Ω
I =?A
(a) Capacitive reactance
ଵ
Xc = ଶగ
ଵ
= ଶ௫గ௫ହ௫ଵ௫ଵషల
ଵల
= ଶ௫గ௫ହ௫ଵ
= 31,83 Ω
(b) Current I =
ଶହ
= ଷଵǡ଼ଷ
= 7,854 A
3.9 Series circuits
Up to now we have considered the separate effects of a resistor, inductor and
capacitor on an alternating current circuit. It is obvious that in practice the
components are connected either in series or in parallel, eg in motors, control
panels, etc.
Any combination of components will influence the total ohmic value
(impedance) of the circuit, because the value of impedance is determined by
means of phasor calculations.
Definition: Impedance (Z)
The total opposition (not resistance) which is offered by a circuit
against the flow of an alternating current. It is applicable to all
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combined alternating current circuits containing resistors, inductors
and capacitors and the unit is also the ohm (Ω).
3.9.1 A resistor and inductor in series
A series circuit comprising a resistor and inductor is shown in Figure 3.11. The
resistor has a resistance of R ohms and the inductor an inductance of L henrys.
The combination is connected across a supply voltage of V volts with a
frequency of f hertz represents the current through the circuit.
Figure 3.11 Series circuit – resistor and inductor
Because any phasor is drawn with a common magnitude as reference, the
current (I) is used in this case because it is common to both the resistor and the
inductor (Figure 3.12).
Figure 3.12 Phasor diagram – resistor and inductor
V2 = ܸோଶ + ܸଶ
(IZ)2 = (IR)2 + (IXL)2
I2Z2 = I2R2 + I2ܺଶ
I2Z2 = I2(R2 +ܺଶ
Z2 = R2 +ܺଶ
Impedance Z = ඥܴ ଶ ܺଶ Ω
The combination of these two components, as well as other combinations,
always has the effect that the phase angle becomes smaller than 90°. From
Figure 3.12 we can deduce that:
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ூ௫ಽ
Tan = ூ௫ோ
ಽ
or tan = ோ
………………………………………………………….. (3.24)
where = phase angle between the voltage and the current of the
combination.
Referring to Figure 3.11, the relevant formulae can be summarized as follows:
Inductive reactance ܺ = ʹߨ݂………………………… ܮ..(3.18)
Impedance Z = ඥܴ ଶ ܺଶ ………………..……(3.23)
Current I = …………………………….....(3.25)
ಽ
Phase angle = ………………………………(3.24)
ோ
Voltage across resistor VR = I x R ……………………………(3.26)
Voltage across inductor VL = I x XL ………………………...…(3.27)
(a) Since it is an ac circuit the algebraic sum of VR and VL is not equal
to the supply voltage (V). V is the phasor sum of VR and VL.
(b) (b) To simplify the calculations of these types of circuits it is
recommended that circuit and phasor diagrams are drawn.
Unless a scale drawing is requested then the phasors need not
be drawn to scale but only in reasonable proportion.
Worked Example 3.8
A coil with an inductance of 0,1 H is connected in series with a 3 Ω resistor
across a 100 V, 50 Hz supply. Calculate:
(a) the inductive reactance
(b) the impedance
(c) the current
(d) the phase angle
(e) the voltage across the resistor
(f) the voltage across the inductor
Figure 3.13
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(a) Inductive reactance ܺ = ʹߨ݂ܮ
= 3 x ߨ x 50 x 0,1
= 31,416 Ω
(b) Impedance Z = ඥܴ ଶ ܺଶ
= ඥ͵ଶ ͵ͳǡͶͳଶ
= ඥͻͻͷǡͻ
= 31,56 Ω
(c) Current I =
ଵ
= ଷଵǡହ
= 3,169 A
(d) Phase angle tan = ோಽ
ଷଵǡସଵ
= ଷ
tan = 10,472
= tan-1 10,472
= 84,55°
(e) Voltage across resistor VR =IxR
= 3,169 x 3
= 9,507 V
(f) Voltage across inductor VL = I x XL
= 3,169 x 31,416
= 99,56 V
3.9.2 A resistor and capacitor in series
You have seen previously, the current leads the voltage by 90° when a
capacitor is connected to an alternating current circuit.
When a resistor and a capacitor are connected in series the current is still
leading but with an angle of between 0° and 90°, depending on the resistance
and reactance values. The above circuit is shown in Figure 3.14 and the relevant
g
phasor diagram in Figure 3.15:
Figure 3.14 Series circuit – resistor and capacitor
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Figure 3.15 Phasor diagram – resistor and capacitor
From Figure 3.15
V2 = ܸோଶ + ܸଶ
(IZ)2 = (IR)2 + (IXC)2
Z2 = R2 + ܺଶ
Z = ඥܴ ଶ ܺଶ Ω …………….. (3.28)
And phase angle tan = ………………………………(3.29)
ோ
Similar to 3.7.1 the formulae applicable to this circuit are as follows:
ଵ
Capacitive reactance ܺ = ଶగ ….………………………..(3.21)
Impedance Z = ඥܴ ଶ ܺଶ ………………..……(3.28)
Current I = …………………………….....(3.25)
Phase angle tan = ோ
………………………………(3.29)
Voltage across resistor VR = I x R ……………………………(3.26)
Voltage across inductor VC = I x XC …..…………………...…(3.30)
Worked Example 3.9
A capacitor of 352 ߤ ܨis connected in series to a 10 Ω resistor. The supply
voltage is 210 V, 50 Hz.
Calculate:
(a) capacitive reactance
(b) impedance
(c) current
(d) phase angle
(e) voltage across resistor
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(f) voltage across capacitor
Solution:
Figure 3.16
ଵ
(a) Capacitive reactance ܺ = ଶగ
ଵల
= ටଶ௫గ௫ହ௫ଷହଶ
= 9,04 Ω
(b) Impedance Z = ඥܴ ଶ ܺଶ
= ඥͳͲଶ ͻǡͲͶଶ
= ξͳͺͳǡͺ
= 13,48 Ω
(c) Current I =
ଶଵ
= ଵଷǡସ଼
= 15,58 A
(d) Phase angle tan = ோ
ଽǡସ
= ଵ
= 0,904
= tan-1 0,904
= 42,11°
(e) Voltage across resistor VR =IxR
= 15,58 x 10
= 155,8 V
(f) Voltage across inductor VC = I x XC
= 15,58 x 9,04
= 140,84 V
3.9.3 A resistor, inductor and capacitor in series
This type of circuit is generally referred to as an RLC circuit (Figure 3.17):
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Figure 3.17 Series circuit – resistor, inductor and capacitor
In Figure 3.12 the inductive reactance causes the current to lag the voltage and
in Figure 3.15 the capacitive reactance causes it to lead. In this case the position
of the phasor diagram is determined by the larger reactance. In Figure 3.18a
the position is shown if XL is larger than XC and Figure 3.18b shows the phasor if
XC>XL (>= larger than).
Figure 3.18 (a) Phasor diagram - XL larger than XC
Figure 3.18 (b) Phasor diagram – XC larger than XL
According to Pythagoras (Figure 3.18a) Z2 = R2+ (XL - XC)2 and because the
impedance (Z) is the phasor sum of R, XL and XC, we deduce that if XL > XC then:
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Impedance Z = ඥܴ ଶ ሺܺ െ ܺ ሻΩ …………………………….(3.31)
If XC>XL, the impedance
Z= ඥܴ ଶ ሺܺ െ ܺ ሻΩ …………………………….(3.31)
Summary of formulae for an RLC series circuit:
Inductive reactance
ܺ = ʹߨ݂(…………………………………………… ܮ3.18)
Capacitive reactance
ଵ
ܺ = ……………………………………………(3.21)
ଶగ
Impedance
Z = ඥܴ ଶ ሺܺ െ ܺ ሻଶ if XL> XC ………(3.31)
Impedance
Z = ඥܴ ଶ ሺܺ െ ܺ ሻଶ if XC> XL ………(3.32)
Current
I = …………………………………….. (3.25)
Phase angle
ି
tan = ಽ ோ if XL> XC ……………………...(3.33)
Phase angle
ି
tan = ோ ಽ if XC> XL ……………………...(3.34)
Voltage across inductor
VR = I x R …………………………………..(3.26)
Voltage across inductor
VL = I x XL ………………………………….(3.27)
Voltage across capacitor
VC = I x XC ………………………………….(3.30)
Worked Example 3.10
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An RLC circuit consists of a 15 Ω resistor, an inductor of 0,2 H and a 100 ߤܨ
capacitor. Thecircuit is connected across a 250 V, 50 Hz supply.
Calculate:
(a) the impedance of the circuit
(b) the total current
(c) the voltage drops across R, L and C
(d) the phase angle (leading or lagging)
(e) Draw the phasor diagram (not to scale)
Solution:
Figure 3.19
(a) Inductive reactance
ܺ = ʹߨ݂ܮ
= 2 x ߨݔͷͲͲݔǡʹ
= 62,83 Ω
Capacitive reactance
ଵ
ܺ =
ଶగ
ଵల
= ଶ௫గ௫ହ௫ଵ
= 31,83 Ω
Impedance
Z = ඥܴ ଶ ሺܺ െ ܺ ሻଶ
= ඥͳͷଶ ሺʹǡͺ͵ െ ͵ͳǡͺ͵ሻଶ
= ξͳͷଶ ͵ͳଶ
= ξͳͳͺ
= 34,44 Ω
(b) Total current
I =
ଶହ
=
ଷସǡସସ
= 7,259 A
(c) Voltage drop across resistance
VR = I x R
= 7,259 x 15
= 108,89 V
Voltage drop across inductance
VL = I x XL
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= 7,259 x 62,83
= 456,08 V
Voltage drop across capacitor
VC = I x XC
= 7,259 x 31,83
= 231,05 V
(d) Phase angle
ି
tan = ಽ ோ
ଶǡ଼ଷିଷଵǡ଼ଷ
= ଵହ
ଷଵ
= ଵହ
= tan-1 2,066
= 64,18° (lagging)
Figure 3.20 Phasor diagram
3.10 Power and power factor
The power in a dc circuit can be calculated by applying any of the following
formulae:
P = V x I watt …………………………………. (3.35)
P = I2R watt …………………………………… (3.36)
మ
P= ோ
watt …………………………………….. (3.37)
In an ac circuit these expressions are true only for instantaneous values of current
and voltage, that is, i and e. This is because the power in an ac circuit depends
on the phase relationship between the current and the voltage. The product of
the rms values of the applied voltage and current is VI volt amperes.
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Definition: volt-amperes
The term "volt-amperes" is used to distinguish this quantity from the power in
watts. The number of watts in an ac circuit is equal to or less than the volt-
amperes. In order to get the power in watts the volt-amperes must be
multiplied by the power factor.
Power (watts) = volt-amperes x power factor
P = VI cos watts …………………………… (3.38)
Definition: Power factor
The power factor may be defined as the cosine of the angle of phase
difference between voltage and current. For example, if is the angle of
phase difference,then the power factor is cos .
From the formula
P = VI cos
cos = ூ ……………………………………… (3.38)
௧௨௪ሺௐௐሻ
or cos = ௧௪ሺሻ
There are various methods used in practice to improve the power factor of an
appliance or installation. The ideal is to have a pf of 1 (one) or unity power
factor.
The smaller the phase angle, the higher the pf (remember that cos 0 ° = 1 and
cos 90 ° = 0).A high power factor means a larger power output.
By persuading consumers to improve their power factor by means of selective
tariffs; the generation and transmission losses are minimised and hence
overheads are lower.
3.10.1 Importance of power factor
The practical importance of power factor can be illustrated by the following
example:
Worked Example 3.11
A 400 V motor requires 2 000 W to be driven. Determine the current that will
flow in the supply cables if the power factor is (a) unity (1,0) and (b) 0,5.
Solution:
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(a) Power P = VI cos
= ୡ୭ୱ
ଶ
= ସ௫ଵ
=5A
(b) Power P = VI cos
= ୡ୭ୱ
ଶ
=
ସ௫ǡହ
= 10 A
The motor circuit with the 0,5 power factor requires twice the current of the
motor operating on unity power factor.
3.10.2 Effect of a low power factor
In the above example we have shown that a low power factor causes a high
current. Therefore it has the following disadvantages:
• larger cables are required to carry a larger current;
• switches, switchgear, transformers and instruments must be capable of
operating under the large currents;
• losses in the transmission lines increase (I2R losses);
• the power factor decreases when kVA increases.
3.10.3 Power factor correction
There are basically two popular methods used in practice:
• by installing capacitors;
• by using a special type of synchronous motor.
3.10.4 Active and reactive components
In Figure 3.21 a phasor diagram is shown with Vas reference value:
Figure 3.21 Phasor diagram – active and reactive components
Power depends on the current that is in phase with the voltage, and is called
the active component of the current.
= cos
AB = AC cos
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AB = 1 cos
Active component of current = 1 cos …………………… . (3.39)
Definition: Reactive or wattless component
The component at 90° to the voltage is called the reactive or
wattless component of the current:
= sin
BC = AC sin
BC = 1 sin
Reactive or watless component of current = 1 sin …………………… . (3.40)
Multiplying the current phasors (Figure 3.21) by V the power triangle is obtained
(Figure 3.22):
Figure 3.22 Power triangle
Active power
P = V x active component of current
= VI cos watt ……………………………………(3.41)
Reactive or wattless volt-amperes
Q = V x reactive component of current
= VI sin volt-amperes (VAr) ……………………………………(3.42)
Worked Example 3.12
A coil having a resistance of7,5Ω and an inductance of 0,025 H is connected
across a 200 V, 50Hzsupply. Calculate:
(a) the current
(b) the phase angle
(c) the power factor
(d) the power
(e) the reactive VA,
(f) the active current
Solution:
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(a) Inductive reactance
ܺ = ʹߨ݂ܮ
= 2 x ߨݔͷͲͲݔǡͲʹͷ
= 7,854 Ω
Impedance
Z = ඥܴ ଶ ܺଶ
= ඥǡͷଶ ǡͺͷͶଶ
= ξͳͳǡͻͶ
= 10,86 Ω
Current
I =
ଶ
= ଵǡ଼
= 18,42 A
(b) Phase angle
tan = ோಽ
ǡ଼ହସ
= ǡହ
= 1,047 2
= tan-1 1,047 2
= 46,32°
(c) Power factor
ோ
cos =
ǡହ
= ଵǡ଼
= 0,69
(d) Power
P = VIcos
= 200 x 18,32 x cos 46,32°
= 200 x 18,32 x 0,69
= 2 530,5 W
= 2,530 5 kW
(e) Reactive VAr
Q = VI sin
= 200 x 18,42 x sin 46,32°
= 200 x 18,42 x 0,723
= 2 664,3 VAr
(f) Active current
= Icos
= 18,42 x cos 46,30°
= 18,42 x 0,69
= 12,71 A
3.11 Resonance in a series circuit
In Figure 3.18a, XL is assumed greater than XC; hence the reactance acting in
the circuit is XL- XC.
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The supply voltage V is then the phasor resultant of IR and I(XL- XC) and the
inductive reactance dominates the circuit.
In Figure 3.18b the capacitive reactance (XC) is larger than the inductive
reactance (XL) and the current is leading the voltage by °.
If, however, a circuit is such that XL= XC the voltages IXL and IXC will be equal and
in phase opposition, thus cancelling out. The voltage phasor (V) is then in phase
with current (I) and the circuit behaves as a pure resistor (R) (Figure 3.23). This
effect is known as series resonance and the frequency is called the resonant
frequency.
Figure 3.23 Phasor diagram – series resonance
In order to obtain resonant frequency XL = XC. If suitable components are not
available adjustable capacitors and inductors are normally used.
If XL = XC
ଵ
ʹߨ݂ܮ = ଶగ
Ͷߨ ଶ ݂ ଶ ܥܮ =1
ଵ
݂ଶ = మ
ସగ
ଵ
݂ = ටସగమ
ଵ
Resonant frequency ݂ = ටଶగξ Hz ………….. (5.43)
In summary, because XL= XC, therefore XL- XC= 0. Referring to either formula we
can see that Z= R. The resonance frequency is unaffected by any resistance
because the formula only contains L and C.
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Worked Example 3.13
Determine the resonant frequency of a series circuit containing a coil of 0,15
H and a capacitor of 250ߤ݂.
Solution:
ଵ
݂ = ටଶగξ
ଵ
=
ଶగඥǡଵହ௫ଶହ௫ଵషల
ଵ
= ǡଷ଼ସ଼
= 25,98 Hz
3.12 More examples on series circuits
Worked Example 3.14
A 110 V, 100 W lamp is required to be used on a 240 V, 50 Hz supply. What
capacitance must be connected in series with the lamp in order that it will
operate properly?
Solution:
Treat the lamp as purely resistive so that the circuit will be as in Figure 5.24:
Figure 3.24
From formula 5.38: P = V x I x cos
I = ௫௦
ଵ
= ଵଵ௫ଵ
= 0,91 A
Remember that cos =1 because it is a pure resistance.
We know that the voltage across the lamp cannot exceed 110 V. From Figure
3.25 the voltage across the capacitor can be determined.
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Figure 5.25
V2 = V2R + V2C
VC = ξܸ ଶ ܸ ଶ ோ
= ξʹͶͲଶ െ ͳͳͲଶ
= 213,3 V
Capacitive reactance: XC = ூ
ଶଵଷǡଷ
= ǡଽଵ
= 234,4 Ω
ଵ
We know that XC = ଶగ
ଵ
C = ଶ௫గ௫௫
ଵల
= ଶ௫గ௫ହ௫ଶଷସǡସ
= 13,58 ߤܨ
Worked Example 3.15
A heater which may be regarded as purely resistive consumes 1,05 kW and
takes 8 A when operating at its rated values. Determine the inductance of a
choke which, when connected in series with the heater across a 240 V, 50 Hz
supply, will produce the ideal working conditions.
Solution:
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Figure 3.26
Power P = I2R
R = ூమ
ଵହ
=
଼మ
Resistance of heater R = 16,41 Ω
Impedance of circuit Z =ூ
ଶସ
= ଼
= 30 Ω
If impedance Z = ܴ ଶ ܺଶ
XL = ξܼ ଶ െ ܴ ଶ
= ඥ͵Ͳଶ െ ͳǡͶͳଶ
= ξͻͲͲ െ ʹͻǡʹͻ
= ξ͵Ͳǡʹ
= 25,11 Ω
The inductance of the choke is:
ܺ = ʹߨ݂ܮ
ಽ
L = ଶగ
ଶହǡଵଵ
=
ଶ௫గ௫ହ
= 0,079 9 H
= 79,9 mH
Worked Example 3.16
A resistor of 40 Ω is connected in series with a capacitance of 50 ߤ ܨacross a
110 V supply. If thecurrent is 2 A, what is (a) the frequency of the supply and
(b) the voltage across the capacitor and the resistor?
Solution:
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Figure 3.27
(a) The impedance Z =
ூ
ଵଵ
= ଶ
= 55 Ω
Because Z = ඥܴ ଶ ܺଶ
XC = ξܼ ଶ െ ܴ ଶ
= ξͷͷଶ െ ͶͲଶ
= ξͳͶʹͷ
= 37,75 Ω
ଵ
Capacitive reactance XC =ଶగ
ଵ
݂ =
ଶ௫గ௫௫మ
ଵల
= ଶ௫గ௫ହ௫ଷǡହ
= 84,32 Hz
(b) Voltage across resistor VR = I x R
= 2 x 40
= 80 V
Voltage across capacitor VC = I x XC
= 2 x 37,75
= 75,5 V
We can check these voltages by applying the phasor sum formula:
V = ඥܸோଶ ܸଶ
= ඥͺͲଶ ͷǡͷଶ
= ඥͳʹͳͲͲǡʹͷ
= 110 V, ie the supply voltage
3.13 Parallel alternating current circuits
3.13.1 Resistor and inductor in parallel
In Figure 3.28a a resistor R and an inductor L are connected in parallel across a
voltage V with a frequency ݂. The phasor diagram of the circuit is shown in Figure
3.28b.
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Figure 3.28(a) Circuit diagram – resistor and inductor in parallel
Figure 3.28 (b) Phasor diagram – resistor and inductor in parallel
Because the voltage is common for all the components (parallel connection) it
is used as reference phasor when phasor diagrams are drawn.
If the components can be regarded as pure, then:
Current through resistor IR = ோ (voltage and current in phase) ………… (3.44)
Current through inductor IL = (current lagging the voltage by 90°) … (3.45)
ಽ
From the phasor diagram I2 = ܫோଶ ܫଶ
I = ඥܫோଶ ܫଶ (5.46)
ூ
And the phase angle tan = ூ ಽ ………………………………………………… (3.47)
ೃ
The current I is thus the vector sum of IR and IL.
Worked Example 3.17
An inductor of80 mH is connected in parallel with a60 Ω resistor. If the supply
voltage is 200 V, 50 Hz,calculate:
(a) the current through each component
(b) the total current
(c) the impedance
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(d) the phase angle
Solution:
Figure 3.29
(a) Inductive reactance
ܺ = ʹߨ݂ܮ
= 2 x ߨݔͷͲݔͺͲିͲͳݔଷ
= 25,132 Ω
Current through resistor
IR =
ோ
ଶ
=
= 3,333 A
Current through inductor
IL =
ಽ
ଶ
= ଶହǡଵଷଶ
= 7,958 A
(b) Total current
I = ඥܫோଶ ܫଶ
= ඥ͵ǡ͵͵͵ଶ ǡͻͷͺଶ
= ξͶǡͶ͵ͺ
= 8,628 A
Impedance
Z =
ூ
ଶ
= ଼ǡହ଼
= 23,18 Ω
b) Phase angle
ூ
tan = ூ ಽ
ೃ
ǡଽହ଼
= ଷǡଷଷଷ
= tan-1 2,388
= 67,27° (current lagging)
3.13.2 Resistor and capacitor In parallel
This combination is shown in Figure 3.30a and the phasor diagram in Figure
3.30b:
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Figure 3.30a Circuit diagram – resistor and capacitor in parallel
Figure 3.30b Circuit diagram – resistor and capacitor in parallel
From the phasor diagram the current through the capacitor (Ic) is now leading
the voltage by 90° and as in 5.12.1 we can deduce that:
I2 = ܫோଶ ܫଶ
ൌඥܫோଶ ܫଶ ……………………………………. (3.48)
ூ
and the phase angle tan = ூ ………………………..… (3.49)
ೃ
Worked Example 3.18
A capacitor of 150 ߤܨis connected in parallel with a 50 Ω resistor across a 120
V, 50 Hz supply. Calculate:
(a) the total current
(b) the phase angle
(c) the power
Solution:
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Figure 3.31
(a) Current through resistor
IR = ோ
ଵଶ
= ହ
= 2,4 A
Before the current through the capacitor can be calculated, the capacitive
reactance XC must first be determined:
Capacitive reactance
ଵ
XC =
ଶగ
ଵల
=
ଶ௫గ௫ହ௫ଵହ
= 21,22 Ω
Current through capacitor
IC =
ଵଶ
=
ଶଵǡଶଶ
= 5,655 A
Total current
I = ඥܫோଶ ܫଶ
= ඥʹǡͶଶ ͷǡͷͷଶ
= ξ͵ǡͶ
= 6,143 A
b) Phase angle
ூ
tan = ூ
ೃ
ହǡହହ
= ଶǡସ
= 2,356
= tan-1 2,356
= 67° (current leading)
(c) Power
P = VIsin
= 120 x 6,143 x cos 67°
= 120 x 6,143 x 0,39
= 288,02 W
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3.13.3 Resistor, inductor and capacitor in parallel
A resistor R, an inductor L and a capacitor C connected in parallel are shown
in Figure 3.32:
Figure 3.32 Circuit diagram – resistor, inductor and capacitor in parallel
If the circuit is analysed by means of phasors the following deductions can be
made:
Figure 3.33 (a) Phasor diagram if IL>IC
(a) Assume IL>IC (Figure 3.33 (a)), then the phasor sum is:
I2 = ܫோଶ ሺܫ െ ܫ ሻଶ
I = ඥܫோଶ ሺܫ െ ܫ ሻଶ ……………………………… (5.50)
ூ ିூ
And tan = ಽூ ……………………………………………. (5.51)
ೃ
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Figure 3.33 (b) Phasor diagram if IC > IL
(a) With IC > IL (Figure 3.33 (b)), the phasor sum is:
I2 = ܫோଶ ሺܫ െ ܫ ሻଶ
I = ඥܫோଶ ሺܫ െ ܫ ሻଶ ……………………………… (3.52)
ூ ିூ
And tan = ಽ ……………………………………………. (3.53)
ூೃ
Note:
(a) As already shown in 3.11.1 and 3.11.2,
IL= , ܫ = and Z = ூ
ಽ
(b) The voltage Vis the reference value if phasors for parallel circuits are drawn.
(c) The position of the current I with regard to the voltage V on the phasor
diagram determines whether the phase angle (and thus also the powerf
actor) will be leading or lagging.
Worked Example 3.19
A parallel circuit consists of a resistor of 60 Ω, an inductance of 50 mH and a
capacitance of 150 ߤܨ.
If the supply voltage is 120 V, 50 Hz calculate:
(a) the current through each component
(b) the total current
(c) the impedance
(d) the phase angle
(e) the power factor
(f) the active power.
(g) Draw the phasor diagram (not to scale).
Figure 3.34
Solution:
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(a) Current through the resistance
IR =ோ
ଵଶ
=
=2A
Inductive reactance
ܺ = ʹߨ݂ܮ
= 2 x ߨݔͷͲݔͷͲିͲͳݔଷ
= 15,71 Ω
Current through inductor
IL =
ಽ
ଵଶ
= ଵହǡଵ
= 7,638 A
Capacitive reactance
ଵ
XC = ଶగ
ଵల
=
ଶ௫గ௫ହ௫ଵହ
= 21,22 Ω
Current through capacitor
IC =
ଵଶ
= ଶଵǡଶଶ
= 5,655 A
(b) Total current
I = ඥܫோଶ ሺܫ െ ܫ ሻଶ
= ඥʹଶ ሺǡ͵ͺ െ ͷǡͷͷሻଶ
= ξǡͻ͵ʹ
= 2,816 A
(c) Impedance
Z =ூ
ଵଶ
=
ଶǡ଼ଵ
= 42,614
(d) Phase angle
ூಽష
tan = ூೃ
ǡଷ଼ିହǡହହ
= ଶ
= 0,991 5
= tan-1 0,991 5
= 44,76°
(e) Power factor
cos = cos 44,76°
= 0,71
ூ
or cos = ூೃ
ଶ
= ଶǡ଼ଵ
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= 0,71
(f) Active power
P = VIcos
= 120 x 2,816 x cos 44,76°
= 120 x 2,816 x 0,71
= 240 W
(g) Phasor diagram
Figure 3.35
3.14 Resonance in parallel circuits
If the values of L and C in Figure 3.36 are such that IL= lC, then IL= lC = 0. Then the
resultant current I is equal to the current through the resistor lR(I= lR),and it means
theoretically that the current circulates through L and C and that no current is
required from the supply.
This state or condition is called current resonance and is only applicable to
parallel circuits.
If it is assumed that the coil and capacitor are pure(ie no resistance to influence
the circuit), then XL= XC and thus IL= lC.
This is the same as in the case of a series circuit and the resonance frequency is
also:
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ଵ
݂ ൌ ଶగξHz
Figure 3.36 Phasor diagram – parallel resonance
Worked Example 3.20
A parallel electronic circuit is tuned to a frequency of 1 500 Hz with a capacitor
of 0,075ߤܨ. Calculate the inductance of the coil in the circuit if the frequency
is at resonance.
Solution:
Resonant frequency
ଵ
݂ = ଶగξ
ʹߨ݂ξܥܮ =1
Ͷߨ ଶ ݂ ଶ ξܥܮ =1
ଵ
L =
ସ௫గ మ ௫ మ ௫
ଵల
= ସ௫గమ ௫ଵହమ ௫ǡହ
= 0,15 H
3.15 Three-phase alternating current circuits
Single-phase circuits, although very efficient for lighting and other domestic
purposes, are less efficient for industrial purposes.
Single-phase equipment (such as single-phase motors) is much more expensive
than three-phase equipment. This is due to their greater complexity with regard
to starting mechanisms and capacitors.
The advantages of a three-phase system are as follows:
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• A three-phase machine delivers higher power for the same size of frame
than does a single-phase machine.
• In the case of alternators, the same size prime mover is required for both
single- and three-phase.
• A three-phase motor generates a higher torque than does a single-phase
motor of the same size.
• A three-phase supply is more versatile since, when connected in star, it can
deliver both line and phase voltages.
Three-phase supply is obtained from a three-phase alternator. The three-phase
alternator has three windings which rotate in a uniform magnetic field to
produce three emf’s with a mutual phase difference of 120 °.
The instantaneous value for one phase is
e1 = Emax sin ߱ ݐvolts.
Corresponding instantaneous values for emf's in the other two phases will be:
e2 = Emax sin (߱ ݐെ ͳʹͲιሻ volts.
and e3 = Emax sin (߱ ݐെ ʹͶͲιሻ volts.
Figure 3.37 Arrangement of three-phase coils
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Figure 3.39 Phasor diagram
Definition: Delta-connected system
There is no neutral in this system; it is therefore a straightforward three-
wire connection. The line voltage is obviously equal to the phase
voltage VL= VP.
Figure 3.38 Waveforms of three-phase
The line current divides vectorially between the two phases. In the case of a
balanced system
IL1 = IL2 = IL3
ூಽ
= IP cos 30°
ଶ
ூಽ ξଷ
= IP ଶ
ଶ
IL = ඥ͵ܫ
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Figure 3.40 Delta connection
Power in a delta system
Power
= ሺܸଵ ܫଵ ଵ ሻ ሺܸଶ ܫଶ ଶ ሻ ሺܸଷ ܫଷ ଷ ሻ
ூ ூ
= ͵ܸ ಽ ሺܾ݁ܿܽܫ݁ݏݑ ൌ ಽ
ξଷ ξଷ
= ξ͵ܸ ܫ watts
(a) The power is the same for star and delta if the values of VLIL and
cos are the same.
(b) In both cases is the phase difference of VP and IP and not VL and
I L.
Definition: Star-connected system
In a balanced system the three line currents are equal, having the
same phase angle with their respective voltages. The line current
phasors will be equal with a mutual phase difference of 120°. Hence
the phasor sum is zero and the current in the neutral wire of a
balanced star-connected system is therefore zero.
In a star connected system the line current is equal to the phase current.
Therefore: IL = IP
VP1 = VP2 = VP3
The voltage E between any pair of lines is the phasor difference of the voltages
in the two phases supplying that pair.
VL is the vector difference between VP1 and VP2
Therefore: VL = 2 cos 30° x VP1
ಽ ξଷ
= VP. ଶ
ଶ
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ξଷ
VL = 2VP.
ଶ
VL = ξ͵.VP
Power (W) = ξ͵.VLIL cos watts
If efficiency is given,
W= ξ͵.VLIL cos x η watts
(in star and delta)
Worked Example 3.21
A 80 kW, 500 V, three-phase alternating current motor has a power factor of
0,88 and an efficiency of 85%. Calculate the line current of the motor.
Solution:
W = 80 kW
VL = 500 V
cos = 0,88
ߨ = 85%
IL =? A
W = ξ͵VLIL cos x η
ௐ
IL = ௫ ୡ୭ୱ ௫
ξଷಽ
଼
=
ξଷ௫ହ௫ǡ଼଼௫ǡ଼ହ
= 123,5 A
Worked Example 3.22
A 100 kW, three-phase alternating current motor is connected in delta and the
supply voltage is 600 V.
If the power factor is 0,91 , calculate:
(a) the phase voltage,
(b) the phase current of the motor
Solution:
W = 100 kW (∆ connected)
VL = 600 V
cos = 0,91
VP =? V
IL =?A
(a) In delta VL = VP
VP = 600 V
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(b) W = ξ͵VLIL cos
ௐ
IL = ୡ୭ୱ
ξଷಽ
ଵ௫ଵ
=
ξଷ௫௫ǡଽଵ
= 105,74 A
ூ
But IP = ಽ
ξଷ
ଵହǡସ
=
ξଷ
= 61 A
Activity 3.1
1. Define:
(a) instantaneous value
(b) period
(c) frequency
2. What is meant by
(a) rms value
(b) average value?
3. An alternating voltage is represented by e = 250 sin 628,4 t.
Calculate
(a) the frequency
(b) the instantaneous value 0,002 5 seconds after zero.
(answers: 100 Hz; 250 V)
4. Define:
(a) the form factor
(b) the crest factor
of an alternating current waveform.
5. A sine wave voltage follows the equation e = Em sin ʹߨ݂ݐ. If the maximum
value of the voltage is 200 V and the frequency is 60 Hz, calculate the
instantaneous value of the voltage 0,012 5 seconds after it has passed
through zero and increases positively. What will the value be if it is
measured 0,001 25 seconds after zero?
(answers: - 200 V; 90,8 V)
6. The effective value of a sinusoidal current is 15 A. Calculate the maximum
and average values of the current.
(answers: 21,22 A; 13,51 A)
7. If the average value of an alternating voltage is 145 V, calculate the virtual
and the maximum value of the voltage.
(answers: 160,9 V; 227,6 V)
8. A coil has an effective length of 500 cm and moves at a right angle with a
magnetic field at 50 metres per second. If the flux density is 0,075 teslas,
calculate the induced emf. (answer: 18,75 V)
9. The instantaneous values of a voltage wave are as indicated in table 5.1,
measured with 15 o intervals, over a half wavelength.
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Determine the:
(a) average value
(b) effective value
(c) form factor
(d) crest factor.
See Table 3.1 (answers: 62,83 V; 71,91 V; 1, 145; 1,544)
10. An alternating current of 50 Hz has a maximum value of 100 A. If the time
is taken from the moment that the wave value is 0 and becoming positive,
determine:
ଵ
(a) the instantaneous value after second
ଷ
(b) the time required for the current to reach + 80 A for the first time.
If the waveform is sinusoidal, also calculate the effective and the average
values.
(answers: 86,6 A; 0,002 95 s; 63,7 A; 70,7 A)
11. The following ordinates have been taken during a half cycle of a symmetric
alternating current wave. Assume that the wave between the points are
straight lines and determine the:
(a) average value
(b) effective value
(c) form factor.
See Table 3.2 (answers: 14,2 A; 16,4 A; 1,155)
12. A triangular voltage wave has values over a half cycle as given. The half
waves are identical. Draw the wave on scale and determine:
(a) average value
(b) effective value
(c) form factor
(d) crest factor.
See Table 3.3 (answers: 5 V; 5,77 V; 1, 154; 1,734)
Angle
1 3 9 10 12 13 15 16 18
(degrees 0 45 60 75
5 0 0 5 0 5 0 5 0
)
e 4 8 10 11 10 9
0 76 53 32 25 21 0
(volts) 3 4 9 0 2 3
Table 3.1
Angle
4 9 12 15 16 18
(degrees 0 15 30 60 75 105 135
5 0 0 0 5 0
)
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Current
3, 8, 1 19, 22, 2 25, 15,
(amperes 0 23 9,4 4,2 0
6 4 4 4 5 5 2 6
)
Table 3.2
Time
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
(ms)
Voltage 0 2 4 6 8 10 8 6 4 2 0
Table 3.3
13. If the waveform of an alternating voltage has a crest factor of 1,5 and a
form factor of 1,15, calculate (a) the average and (b) the effective values
if the maximum value is 4,5 kV.
(answers: 2,61 kV; 3 kV)
14. Determine the capacitance of a capacitor required to limit the current to
5 A when it is connected across a 200 V, 400 Hz supply. (answer: 9,95 ߤ)ܨ
15. An inductance of 0,2 H is connected across a 415 V supply. At what
frequency will a current of 4 A now in the circuit? (answer: 82,5 Hz)
16. A resistor of 0,05 MΩ and a 0,2 ߤ ܨcapacitor are connected in series across
a 415 V, 50 Hz supply. Calculate the current and the voltage across both
components.
(answers: 7,92 mA; 396 V; 126 V)
17. A coil with an inductance of 0,1 Hand a resistor of 10 Ω are connected in
series with a 200 ߤ ܨcapacitor. The supply is 250 V, 50 Hz. Calculate:
(a) the current
(b) the voltage across the inductance
(c) the voltage across the capacitance
(d) the voltage across the resistor
(e) the power factor
(f) the phase angle.
(answers: 13,55 A; 425,5 V; 215,4 V; 135,5 V; 0,542; 57,2°)
18. A coil has a resistance of 6 Ω and an inductance of 0,03 H. Calculate the
following if it is connected across a 50 V, 60 Hz supply:
(a) current
(b) phase angle
(c) power factor
(d) power
(e) active current
(f) reactive current
(g) active volt-ampere
(h) reactive volt-ampere.
(answers: 3,905 A; 62,05 °; 0,469; 91 ,514 W; 1,831 A; 3,45 A; 91 ,514 VA; 172,5
VA)
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19. A three-phase motor is connected in delta across a 380 volt supply and it
draws a line current of 25 amperes at a power factor of 0,86 lagging.
Calculate:
(a) input power in kW
(b) apparent power in kVA
(c) current that will flow through each phase winding.
(answers: 14,15 kW; 16,454 kVA; 14,43 A)
20. What is meant by the term power factor of an alternating current circuit?
21. A circuit consists of a 10 ohm resistor a 0,18 Henry inductor and a 150
microfarad capacitor, all connected in parallel with each other across a
100 volt, 25 hertz supply. Calculate:
(a) the current through each component
(b) the total current drawn from the supply
(c) the phase angle (state if it is leading or lagging)
(d) the power factor.
(e) Draw a phasor diagram (not to scale).
(answers: 10 A; 3,537 A; 2,356 A; 10,09 A; 6,735 °; 0,993)
22. Draw phasor diagrams to show the relationship between voltage and
current in the following components:
(a) a pure resistor
(b) a pure inductor
(c) a pure capacitor.
23. A circuit consists of a 12 ohm resistor, a 0,15 Henry inductor and a 100
microfarad capacitor connected in series across a 220 volt, 50 Hz supply.
Calculate:
(a) the impedance of the circuit
(b) the total current
(c) the voltage drop across each component
(d) the phase angle (state whether it is leading or lagging).
(e) Draw a phasor diagram (not to scale).
(answers: 19,44 Ω; 11,317 A; 135,8 V; 533,3 V; 360,2 V; 51,88°)
24. A circuit consists of a 12 ohm resistor a 0,15 henry inductor and 100
microfarad capacitor, all connected in parallel across a 200 volt, 60 Hz
supply. Calculate:
(a) the current through each component
(b) the total current.
(c) Draw a phasor diagram (not to scale).
(answers: 16,667 A; 4,244 A; 6,283 A; 16,79 A)
25. A 10 Ω resistor is connected in parallel with a 31,8 mH inductor across a 200
V, 50 Hz supply. Calculate the current and the power factor of the circuit.
(answers: 28,28 A; 0,707)
Self-Check
I am able to: Yes No
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x Describe the phase angle
x Define Ac circuits with:
o Resistance
o Inductance
o Capacitance
x Define impedance as per:
o The series XL circuit
o The series XC circuit
o The series XC, SL and R circuit
o The parallel RL circuit
o The parallel RC circuit
o The parallel XC, XL and R circuit
x Define:
o Series resonance
o Parallel resonance
If you have answered ‘no’ to any of the outcomes listed above, then speak
to your facilitator for guidance and further development.
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Learning Outcomes
On the completion of this module the student must be able to:
x Identify the characteristics of materials:
o Metals
o Semiconductors
o Temperature
o Photo-conduction
x Describe intrinsic semiconductors
x Describe N-type semiconductors
x Describe P-type material
x Explain the P-N junction
x Explain Fermi-levels
x Describe the following:
o Bias on the P-N junction
x Describe diode characteristics and diode ratings factors
x Explain the basis for device ratings:
o Voltage ratings (V ...)
Forward voltage drop (VF)
Peak reverse voltage (VRM)
Reverse breakdown voltage (VBR)
o Forward current ratings (I F or IC)
Surge current {IFM(surge)}
Reverse current (I R)
o Power-dissipation ratings (P)
o Junction-temperature ratings
o Reverse recovery time (trr)
x Describe the following characteristics:
o Low-current rectifiers: 0,1 – 12 A
o Medium-current rectifiers: 15 – 35 A
o High-current rectifiers: 50 – 1 000 A
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4.1 Introduction
Semiconductors are a class of elements that are neither good
conductors nor insulators. The resistance of such materials can be
made to vary widely with the application of heat and light which is
due to their atomic structure.
It is because they have these characteristics that materials such as germanium
and silicon are widely used in the manufacture of transistors, diodes, photocells
and integrated circuits.
4.2 Characteristics of materials
When the resistivity of different materials at room temperature is analysed, it is
represented graphically as shown in Figure 4.1. It can be seen that there are
three main groups of materials: non-conductors (isolators), conductors and
semiconductors.
Non-conductors are also known as insulators and are materials that do not allow
the flow of electrons.
Figure 4.2
Semiconductors are of interest here. They can be found in group IV A of the
periodic table, which means that they all have only four valency or free
electrons.
Some of these elements (lead, for example) are conductors at room
temperature, but others, including silicon and germanium, are insulators at room
temperature, provided that they are pure and not alloys (a mixture of two or
more materials).
These elements are now discussed. What is valid for germanium also applies to
silicon.
4.2.1 Metals
In the case of metals such as lithium and magnesium, the conduction and
valency bands overlap, and in the case of graphite, the two bands just touch
each other. In these cases, there is no energy gap and the electrons can move
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back and forth between the bands without needing extra energy to create
movement.
Enough free electrons are thus in the conduction band of metals to ensure good
conduction.
Graphite is also a good conductor although not as good as a metal (see Figure
4.2).
Figure 4.2
It is interesting to note that mobile electrons are also good conductors of heat
energy because they move at such high speed. This is the reason why metals
are good conductors of heat. There are many other large differences between
metals.
For example, the valency band of lithium is only half full, while that of beryllium
is completely full. In both cases, the bands overlap and they are therefore both
good conductors.
4.2.2 Semiconductors
The conduction band of silicon has a few electrons, but not too many, which
shows that a certain amount of conduction can take place. In Figure 4.3 it can
be seen that there are a few holes in the silicon valency band.
A better term is available vacancies. These holes were occupied by the
electrons before they "jumped" the gap. These holes can again be filled by
electrons. Therefore they play an important role in the conduction abilities of a
material.
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In the case of germanium, it can be seen that the energy gap is very much
smaller than that of silicon.
The chances of heat energy gain is thus very much better than that of silicon.
There are many more electrons in the conduction band of an intrinsic
germanium crystal than in that of an intrinsic silicon crystal. Intrinsic means that
the crystal is built up of only one type of atom.
Extrinsic means that the crystal has impurities or is built up of different types of
atoms. This means that germanium is a much better conductor than silicon.
The chances of an electron jumping the band at room temperature is 1 in 1 000
000 and very much less for silicon. The fact is that there are so many electrons in
a material that the possibility exists that the material could become a
semiconductor.
Figure 4.3
4.2.3 Temperature
Temperature has a large influence on all materials, and if germanium and silicon
are cooled down, their conductivity is reduced. Germanium has to be cooled
more than silicon to obtain the same weakening of conductivity, because the
bands in the latter are further apart.
It must also be pointed out that conductivity of the intrinsic semiconductors
increases dramatically with an increase in temperature, whereas that of
conductors decreases.
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Figure 4.4 shows how the characteristics change with an increase in
temperature. The resistance of a conductor increases with temperature,
whereas that of a non-conductor decreases with increased temperature.
The semiconductor first behaves as a nonconductor, then as a conductor, and
again as a non-conductor.
Figure 4.4
The resistance of a conductor increases with temperature, and the material
therefore has a positive temperature coefficient (PTC). An insulator has a
negative temperature coefficient (NTC): the resistance decreases with an
increase in temperature.
NTC materials are also known as thermistors. Thermistors are normally made of
semiconductor material and are used in the temperature region where the
resistance decreases when the temperature increases.
4.2.4 Photo-conduction
Light particles (photons) are able to move electrons from the valency band to
the conduction band if they have enough energy. The energy gap in a
diamond is too big for light energy to move the electrons. The photons are not
absorbed and the diamond is therefore transparent.
Visible photons are absorbed by metals and the metals appear dull. Most of the
photons are emitted again by the metal. When a semiconductor is exposed to
photon emission, the electrons will absorb the photons, gaining energy and
jumping from the valency band to the conduction band, causing the
semiconductor to be conductive.
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This principle is used in photoconductivity and solar cells. The type of
semiconductor is chosen for its sensitivity to a specific spectrum of photons.
Note:
The voltage by which a semiconductor diode starts to conduct
relates to the band gap of the material used. Silicon starts to
conduct at 0,55 V and germanium at a much lower voltage.
4.3 Intrinsic semiconductors
Germanium was the material that led to semiconductor theory and became
widely used, but in the past decade, silicon has taken its place because it can
withstand higher temperatures. Germanium, on the other hand, has a better
conductivity, so each element has found its own applications.
It has been explained that germanium has only four valency electrons. In its pure
state, germanium (Ge) forms covalent bonds with other germanium atoms to
form a stable crystal. These crystals are usually shown in two dimensions, as in
Figure 4.5. The diagram is known as a crystal-lattice structure.
Note:
Only four electrons out of the 32 are shown, with only four protons.
Figure 4.5
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4.4 N-type semiconductors
When two or more atoms are combined, they form a compound. When a
pentavalent atom is added to germanium, a new composition is formed.
Definition: Pentavalent
A pentavalent atom is an atom with five valency electrons.
It is also known as a donor atom. In pure germanium, this donor atom is known
as an impurity.
Examples of impurities are phosphorus, antimony and arsenic. The process of
adding these impurities to germanium is known as doping. Doping is done in
very small concentrations and the amount of doping determines the
characteristics of the new alloy or composition.
Important Note!
An important fact about this new material is that it is still electrically
neutral. There is a general belief that such materials are electrically
negative, but this is incorrect.
Look carefully at Figure 4.6(a). There are eight germanium atoms. Each has four
protons and four electrons. There is one phosphorus atom with five protons and
five electrons. There are equal numbers of electrons and protons.
Figure 4.6(a) shows the newly formed material as well as its structure, with four of
the phosphorus electrons forming covalent bonds with the germanium
electrons. One of the electrons of the phosphorus has not formed a covalent
bond because there are not enough electrons to do so.
This electron is now the important one to look at because it can take part in an
electrical conduction process. This free electron causes the gennanium, which
was a non-conductor, to become a conductor such as copper or zinc. The
amount of conductivity depends on the amount of doping.
Conduction through this structure is shown in Figure 4.6(b). The positive terminal
of the battery will attract the free electron, and this leaves a vacant position.
This vacant position gives the structure a positive charge. This positive charge
attracts an electron out of the battery and in turn there is a free flow of electrons
through the structure. This material is known as an N-type semiconductor (since
it is in fact a conductor).
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Figure 4.6
The battery can be reversed and the current will still flow. Current can flow
through this device in either direction.
4.5 P-type material
A P-type semiconductor can be made by using a trivalent (three valency
electron) or an acceptor atom as an impurity. Examples of trivalent atoms are
boron and indium, which are both in the III A group.
In this case, only three covalent bonds are formed with the impurity. One
germanium electron remains without a covalent bond, which means a free
electron exists. There is now a place where a covalent bond can be formed,
and this vacancy is known as a hole.
This P-type material also has no charge and it is also a conductor. Figure 4.7
shows how the structure is formed and how conduction takes place through the
material. Conduction is again in both directions.
Conduction is by means of the free electrons. If a hole flows through a
conductor, it must make another hole, and a series of holes through a conductor
causes a "pipe".
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Electrons from the negative side of a battery cause covalent bonds in the
material, and this makes the material negative. This negative charge is attracted
by the positive of the battery.
There is much literature that refers to hole flow, and this phenomenon can be
explained by a very simple example and some imagination.
Figure 4.7
Four chairs are shown in Figure 4.8, with three people in positions A, Band C.
The person in chair C moves to chair D, B moves to C and A moves to B. Thus all
the people change places. It is clear that it is always the people who move. If
only the chairs are watched, it seems that the people remain where they are
and the chairs move.
In fact, the people move from left to right and it appears as if the empty chairs
move from right to left. (In this example, the people are the electrons and the
empty chairs the "holes".)
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Hole flow is related to conventional current flow. Holes are sometimes referred
to as positive carriers of electricity, just as electrons are negative carriers of
electricity. These are all concepts that are generally used.
Figure 4.8
4.6 The P-N junction
When P-type and N-type materials are joined by means of a special process, a
phenomenon known as diffusion takes place.
Note:
They are not electrically joined; if one conductor is electrically joined
to another conductor, the assembly itself is another conductor.
Diffusion is the penetration of electrons from a dense medium to a less dense
medium. In this way the P-N junction is obtained. Electrons will diffuse from the
N-type material to the P-type material.
This phenomenon is the most important part of the manufacture of the junction.
A load distribution takes place and the further away from the junction it is, the
lower the charge or load will be. The diffusion also causes the P-type to become
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negative in the region of the junction, whereas the N-type becomes positive
(see Figure 4.9).
Figure 4.9
The dotted lines show an imaginary battery cell. There is a definite potential, but
it is not easily measurable. What is important is how this junction reacts under
bias conditions. Bias in electronics means a voltage applied to a device.
If it enhances current flow (like a wind from behind when you travel), it is called
forward bias. If it opposes current flow, it is called reverse bias (like a wind against
you when you travel).
4.7 Fermi-levels
To describe and define Fermi-levels fully, we would have to use theories well
outside the scope of this book. For this reason, we will use a very qualitative
method.
The Fermi-level is an energy level which corresponds to the so-called centre of
gravity of the conduction electrons and the holes which counterbalance
according to their energies.
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In an intrinsic semiconductor, there is ah equal number of electrons and holes.
Furthermore, both have energy distributions which reduce exponentially from
the band borders.
Figure 4.10(a) shows clearly the load distribution and the Fermi-level of an
intrinsic semiconductor.
Figure 4.10
Fermi-levels have two important characteristics:
x Whenever an intrinsic semiconductor receives a donor impurity, it becomes
an N-type semiconductor, with more electrons than holes. The result is that
the Fermi-level moves in the direction of the conduction band - see Figure
4.10(b). Likewise, when acceptor atoms are added to an intrinsic
semiconductor, to obtain a P-type, the Fermi-level will move in the direction
of the valency band - see Figure 4.10(c).
x This characteristic explains the placement of the Fermi-level when P- and N-
type materials are bonded together - see Figure 4.10(d). This theory of Fermi-
level placement is used in physics to explain the atomic structure change
when the junction of a diode is subjected to bias.
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Definition: Fermi-level
"Fermi level is the average energy of a crystal at any
temperature". Fermi level is the term used to describe the top of the
collection of electron energy levels at absolute zero temperature.
4.8 Bias
When a potential is applied to a circuit or apparatus, it is known as biasing, or
applying a bias.
There are three types of bias to be considered:
x no bias;
x forward bias;
x reverse bias.
Note:
Positive and negative bias are not used in transistor theory. Positive
and negative biasing are used in valve circuits. Some transistors
need a positive potential to conduct, whereas others must have a
negative potential, but only the terms forward and reverse bias are
used here.
Positive and negative feedback occur, but that is something completely
different.
x No bias, as the name indicates, means that there is no potential applied to
the appliance and no electrical current flows.
x Forward bias means that when potential is applied, current flows freely. The
electron flow is determined by the resistance of the conductor.
x Reverse bias is the opposite of forward bias. The potential is applied in such
a way that it opposes the flow of electrons. This does not mean that no
electrons will flow, but that the electrons will not flow freely.
4.8.1 Bias on the P-N junction
Figure 4.11 shows how a P-N junction reacts under all three bias conditions.
With no bias the structure is shown with the junction in the middle. There can be
no current flow, because no voltage is applied to the materials. This junction is
known as the depletion layer and, because it is not electrically joined, there is a
gap between the P material and then material.
The gap is not physically there, but it does exist electrically and plays an
important role in semiconductor theory.
Figure 4.11(b) shows the structure in the forward bias condition. The positive
te1minal of the battery is connected to the P material and the negative is
connected to the N material. The positive of the battery attracts the negative
charges in the P material.
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These charges are the electrons which diffused into the P-type during the
manufacturing process.
These electrons fom1new holes when they leave the P-type and, in tum,
electrons diffuse from the N-type.
These new electrons must come from the negative of the battery. This free flow
of electrons through the device has· the effect of making the depletion layer
smaller (narrowing it).
Figure 4.11
The reason for this is that the current through the device increases and,
according to Ohm's law, the only way this can happen with a constant voltage
is if the resistance decreases.
Lowering the resistance can only be done by decreasing the width of the
junction electrically. (This narrowing of the depletion layer does not happen
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physically, but the electrical effect is the same.) The greater the forward bias,
the higher the current.
Figure 4.11 shows these characteristics.
Note:
The current flow over the junction is known as diffusion current,
because current flow is due to diffusion. The current flow in the
material itself is known as drift current because the electrons drift
slowly through the material.
With reverse bias, the positive terminal of the battery is connected to the N-type
material and the negative to the P-type.
In this case, the negative of the battery will try to push the diffused electrons
back into the N-type over the depletion layer.
This actually happens on a very small scale, and as soon as the electrons are in
the N material, the positive side of the battery attracts them into the battery.
This current is known as the reverse-leakage current. Figure 4.12 shows this
leakage current.
Another characteristic shown in Figure 4.11(c) is that the positive charges are
pulled to the left and the negative charges are pulled to the right, which has
the effect of increasing the depletion layer, again not physically, but electrically.
4.9 Diode characteristics
It is clear from the above that the P-N junction has distinctive characteristics
when it is subjected to different types of bias.
The first is that it conducts current freely when forward bias is applied; the second
is that it conducts very little current when reverse-biased. Because of these
characteristics, this device is known as a diode.
Figure 4.12(a) shows the characteristic curve of the diode. There are a number
of important characteristics that must be emphasised.
The first is the "Z" area, which is known as the forward bias area. In this area,
current flow is easy and free. The current increases exponentially until it reaches
the forward point.
After this point, the current increases very sharply with very little increase in
voltage. In normal practical applications, we take this voltage to be constant.
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Figure 4.12
The second is that the forward point is represented on the graph by "X". This is
the point at which the tangent to the linear portion of the graph cuts the X-axis.
The value of this point for a silicon diode is 0,6 - 0,7 V, and 0,2 - 0,3 V for a
germanium diode (see Figure 4.10).
These values are very important if the diode conducts, because they are the
voltage drops over the diode when it does.
Important Note!
The third aspect of importance is area "D". This area represents the reverse bias
condition. In this area, only the leakage current flows through the diode. This
current is normally so small that it is disregarded.
The fourth aspect is "Y" on the graph. This differs from diode to diode. It can be
anything between 50 V and several thousand volts. It is known as the peak-
inverse voltage (PIV).
When this point is exceeded, the diode is destroyed and can be thrown away.
The depletion layer is broken through, the heat melts the two semiconductors
to each other and they become electrically bonded.
This does not happen immediately. If the reverse voltage is slowly increased,
the leakage current will also increase slowly, and like any resistance where
heat is generated, the junction heats up.
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This heat causes a lower resistance (NTC) and the lower resistance causes
more current. This causes more heat, more heat causes less resistance and so
on. This process can be compared with a snow avalanche. First a small
amount of snow slides, then more and more until the process becomes
irreversible.
Another important aspect to note in Figure 4.12 is the different scales for the
graph in forward and reverse bias conditions. If the same scales were used, and
the PIV is for instance 1 000 V, then 0,6 V would be just about nothing. It would
appear as if the forward point is at the zero point.
It is important to show this point clearly when these characteristics are drawn.
Because the P and N materials are not electrically bonded at the junction and
are in fact insulated by means of the depletion layer, a capacitor is fanned
between the P and N materials.
This capacitor is referred to as the junction capacitance. All diodes have this
capacitance, but the manufacturer can make a diode with a specific
capacitance by controlling the defusing rate: the varactor- or the vericap-
diode.
Figure 4.12(b) shows the symbol for a diode under forward bias conditions.
Figure 4.12(c) shows the structure as dealt with up to now. It also shows that the
P-type material forms the anode (A), and the N-type the cathode (C). In the
symbol, the bar forms the cathode and the shaft of the arrow forms the anode.
Electrons always flow against the direction of the arrow and conventional
current flows with it.
Figure 4.13
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Figure 4.13 shows the characteristic curves of the silicon and germanium diodes
on the same scale and axis with practical values. Note that the silicon diode has
a much sharper PIV voltage than the germanium diode and it is also normally
higher.
The junction diodes, in the form in which they were discussed, are !mown as
general purpose diodes.
There are a large variety of diodes but most of them are junction diodes,
although the manufacturing processes differ as well as the amount of doping.
All the other diodes are made to fulfill a certain purpose and they are not used
in the general rectifying of power.
4.10 Diode ratings factors
Ratings are established for solid-state devices to help designers use the
performance and service capabilities of each type to their maximum
advantage, and to ensure satisfactory and reliable operation in equipment
applications.
Designers must thoroughly understand the constraints imposed by the device
ratings if they are to achieve effective and reliable equipment designs.
Although manufacturers do not always agree on all characteristics, some have
been standardised.
The number, for instance, indicates the basic allowable ratings, irrespective of
the manufacturer. For all devices with that number, the basic characteristics are
the same. These characteristics are usually provided in table form supplied by
the manufacturers.
Some of this information is shown in Table 4.1 below to illustrate some of these
characteristics. It must be pointed out that some of the figures differ from one
manufacturer to another.
Type of device Range and ratings
Rectifiers x Low current, up to 49 amperes.
x Medium current, from 50 to 199 amperes
x High current, 200 amperes and higher
Power Zeners 110 watt dissipation and higher
Transistors Power amplifiers and switches, 1 A and higher
50 W, ߩ 450 mW/°C as applicable
Silicon controlled rectifiers Same as for rectifiers except (rms) instead of
(ave).
Table 4.1
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4.11 Basis for device ratings
Basically there are three systems of rating:
• the absolute maximum system;
• the design centre system;
• the design maximum system.
The ratings normally provided in technical data for solid-state devices are based
on the absolute maximum system, which specifies operating and environmental
limits applicable to any device. These are defined by the manufacturer and
may never be exceeded, not even under the worst possible conditions.
4.11.1 Voltage ratings (V ..)
A number of voltage ratings are provided for solid state devices. They are
provided with reference to a specific electrode, eg collector to emitter, or
anode to cathode, etc.
This value indicates the maximum potential (for both steady state and transient
operation) that can be safely applied across the two electrodes specified
before damage occurs. These ratings further refer to a particular condition, eg
open base, or relative to a specified load resistor, etc.
Excessively high voltages produce high leakage and reverse currents in solid-
state devices that may lead to crystal breakdown and destruction of the
device.
Another factor that affects this voltage dependence is temperature. The
leakage currents also vary with the junction temperature of the device. In all
solid-state devices the junction temperature is therefore also specified.
4.11.1.1 Forward voltage drop (VF)
The forward voltage drop (some books refer to this value as the "static forward
voltage drop") is the major source of power loss in a silicon rectifier. It therefore
determines many of the rectifier ratings.
A silicon diode usually requires between 0,4 to 0,5 V (depending upon the
temperature and impurity doping in the P-N junction) before significant current
flows through the device. Figure 4.14 indicates that a slight rise in the forward
voltage beyond this point causes a sharp increase in the forward current.
The dynamic resistance of the device is given by the slope of the voltage-current
characteristics at volt- ages above this threshold value. Losses resulting
from this resistance increase with the square of the current and thus increase
rapidly at high current levels. The dynamic resistance is dependent upon the
construction of the device and inversely proportional to the area of the pellet.
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Figure 4.14
4.11.1.2 Peak reverse voltage (VRM)
Peak reverse voltage (PRV) is the maximum allowable reverse voltage that can
be applied across the diode as specified by the manufacturer.
This value is less than the avalanche breakdown level indicated on the
characteristic curve. Dissipation sharply increases when avalanche is reached;
for this reason the manufacturer specifies a lower PRV value, so that the diode
can still operate reliably.
PRV ratings for single-junction diodes range from 50 to I 500 V and may be as
high as several hundred thousands of volts for multiple-junction silicon-rectifier
stacks.
At the end of this module, a table is supplied to indicate some of the
characteristics mentioned above.
4.11.1.3 Reverse breakdown voltage (VBR)
This value refers to the lowest reverse voltage that can cause a device to break
down and it is equivalent to the Zener or avalanche region of the fundamental
two-layer diode. (This can become quite complicated in the study of physics
because there are definite values for Zener and avalanche.)
4.11.2 Forward-current ratings ( or )
If the current through the solid-state device becomes too strong, the
semiconductor pellet could overheat because of the excessive junction
temperature, and the whole crystal may melt.
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Maximum current ratings are normally not based on the current-carrying
capacity of the semiconductor pellet, but on the degradation of specific
device performance characteristics, which result when the current density
exceeds a critical value.
In silicon rectifiers and thyristors, the maximum on-state current rating is
determined on the basis of the maximum permissible forward power dissipation
of the device.
The maximum forward-current rating is therefore determined on an arbitrary
basis, which depends on the minimum acceptable gain value of the device.
4.11.2.1 Surge current ( ሺሻ)
When a diode is in operation, it may happen that large surges in current may
result from inrush current at turn-on, load switching and in short circuits.
It can be compared with a tidal wave at sea. A diode can absorb a limited
amount of increased dissipation that results from short-duration high surges of
current without any effect save a momentary rise in junction temperature.
If the surges become too high, however, the temperature of the junction may
be raised. It needs little imagination to see what will happen in that case. Thus
surge current can be said to be the maximum continuous forward current during
a short period of time.
4.11.2.2 Reverse current ( )
Some books refer to this quantity as "static reverse current". When a reverse bias
is applied across a diode, a limited amount of reverse-blocking current flows
through the device. This current is measured in micro-amperes, compared to the
milli-amperes or amperes in the forward-biased condition.
Figure 4.15
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Figure 4.15 indicates this condition of the diode. It also indicates that an increase
in operating temperature causes a substantial increase in reverse current for a
given reverse voltage. Thermal runaway may occur because of this
characteristic.
Figure 4.15 clearly indicates that if the reverse bias is increased (it differs from
diode to diode) a point will be reached where a sharp increase in current will
be noticeable. This is the point where breakdown or avalanche starts.
4.11.3 Power-dissipation ratings (P)
This is also referred to as "continuous power dissipation".
Power is dissipated in the device in the form of heat. If the heat is excessive, it
may cause irreversible changes and total destruction of the device.
This dissipation is equal to the difference between the input power applied to
the device and the power delivered to the load. Due to the sensitivity of
semiconductor materials to variations in thermal conditions, maximum
dissipation ratings are usually given for specific temperatures.
In many cases, dissipation ratings are specified for ambient temperatures up to
25 °C. Such ratings must be reduced for operation at higher temperatures.
4.11.4 Junction-temperature ratings
The working temperature of solid-state devices must be controlled. It is equally
important that the temperature during storage be controlled. For this reason,
ratings data for these devices usually include maximum and minimum storage
temperatures, as well as maximum operating temperatures.
4.11.5 Reverse recovery time ()
After a diode has been operated under forward-bias conditions, some finite
time must elapse before it can return to the reverse-bias condition.
When the diode is in the forward-bias condition, there is a greatly increased
concentration of charged carriers in the central region.
If the bias is suddenly reversed, some of these carriers abruptly change direction
and move out in the reverse direction. The remainder recombine with opposite-
polarity types.
Since there is a limited number of these carriers in the central region, and since
there is in the meantime no source to supply additional charge carriers to
replace those that are removed, the device will eventually go into the reverse-
bias condition.
The charge carriers will cause a reverse current to flow which is known as the
reverse-recovery current.
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Figure 4.16
Figure 4.16 shows the current waveform obtained when a sinusoidal voltage is
applied across a diode. The recovery time is clearly shown.
The reverse-recovery time imposes an upper limit on the frequency at which a
diode can be used. If this value is exceeded, it will have a pronounced effect
on the performance and efficiency of the device. It may also cause severe
overheating and destroy the diode.
4.12 Characteristics
Diodes are manufactured in a variety of shapes and sizes. Manufacturers have
through research arrived at the best case form for a specific application. The
case construction is usually also given in tables, as is the symbol to indicate
where the anode and cathode are relative to the case.
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Tables 4.2 – 4.4 below show some of these figures from a well-known
manufacturer.
4.12.1 Low-current rectifiers: 0,1-12 A
Forward Current
Type ሺሻ ሺሻ ሺሻ
25 °C 25 °C 25 °C
1N3282 1 000 0,1 2,5 0,01
1N3283 1 500 0,1 2,5 0,01
1N3284 2 000 0,1 2,5 0,01
1N3285 2 500 0,1 2,5 0,01
1N1730 1 000 0,2 2,5 -
1N1731 1 500 0,2 2,5 -
1N1732 2 000 0,2 2,5 -
1N1733 2 500 0,15 2,5 -
1N1734 3 000 0,10 2,5 -
1N2382 5 000 0,15 2,5 -
1N2383 6 000 0,10 2,5 -
1N2384 8 000 0,07 2,5 -
1N2385 10 000 0,07 2,5 -
Table 4.2
Tables 4.2, 4.3 and 4.4 indicate three categories of diodes.
Tables 4.2 and 4.3 show the low and medium power diodes and Table 4.4
represents high current diodes.
Note:
Tables 4.2 and 4.3 indicate the values for different temperature
values.
4.12.2 Medium- current rectifiers: 15-35 A
Forward Current
Type ሺሻ ሺሻ ሺሻ
25 °C 25 °C 25 °C
1N3208 50 15 250 10
1N3209 100 15 250 10
1N3210 200 15 250 10
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1N3211 300 15 250 10
1N3212 400 15 250 10
1N3213 500 15 250 10
1N3214 600 15 250 10
Table 4.3
First the case number is given, and usually the diode itself is also reproduced.
(You can obtain these tables from a shop or you can obtain the characteristics
only when you buy the device.) The manufacturer thus allocates a number to
the specific diode and case. The number of the diode then follows.
These numbers do not vary from one manufacturer to the other, since they have
been standardised all diodes with a specific number have the same
characteristics. The PRV for the diode follows.
4.12.2 High-current rectifiers: 50 – 1 000 A
Forward Current
Type ሺሻ ሺሻ ሺሻ
25 °C 25 °C 25 °C
MR1200 50 50 800 10
MR1201 100 50 800 10
MR1202 200 50 800 10
MR1203 300 50 800 10
MR1204 400 50 800 10
MR1205 500 50 800 10
MR1206 600 50 800 10
Table 4.4
The forward current is then given for two different temperatures: the rms current
at which the diode will normally operate is given at the junction temperature,
while the wave current is given at a lower temperature (not in all cases). The last
characteristic shown is the average reverse current of the diode.
Note:
The table for high current specifies the rms current, the wave current
and reverse current all at 150 °C.
A commonly used diode is the IN4148: its forward bias characteristics and curve
are shown in Figure 4.17.
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Figure 4.17
Activity 4.1
1. The most widely used semiconductor materials are ....
2. Atoms of semiconductors contain ... valency electrons.
3. The bonds between adjacent atoms in a crystal- lattice structure are called
... or ... bonds.
4. Impurities are added to pure semiconductor materials by a process called
....
5. An N-type semiconductor contains many .. electrons.
6. The absence of an electron in an electron in an electron-pair bond of a
crystal-lattice structure is called a ...
7. A P-type semiconductor material contains many ....
8. The section between N-type and P-type semi-conductor materials is known
as a ... junction.
9. A hole may be considered as a ... charged particle.
10. The two electrodes of a typical semiconductor diode are called the ... and
the . . . .
11. A diode operates as a rectifier device by allowing ... to pass through only
one . . . .
12. A diode is forward-biased when the negative terminal of a source of
energy is connected to its ....
13. A diode is reverse-biased when its . . . is connected to the negative terminal
of a source of energy and its . . . is connected to the positive terminal.
14. A diode will conduct when it is ... -biased.
15. A rectifier circuit which rectifies both cycles of an alternating input voltage
is called a ... rectifier.
16. Define a semiconductor. Name two semi conductor materials.
17. What is meant by a solid-state device?
18. Describe a crystal-lattice structure.
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19. Define N-type and P-type semiconductor materials.
20. Explain how N-type and P-type semiconductor materials are formed by the
process of doping.
21. What is a P-N junction?
22. Explain the conditions of forward and reverse bias for a semiconductor
diode.
23. What is meant by the peak-inverse voltage of a diode?
24. What is meant by the forward voltage of a diode? Give these values for
both germanium and silicon diodes.
25. Show by using sketches how the depletion layer is influenced by the three
bias conditions. What effect has this on the capacitance in the diode?
26. Draw the characteristic curves of a germanium and a silicon diode on one
graph and explain how you interpret all the characteristics.
27. Show by means of labelled sketches how the Fermi-level is influenced by
N- and P-type material.
28. Show by means of a labelled sketch the placement of the Fermi-level in a
P-N junction.
29. Write brief notes on permissible loads.
30. Write brief notes on the following:
a) voltage characteristics;
b) forward current;
c) power ratings;
d) thermal characteristics;
e) forward voltage drop;
f) reverse current,
g) reverse recovery time;
h) peak reverse voltage;
i) forward cmTent (all variations).
31. By using the diode characteristics abbreviations, explain briefly what you
understand by each one.
Self-Check
I am able to: Yes No
x Identify the characteristics of materials:
o Metals
o Semiconductors
o Temperature
o Photo-conduction
x Describe intrinsic semiconductors
x Describe N-type semiconductors
x Describe P-type material
x Explain the P-N junction
x Explain Fermi-levels
x Describe the following:
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o Bias on the P-N junction
x Describe diode characteristics and diode ratings factors
x Explain the basis for device ratings:
o Voltage ratings (V ...)
Forward voltage drop (VF)
Peak reverse voltage (VRM)
Reverse breakdown voltage (VBR)
o Forward current ratings (I F or IC)
Surge current {IFM(surge)}
Reverse current (I R)
o Power-dissipation ratings (P)
o Junction-temperature ratings
o Reverse recovery time (trr)
x Describe the following characteristics:
o Low-current rectifiers: 0,1 – 12 A
o Medium-current rectifiers: 15 – 35 A
o High-current rectifiers: 50 – 1 000 A
If you have answered ‘no’ to any of the outcomes listed above, then speak
to your facilitator for guidance and further development.
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Learning Outcomes
On the completion of this module the student must be able to:
x Explain a half-wave rectification
x Explain full-wave rectification
x Describe filter circuits
x Explain the Zener diode:
o Electrical characteristics
o The Zener as a voltage regulator
x Define:
o Series clipper circuits
o Parallel clipper circuits
x Describe a voltage doubler
x Explain varactor diodes
x Describe photodiodes
x Describe light-emitting diodes (LEDs)
5.1 Introduction
The most basic application of the diode is for rectification.
Rectification can also take different forms, like detection in a radio
receiver. The junction diode is the most common diode and
therefore it is dealt with first.
Although all diodes have the ability to rectify an ac wave, some of the more
specialized diodes are used in another form, ie the Zener for regulating, the
varactor as a variable capacitor, the light emitting diode to radiate light, etc.
Some of the most common of these devices are discussed.
5.2 Half-wave rectification
It has been mentioned that diodes conduct only in one direction and allow
electron flow only from cathode to anode. At the anode, the forward point
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value must always be more positive than the cathode, otherwise the diode will
not conduct.
Figure 5.1 shows how two batteries, B1 and B2, can be used to develop a positive-
going wave and a negative-going wave which can be seen on the voltmeter
V1 by switching from positions 1 to 2 to 1 to 3.
Note:
Position 1 is operative only at the beginning; after position 2, it is
switched immediately to position 3, but position 1 is touched
instantaneously.
If diode D1 was not in the circuit, the lamp would burn in both positions. The
current would flow in both directions through the lamp and meter V1 would show
the same reading as V2.
Figure 5.1
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With the diode in the circuit, in position 2 the anode is more positive than the
cathode, the diode conducts and the electrons flow upwards through the lamp.
Meter V2 does not show the full battery voltage, because there is still a 0,6 V drop
over the diode, and this voltage must be subtracted from the battery voltage;
this is then the voltage which appears over the lamp.
When it is switched over to position 3, the anode is negative relative to the
cathode. The diode does not conduct, and no current flows through the lamp.
The voltmeter V2 registers only the leakage current, which is very small in this case
and can be ignored.
The voltmeter V1 still registers the full battery voltage.
Figure 5.1(c) shows clearly the output and what is registered on V2.
Note: A positive-going wave and a negative-going wave
Remember that in electronic circuits there must always be a reference point.
Normally, it is the common line that is usually beneath the sketch. This line can
be in the middle of a circuit diagram, but usually it is connected to earth and
then all voltages must be taken with reference to this line. The line is usually
common to both the input and the output of the device. If this concept is kept
in mind, there will never be confusion between conventional current flow and
electron flow.
Another point from Figure 5.1 is that the diode converted the 100% duty cycle
to about 50%. (The peak value is slightly lower than the applied voltage,
because of the voltage drop over the diode.)
The alternating current that was made by the batteries is converted to a
pulsating dc because the current only flows in one direction through the load.
Figure 5.2 shows a practical way to use the diode. The diode is used to convert
220 V ac to 12 V dc.
Figure 5.2 (a) shows a step-down transformer. (A transformer is a device that can
work only from ac or pulsating dc. It transforms electrical power from one form
to another and can increase or decrease voltage, but the input power is always
more than the output power because of iron and copper losses.)
When the primary windings number more than the secondary windings, the
device is a step-down transformer, and vice versa.
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The primary is the side to which the power is applied, and the secondary the
side from which the power is taken.
Figure 5.2
Figure 5.2 (b) shows the output from the transformer if the diode was not there.
The peak value is 12 V and ߨ radians equals 180°.
The output is shown in Figure 5.2 (c). It is clear that the electrons flow only
upwards through the load.
The side at which the electrons penetrate the load is more negative than the
side at which they leave the load. These polarities must always be shown on
diagrams. (They form part of the labels on diagrams.)
The description of this circuit is the same as that of Figure 5.1, where the signal
first went positive and then negative. There is a voltage drop over the diode,
and again the output is just under 50% of the duty cycle. The current is a
pulsating dc.
The current does actually alter in that it rises to a peak (not immediately) and
changes back to zero again, but it only flows in one direction through the load.
All these circuits are known as half-wave rectification circuits: only half of the
input wave is rectified.
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5.3 Full-wave rectification
Two basic types of circuit are normally used for full-wave rectification. In the one,
four diodes are necessary, but the same transformer as before can be used. In
the second case, only two diodes are used, but a special type of transformer is
required.
Figure 5.3
Figure 5.3 (a) shows the circuit for full-wave rectification by a step-down
transformer and four diodes.
Figure 5.3 (b) shows the input to the diodes with a peak value of 12 V.
Look at the first half-cycle: assume that the electrons e1 flow upwards in the
secondary coil; this makes point A more negative than C. This causes the
electrons to flow through D1 from cathode to anode. Then they flow upwards
through RL to D, which in tum is more negative than C. From here they flow
through D2 and back to the bottom of the coil where they started off.
Note:
When the electrons get to D, they cannot flow through D4: A is more
negative than D and the path with the least resistance is through D2.
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In the second half-cycle, the electrons e2 will flow in the opposite direction,
which causes C to become more negative than B and therefore D3 will conduct.
Again, the electrons flow upwards through the load, through D4, and back to
the top of the coil. This concludes the full cycle. Figure 5.3 (c) shows the full-wave
rectified wave.
The current flows in only one direction through the load and makes it positive at
the top and negative at the bottom. It is clear that pulsating in this case was
obtained from a wave which alternated between positive and negative.
Figure 5.4
Figure 5.4 shows how a full-wave rectification is obtained from only two diodes.
A special type of transformer is used. The secondary has a tap in the middle so
that the output is divided into two equal voltages. For a peak value of 12 V,
there will be 24 V over the full winding of the transformer. In this case, every
alternate half-cycle is applied to a diode to be rectified.
The output voltage is higher than the four-diode type because only one diode
is in series with the output instead of two as in the previous case. The output
wave-forms are the same as in Figure 5.3 (a and b). The circuit is straightforward.
5.4 Filter circuits
In both the above circuits, pulsating dc is obtained. An important fact about
both these circuits is that the pulses are at double the frequency of the input
signal. If the incoming frequency is 50 Hz, the output pulses will be 100 per
second.
Although these pulses are fast, and all of them are in the same direction, they
cannot be considered as direct current and cannot be used as a power supply
in an electronic appliance.
It is always the aim to make the output of a power supply as close to a dc as
possible. To get these pulses straight, they must be filtered, and filter circuits are
used to achieve this.
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Figure 5.5
Figure 5.5 (a) shows a circuit similar to the circuit in Figure 5.3, ie a pulsating
direct current is obtained from the rectifiers. If C1 is now coupled to this pulsating
dc without the load RL, and the peak value of the pulse is 12 V, the capacitor
will charge to the peak value of 12 V and remain at this value.
When RL is added to the circuit, the capacitor will start to discharge the moment
the pulse starts to fall. The rate of discharge of the capacitor will depend on the
value of RL; the lower the value of the resistance, the faster C1 will discharge,
and vice versa.
It has the effect shown in Figure 5.5 (d). From the above it is clear that the final
output will depend on the load applied to the circuit. The ripple voltage q
depends on:
• the pulse frequency;
• the capacitor size;
• the size of the load.
Another way to reduce the ripple is to put a coil in series with the load. This has
the same effect as the capacitance, but the capacitor is connected in parallel.
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These devices are often used together to form a very good filter. Neither of the
above examples is completely acceptable, because the load can change and
then the ripple will also change.
Another way must be found to keep the voltage constant (within limits) when
the load changes. It is, for instance, unnecessary to design a power supply for a
current consumption of 1 A if the maximum current to be used is only 100 mA: a
very much cheaper power supply can be designed to supply the necessary
power.
5.5 The zener diode
Figure 5.6
The PIV point can be controlled during the manufacturing process. The
manufacturers provide tables in which all the characteristics of these devices
are given, such as PIV, maximum current a diode can handle, etc.
When the PIV is low, another point comes into consideration: the Zener point.
This Zener point is important in that if it is reached before avalanche, and the
current through the diode is limited, the diode can be taken back to the original
condition without damaging it.
Note:
This characteristic is important in that the diode can be used as a
reference device.
This characteristic exists only in the reverse-bias condition. In the forward bias
condition, the diode acts as an ordinary silicon diode. It is thus senseless to use
the diode in the forward-bias condition.
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Figure 5.6 shows these characteristics very clearly. In the normal diode,
avalanche follows Zener very quickly and, as already known, if avalanche is
reached, the diode is destroyed.
The Zener diode is especially made so that avalanche follows later than Zener.
Typical values for Zener diodes are from 1,5 V to about 30 V. Higher values are
available, but are not as common.
Zener diodes are like normal diodes with different power ratings, but normally a
small Zener is used as a control for a big transistor to control the higher current.
This combination is cheaper than a heavy-current Zener diode.
5.5.1 Electrical characteristics
Different manufacturers set out different characteristics of Zener diodes in their
tables. Subscripts for Zeners differ slightly from those for normal diodes.
Typical characteristics for one device are as follows:
Diode No. BZY 96, also C4V7
IZ = 100 mA
VZ = 4,7 V
IF(AV) = 1A
IZ(RM) = 3,5 A
PZ = 1,5 W
TJ = 175 °C
Tolerance for VZ is ± 15%
Where:
IZ represents the Zener current, ie at the breakover or reference point.
VZ is the operating or reference voltage.
IF(AV) is the average forward current. (This is normally not important when the
Zener is used as a reference device).
IZ(RM) is the Zener-repetitive peak reverse voltage, ie the current that can be
allowed while the Zener is used as a reference.
PZ represents the Zener dissipation rating
TJ is the junction temperature
5.5.2 The Zener as voltage regulator
The circuit to be discussed is only enough for very small currents and has its
limitations. If higher currents are to be used, better designs are required.
The following is an explanation of the principle of these circuits.
In Figure 5. 7, another capacitor, a Zener diode and resistor R1 are added to the
circuit in Figure 5.5.
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An important characteristic of this design is that the voltage at point Y (that is up
to where C1 discharges with maximum load) must never be lower than the value
of the output voltage of the power supply. This must also be the reference value
of the Zener diode.
It is clear that C1 discharges through R1 and Dz, but Dz conducts only when its
reference value is reached. Thus, Dz keeps the output at the reference value.
C2 is only there to filter out noise that the Zener might generate while switching.
From the above, it is clear why there is always a higher voltage available when
measuring a full wave rectifier with a filter network. The reason is that when
alternating current is measured, the rms value is read, but when filtered direct
current is measured, the peak value is read. Remember the voltage drop over
the diodes referred to.
Figure 5.7
5.6 Clipper circuits
Clippers are diode wave shaping circuits. The output of a clipping circuit
appears as if a portion of the input signal was clipped off. It requires at least two
fundamental components, a diode and a resistor.
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A dc battery, however, is also sometimes used to change the output. The output
waveform can be clipped at different levels simply by interchanging the position
of the various elements and changing the magnitude of the dc battery.
Figure 5.8
5.6.1 Series and parallel clippers
Diodes are used not only in power supplies. Another use is found in clipping and
clamping.
It is sometimes necessary to change the duty cycle of a wave or to change the
reference level to another value. In both these cases, diodes can be used
effectively.
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Some of the most common cases are discussed below. As far as the output of
these circuits is concerned, the output of the series clipper goes through the
diode, and in that of the parallel clipper it does not.
The simplest form of series clipper is the simple half-wave rectifier circuit in the
power supply. It is repeated here to show the difference relative to the parallel
clipper. For clarity, two batteries are used.
Figures 5.8 (a) and (b) show the difference between the two clippers. In both
circuits, the negative portion of the incoming current will be clipped off and only
the positive part will appear at the output. The output in this case is fed to a
lamp parallel with a voltmeter to show the voltage over the load.
Figures 5.8 (c) and (d) shows the input wave-form generated by means of switch
in S1 from 1 to 2, back to 3 but making contact with 1 before it goes to 3.
Important Note!
When the wave moves through "1", there is a momentary short-circuit
at the input.
Figure 5.8 (e) shows the output of the series clipper. Only the positive pulses will
go through, with the usual voltage drop of 0,6 V over the diode if it is a silicon
diode.
Note:
A positive signal is described because the meter will show a positive
voltage relative to the common line.
In Figure 5. 8 (b) there are two factors to be considered, first the resistor R1 and
second the diode that is parallel to the load.
The purpose of R1 is to safeguard the diode while it is conducting. If the
precaution is not taken, the diode will conduct the maximum current and will
be destroyed. R1 must be selected very carefully so that it has no effect on the
output. For the purposes of this explanation, R1 will be ignored.
Examine Figure 5.8 (b), (d) and (f). When the signal becomes positive, the diode
that is parallel to the load will be reverse biased and will not conduct at
all. The lamp will burn and the voltmeter will show full supply voltage. When the
signal becomes negative, the diode will be forward biased and the diode will
conduct.
When the diode conducts, the voltage across it will be 0,6 V if it is a silicon diode,
and as this is parallel to the load it will be the only output to the load and the
voltmeter will read only 0,6 V.
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This voltage is too low to light the lamp. The full wave is shown in Figure 5.8 (f).
The same description can be applied to the positive clippers, therefore only the
circuits are given here and an ideal square wave is taken for the input.
Figure 5.9
5.7 Voltage doubler
Another application of the diode is the voltage doubler circuit shown in Figure
5 .11.
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Figure 5.10
This consists of two half-wave rectifier circuits. During one half-cycle of the mains
voltage the upper diode conducts, Figure 5.10 (a), and charges the upper
capacitor to the peak mains voltage (which is 1,44 x rms voltage).
During the alternate half-cycle the lower diode conducts, Figure 5.10 (b), and
charges the lower capacitor to peak mains voltage.
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Figure 5.11
The two capacitors are connected in series across the dc output terminals. The
dc output voltage is therefore equal to twice the peak value of the input mains
voltage. With a 240 V mains supply, the dc output voltage is about 680 V.
The currents available from these circuits are not very high and depend on the
size of the capacitor, but the capacitor cannot be made too high because it
must be able to charge, which takes time. It also draws a current when it is not
charged at all. For this reason these circuits must be designed very carefully.
This application remains useful for low currents and this principle is also applied
to obtain triplers, quadruplers etc. They are quite common where very high
voltages with low currents are to be generated.
5.8 Varactor diodes
The varactor diode (from variable reactor) is one of four from the voltage
variable capacitance diode group. Some books refer to these diodes as
epicaps, varicaps or voltage-variable capacitance diodes.
The diode is usually manufactured by some form of planar process and each of
the four types of diode has its own special use.
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Figure 5.12
Because the P-N junction is not in contact electrically, there is a capacitor
effect. This capacity can be increased or decreased by changing the bias on
the device. This will change the width of the depletion layer.
Figure 5.13
Looking at Figure 5.12 (a), which represents the characteristic curve of this
diode, we see that it is unlike the curves we have discussed so far. Figure 5.12
(b) is just an extension of Figure 5.12 (a).
The curve is not current versus voltage, it is capacitance versus reverse voltage,
because the forward bias plays no role in this diode. It is also used in the reverse
bias condition like the Zener.
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The varactor diode's most common application today is in the tuning circuits
oftelevision and FM receivers, replacing the variable capacitor. Figure 5.13
represents a tuned circuit of a Colpitts oscillator which can be used for tuning
an FM receiver.
The output can be a secondary coil on L1 because the transistor already
amplifies the resonant frequency.
The resonant frequency can be changed within limits by adjusting the bias on
the diode with Rv1.
5.9 Photodiodes
Light is a form of energy which can activate electrons by the emission of
photons. Such devices are known as photosensitive (devices which are sensitive
to light and other radiation) and photo emissive (devices which radiate light and
other near-visible radiations). All semiconductors fall to some degree in one or
other of these two categories.
Figure 5.14
Incident light falling onto a P-N junction creates electron hole pairs within the
junction and this gives rise to current flow when an external supply is present.
Photodiodes are also used in the reverse bias condition and have a "window"
which allows light to fall onto the junction. The current that flows when no light is
falling on the junction is typically 10 ߤA for germanium diodes and about 1 ߤA
for silicon diodes.
As the intensity of the light increases the leakage current increases and the
diode becomes more conductive. Figure 5.14 shows the characteristic curve
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but again in the reverse bias condition. These characteristics are only suitable
for one temperature because current causes heat, and temperature influences
the characteristics.
The interest in light-sensitive devices has been increasing at an almost
exponential rate in recent years. Optoelectronics receives a great deal of
research and is used in communications (fibre optics) to transmit data over a
fibreglass cable, burglar alarms etc.
Most of these applications are for the infrared part of the optical spectrum. In
communications, the intelligence is modulated with a carrier wave and in
burglar alarms, an infrared beam is pulsed at a high frequency.
The basic detector circuit is given in Figure 5.15 (a) and (b) whereas Figure 5.15
(c) shows a basic infrared beam alarm system.
Figure 5.15
Figure 5.15 (a) operates a relay when light falls on the photodiode; the threshold
level can be adjusted by means of the variable resistor.
Figure 5.15 (b) operates a relay when the light level drops beyond the threshold
level. This is a simple dark activated switch to switch a light on when it
becomes dark- such as in street lights.
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In Figure 5.15 (c), we have a pulsed infrared beam transmitted from the
transmitter to the detector.
When the beam is interrupted, the receiver detects the change and operates
the relay. The relay, in turn, can switch on lights, an alarm, virtually anything.
Note:
This is very popular due to the fact that infrared is invisible to the
human eye.
5.10 Light-emitting diodes (LEOs)
Within any P-N junction, recombination of holes and electrons takes place
continuously when the current is flowing. The electrons have to get rid of energy
in order to drop from the conduction band into the valency bind. This energy is
radiated as an electromagnetic force.
Figure 5.16
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In silicon and germanium, this radiation is mainly in the infrared region and
virtually no visible frequency is radiated.
In the case of gallium arsenide phosphide (Cds) and gallium phosphide, this
radiation takes place within the visible spectrum. The frequency of radiation is
dependent on the doping level of the semiconductors and on the material
used.
Radiation of energy takes place at the area of recombination. To allow the light
energy to be released from the device, the anode contact is made small. The
intensity of the light depends on the forward current.
LEDs are available in red, yellow, green, amber and blue. They are also available
in a dual colour version in which the forward bias causes one colour to light up
and reverse bias causes the other colour to light up.
Figure 5.16 shows the construction, the circuit symbol and the characteristic
curves of forward biasing. These diodes usually operate at a voltage of between
1,4 V and 1,7 V and at currents of 5-50 mA.
Typical applications are indicating devices like display units such as the seven-
segment readout (see Figure 5.17 (a)), panel indicators (Figure 5.17 (b)), etc.
Because LEDs are current devices, it is always necessary to limit the current
through the device otherwise the junction will overheat, melt together and blow
up.
Figure 5.17
Note:
Although the opto-isolator is specified in this section of the syllabus,
it will be dealt with in Module 9 because it also concerns the photo
transistor and the theory of transistors is dealt with first.
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Activity 5.1
1. Describe by using sketches a basic half-wave rectifier circuit.
2. Describe by using sketches two basic full wave rectifier circuits.
3. What is the purpose of a filter capacitor in a rectifier circuit?
4. 4. Describe by using a fully labelled circuit diagram how a 12 V stabilised
dc power supply can be built by using a centre tap transformer,
capacitors, diodes and a Zener diode.
5. Draw the characteristic curves of each of the following and explain what
it means to you:
a) photodiode;
b) Zener diode (with values and description
of Iz, Vz, IR(AV), IZ(RM) Pz and Tj
c) light-emitting diode;
d) varactor
6. A square-wave signal has a peak-to-peak voltage of ± 5 V. It is fed in turn
to:
a) a series. negative clipper;
b) a series positive clipper;
c) a parallel negative clipper;
d) a parallel positive clipper.
Draw labelled diagrams of each of the above clippers with the input and
output waveforms.
Make sure you indicate voltage values on both the input and output wave-
forms.
Make use of silicon diodes for all four circuits.
7. By using a labelled diagram, explain the working principle of a voltage
doubler.
8. Ordinary diodes are normally used for their forward bias conditions. What is
significant about the following diode's bias conditions and why?
a) the Zener diode;
b) the varactor diode;
c) the photo diode;
d) the LED.
9. Draw neat labelled diagrams of the diodes in question 8 showing practical
applications for each of these diodes.
Self-Check
I am able to: Yes No
x Explain a half-wave rectification
x Explain full-wave rectification
x Describe filter circuits
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x Explain the Zener diode:
o Electrical characteristics
o The Zener as a voltage regulator
x Define:
o Series clipper circuits
o Parallel clipper circuits
x Describe a voltage doubler
x Explain varactor diodes
x Describe photodiodes
x Describe light-emitting diodes (LEDs)
If you have answered ‘no’ to any of the outcomes listed above, then speak
to your facilitator for guidance and further development.
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Learning Outcomes
On the completion of this module the student must be able to:
x Describe the basic junction transistor
x Describe the characteristic curve
x Explain the three basic circuits:
o Common emitter circuit
o Common base circuit
o Common collector circuit
x Describe biasing
x Explain interstage couplings
x Explain frequency response
x Describe switching speed
x Explain the electronic switch
x Explain the operating point with regard to:
o The loadline
o Stabilisation of the bias voltage
x Explain the classes of amplifier operation
x Describe push-pull amplifiers
x Explain the following aspects of distortion:
o Cross-over distortion
o Feedback
x Describe cut-off frequencies of transistor amplifiers
x Define:
o Series voltage regulators
o Shunt voltage regulation
o Constant current power supply
o Current limiting power supply
x Define the phototransistor
x Explain Field-effect transistors (FETs):
o Characteristics of the J-FET
o MOS-FET construction
The depletion MOS-FET
The enhancement MOS-FET
o Practical circuits
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6.1 Introduction
This module will teach the basic operation of junction and field-
effect transistors. The three basic amplifier configurations are dealt
with. Characteristic curves of the junction transistor with the different
classes of amplification are also explained.
Inter-stage coupling between transistors, biasing, decoupling push-pull
amplification, negative feedback etc are dealt with. The transistor in a
regulated power supply is discussed as are basic circuits of the FETS.
Figure 6.1
So far we have been mainly concerned with semiconductor materials and
diodes. These materials and devices have unique properties that make them
useful in many applications. However, they do have limitations that prevent
them from being used in many other applications.
The biggest limitation of semiconductor diodes is that most cannot amplify a
signal in a practical manner. A solid semiconductor is used in a way that makes
use of its non linear resistance characteristics, and a P-N diode is used for
rectification as well.
When amplification is needed, another type of semiconductor device is used,
the transistor. There are various types of transistors. The most common types are
called junction and field-effect transistors.
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6.2 The basic junction transistor
The basic junction transistor is produced when a semiconductor element is
added to the simple P-N diode.
The transistor, then, is a three-element semiconductor with only two junctions.
The diode is a two-element semiconductor with only one junction.
The three elements are combined so that the two outer
elements are doped with the same type of majority carriers, while the element
that separates them has the opposite majority carrier.
Note:
A transistor, then, can be an N-P-N or a P-N-P type transistor.
The three elements of the transistor are the emitter, the base and the collector.
The emitter supplies the majority carriers with transistor current flow, and the
collector collects the current for circuit operation.
The base provides the junctions for proper interaction between the emitter and
collector.
Figure 6.2
Figure 6.2 shows the structure and the circuit symbols for both N-P-N and P-N-P
types. The emitter is shown schematically by an arrow that points in the direction
of hole flow. (Electrons flow against the direction of the pointing arrow.)
Since the emitter is said to inject majority carriers into the base, a P-type emitter
is shown with the arrow pointing to the base. Figure 6.3 shows the load
distribution of a transistor with no bias applied to it.
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Figure 6.3
What follows is not a detailed description; it is an idealistic view to make an
explanation easier. The simplest explanation of a transistor is shown in Figure 6.4.
Figure 6.4
The working principle of the transistor can be explained by using Ohm's law:
If a resistor is placed between two conductors, the current that flows from e to
c will be regulated by the value of the resistance between e and c; the variable
resistor is b. The higher the value of b, the lower the current, and vice versa. (In
Figure 6.4, the current direction is that of the electron flow.)
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Figure 6.5
Figure 6.4 explains the principle in a very simple way. In the transistor, the two
conductors e and care N-type or P-type materials, while b is a P-type or an N-
type.
Compare Figure 6.5 with Figure 6.4. In the place of the resistor, the base is
between the emitter and the collector.
When the voltage on b is changed from zero to maximum, the diode between
e and b is more or less forward biased. This increases or decreases the internal
resistance of b, which in turn changes the main current from e to c. The width of
the base is very small compared to that of the emitter and collector.
Figure 6.6 shows the bias conditions and the load distribution graphically.
One reason that the input and output circuits of a transistor interact is because
the base of the transistor is common to both circuits.
Since the input circuit current must be determined by the input signal voltage,
the emitter and base must be forward biased so that emitter-base current will
follow the signal voltage.
An important fact to be remembered is that the voltage across the emitter and
base (diode) can never exceed the usual 0,6-0, 7 V if a silicon transistor is used.
The conduction of the transistor is thus purely due to an increase and decrease
of current in the base emitter junction.
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Figure 6.6
The more current in the emitter-base region, the lower the resistance of the base
and the higher the current between emitter and collector.
The base current in fact is much lower than the main current. It ranges from a
few micro-amperes in signal transistors to a few milli-amperes in power transistors.
Since the output circuit current must be controlled by interaction with the input
circuit, the output circuit current should be relatively independent of circuit
voltages.
This is accomplished by biasing the base-collector circuit in the reverse direction.
Because reverse bias produces ve1y little current flow, the output current is
hardly affected by it.
It is also clear from Figure 6.6 that there are three currents to be considered:
• emitter current ;
• base current ;
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• collector current .
It is clear from Figure 6.6 that:
= + and that is very near the value of for small signal transistors.
By using this equation, it is very easy to determine the relevant current if two of
the three are given.
Students must be sure of the units, because the base current is usually in micro
or milliamps while the collector and emitter currents are in milliamps or amps.
See Worked Example 6.1:
Worked Example 6.1
Determine the collector current in a circuit where the emitter current is 50 mA
and the base current is 100 ߤA.
Solution:
= +
= +
= 50 x 10-3 -100 X 10-6
= 49,9 x 10-3 A
= 49,9 mA
6.3 Characteristic curves
Figure 6.7 represents a simple circuit that can be used to determine the
characteristics of a transistor.
By using this circuit, the collector current can be observed while the collector
voltage is increased and the base current is kept constant at a specific value.
The three working areas can be seen clearly.
These characteristics are known as static characteristics because they are
determined from dc conditions and are static. When an ac condition is used to
determine characteristics, they are known as the dynamic characteristics.
The static characteristics are therefore predetermined and given in table form,
while the dynamic conditions are the conditions a transistor operates under in
practice.
A great deal of information can be deduced from Figure 6.7 (b) to simplify the
design of an amplifier circuit and optimize the use of a transistor. The first
important aspect is that if a specific collector voltage is kept constant, the
collector current will increase drastically with a small increase in base current.
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It is also clear that the collector current is very weak when there is no base
current. This area is therefore called the cut-off region. The linear region is the
area between the cut-off and saturation areas.
The important point about this region is that, for a specific base current, the
collector remains constant, regardless of variations in the collector voltage. This
is why a transistor is generally known as a current amplifier rather than a voltage
amplifier. Table 6.1 confirms this statement.
Common Input Output Phase Current Voltage Power
circuit impedance impedance shift amplification amplification amplification
Low Very high
Base 0° None Very high Average
<100 Ω >100 kΩ
Average High
Emitter 180° High High High
؆ 1kΩ >10 kΩ
Very high Low
Collector 0° Average None Average
>100 kΩ <100Ω
Table 6.1
The saturation area shows that the voltage drop between collector and emitter
is very small despite high currents.
Figure 6.7
These then are the two reasons why the transistor is such a good switch: the low
voltage drop in the saturation area and the high voltage drop in the cut-off
area.
Simply by controlling the base current, the transistor can be driven from cutoff
to saturation without necessarily going through the linear area. These
characteristics are generally known as the Ic/Vc curve.
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Another important characteristic is that when the collector to emitter voltage is
low, the current increases very sharply. This voltage is normally divided between
the two terminals to give a small bias between emitter and base, and to give a
strong reverse bias between collector and base.
In the saturation region, no bias is placed on the collector; in this case it may
even be forward biased.
We can put this another way: although the voltage between emitter and base
is never higher than 0,6 V, it will change significantly between emitter and
collector.
This provides the transistor with three working conditions:
• The cut-off region is that part of the graph where no bias is applied. Only the
leakage Current flows through the transistor. In this case, the transistor is "off".
• The active or linear portion of the graph. Here, the voltage between emitter
and collector can change from full voltage to a few millivolts. In this region,
the transistor is used as an amplifier.
• The saturation area. In this region, the transistor is fully "on" and the voltage
drop between emitter and collector is at its minimum, just a few millivolts, and
in most cases less than 0,6 V. It is in this region and in region "1" that the
transistor is used as an electronic switch, because it is either on or off.
6.4 The three basic circuits
As a transistor has three terminals, there are three ways in which it can be
connected in a circuit. The type of circuit usually refers to the terminal, which is
common to both the input and the output of the device.
The most commonly used circuit is the so-called common emitter circuit. The
others are the common base and the common collector circuits. Each of these
circuits has its own characteristics.
6.4.1 The common emitter circuit
The common emitter is the most commonly used of the three basic circuits. It
can be seen from Table 6.1 that it offers the best all-round amplification, input
and output-impedances and power amplification.
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Figure 6.8
When a positive-going signal is fed into the base, the forward bias across the
base emitter increases.
More electrons start to flow out of the base into the emitter, so that the collector
current increases. This increase in collector current causes the voltage drop over
the load resistor R1 to increase; consequently the voltage at the collector,
relative to ground, will decrease.
When the input signal goes negative, the bias from base to emitter will decrease
and consequently the base current will also decrease.
This will in turn cause the collector current as well as the voltage across the load
to decrease; therefore the collector voltage will increase relative to the earth.
Note:
This is why there is a 180° phase shift from input to output for this
circuit.
It should be clear that if no bias is applied to the base emitter, then only half the
input can be amplified - in this case only the positive half. It is this characteristic
that determines the working point of the transistor and consequently the class
of operation.
There are three such classes:
• Class A: in this mode, the entire input signal is amplified, emerging at the
output terminals in its entirety;
• Class B: only half the input signal is amplified;
• Class C: only a part of one half of the input signal is amplified.
Note:
Do not be confused with the "basic circuit" and the "class" of
operation. Care must also be taken at the input of a transistor
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amplifier that the input signal does not drive the bias in such a way
that the transistor goes into either the saturation or the cutoff
position; this will destroy the linearity of the amplifier. This is the spot
where the quiescent current is determined by the biasing networks.
6.4.2 The common base circuit
Figure 6.9 shows clearly why this circuit is called the common base circuit; the
input is between emitter and base and the output between collector and base.
When the input goes positive, it will reduce the base emitter biasing which again
leads to a reduction in the collector current; this reduction in current causes a
lower voltage drop across the load resistor which in turn will cause the collector
to become more positive.
When the input goes negative, it increases the base emitter bias and the
collector current will also increase; this causes a larger voltage drop across the
load resistor, which causes the collector to become less positive. Thus there is no
phase reversal.
Figure 6.9
6.4.3 The common collector circuit
At first sight, it appears that there is no common terminal to this circuit. In fact,
the power supply has a low internal resistance; furthermore, under dynamic
conditions, all capacitors can be regarded as short circuits.
Because of these characteristics, the collector is connected to the earth, and is
therefore common to both input and output under dynamic conditions only,
never under static conditions.
This circuit is also !mown as the emitter-follower. As with the two previous types,
it possesses certain useful characteristics.
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When the input goes positive, it will increase the forward bias on the base emitter
circuit, resulting in a higher emitter current and a consequent increase in voltage
drop over the emitter resistor; this causes the emitter to become more positive.
When the signal goes negative, the bias across base and emitter, and
consequently also the current through the emitter resistor, will increase.
This causes the emitter to become less positive. This circuit also shows no phase
reversal.
Figure 6.10
Table 6.1 compares briefly the three circuits and their important characteristics.
So far, only the N-P-N transistor has been discussed.
There is a P-N-P transistor too, shown in Figure 6.2, and others. All explanations
applicable to the N-P-N transistor apply equally to the P-N-P. With the P-N-P
transistor, all voltages are reversed.
Because of this, one cannot talk about positive and negative bias with
transistors. Look again at Figure 6.6. A positive charge relative to the emitter is
needed on an N-P-N transistor base to allow current to flow through the
transistor. With a P-N-P transistor, the opposite is true.
6.5 Biasing
Note:
Only the basic circuits and basic descriptions are given.
It is not practicable to use a battery as a bias in an amplifier. There must be a
bias network to bring the transistor to its working point in the circuit. The type of
circuit to be used depends on the design. Each of the circuits in Figure 6.11 has
its own advantages and disadvantages.
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In Figure 6.11 (a), for example, a negative feedback is passed from the collector
to the base and the base bias is in turn influenced by this negative feedback.
This varies with the output, and the output varies with the input, etc. The circuit
in Figure 6.11 (a) is called a voltage-feedback circuit while the one in Figure 6.11
(c) is called a current-feedback circuit.
In all of these circuits, a common supply is used and no extra battery is necessary
for the quiescent current.
Another precaution to be kept in mind with transistor circuits is that when a
transistor becomes hot, its internal resistance decreases and the current
increases. This creates more heat, lower resistance, more current, etc.
Figure 6.11
Note:
It is a semiconductor and not a pure conductor; the resistance must
decrease with an increase in temperature. This interactive effect of
heat and resistance carries on until the transistor destroys itself, and
is known as thermal runaway. The problem is common with power
transistors and special precautions are taken to eliminate it.
The most common method used is to mount the transistors on heat sinks. This is a
good, cheap method if the transistor heats up slowly, but thermal runaway can
take place very quickly. Other precautions must then be taken.
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6.6 Interstage couplings
Sometimes, the amplification from one transistor is not high enough, and two or
more transistors must be coupled in series or parallel.
There are different ways to do this; three methods three methods that are
commonly used are mentioned below.
RC, transformer, and direct couplings are shown in Figure 6.12. Each one has its
own application, and it is not our aim to go into detail. A point seen in Figure
6.12 (a) is that the output is in phase with the input.
The main purpose of C2 in this figure is to prevent the voltage of the one transistor
from being applied to the following transistor; such voltage could overdrive the
transistor.
The charge and discharge of this capacitor assures the passage of the signal
through the capacitor.
In Figure 6.12 (b), this problem is overcome by means of the transformer. There
is no direct connection between input and output current.
Figure 6.12 (c) is that of a direct-coupling where the voltages must be very
accurately worked out so as not to overdrive the transistor.
A form of direct coupling which is very popular is shown in Figure 6.12 (d). This is
known as the "Darlington" coupling.
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Figure 6.12
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Because it is so popular, it is available in one packet. It has the appearance of
an ordinary transistor, has only three leads, and is even marked "c, b and e".
Figure 6.13
6.7 Frequency response
The frequency of the applied signal can have a pronounced effect on the
response of an amplifier, whether it is a single or multi-stage amplifier. Each of
the inter-stage couplings has a different influence on the frequency response.
Figures 6.13 (a), (b) and (c) show these curves.
Important Note!
The horizontal scale is a logarithmic scale to allow a range from low
to high-frequencies.
For each device, whether single or multi-stage, there is a band of frequencies in
which the magnitude of the gain is either equal or relatively close to the mid-
band value. To fix the frequency boundaries of relatively high gain, 0,707 Av(mid)
or the -3dB point was chosen to be the gain cutoff level.
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The corresponding f2 and f1 frequencies are generally called the comer, cutoff,
band, break or half-power frequencies. The 0,707 constant was chosen because
at this level the output power is half the mid-band power output, that is, at mid-
frequencies.
The band of frequencies passed by the values above is !mown as the bandwidth
and can be defined as:
Bandwidth (BW) = f2 - f1
6.8 Switching speed
Previously the three regions of transistor operation were given for the common
emitter circuit.
This configuration is normally used when the transistor is used as an electronic
switch.
Figure 6.14
Before we look at a practical circuit; we need to see how the transistor reacts
on sudden changes of bias current, ie the switching speed of the transistor.
When S1, Figure 6.15 (a), is operated in sequence from the OFF to the ON and
back to OFF to produce pulses as shown in Figure 6.15 (b), the rectangular input
current pulse lb drives the transistor from cutoff to saturation and back to cutoff.
Ic is distorted because the transistor cannot respond instantaneously to a
change in signal level.
The response of the transistor during the rise time fr and the fall time f(is called
the transient response, and is essentially detem1ined by the transistor
characteristics in the active linear region.
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Figure 6.15
The delay time td is the length of time that the transistor remains cut off after the
input pulse is applied.
The rise time tr (also referred to as build-up time) is the time required for the
leading edge of the pulse to increase in amplitude from 10% to 90% of its
maximum value.
The pulse time tp (also pulse duration) is the length of time that the pulse remains
at, or very near, its maximum value. It is measured between the points on the
leading edge and the trailing edge where the amplitude is 90% of the maximum
value.
The storage time Is is the length of time that the output current Ic remains at its
maximum value after the input current lb is reversed.
The fall time tf (delay time) of the pulse is the time required for the trailing edge
to decrease in amplitude from 90% to 10% of its maximum value.
The total turn-on time of a transistor switch is the sum of the delay time and the
rise time. The total tum-off time is the sum of the storage time and the fall time.
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A reduction in either storage time or fall time decreases turn-off time and
increases the usable pulse repetition rate of the circuit.
The above-mentioned must be taken into consideration especially when the
transistor is used in pulsed circuits in computers, logic boards etc. Normally when
it is used as an ordinary on and off switch in burglar alarm systems it is not as
critical.
6.9 Electronic switch
Figure 6.16
The transistor can easily be used as an electronic switch. It has the advantage
that it is controlled by just changing the bias on the base end, and further, there
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is not wear and tear on points, etc. It can easily be controlled over a long
distance and reacts very quickly.
To meet the demands of operation as a switch, the transistor must be either off
or in the saturation area.
When it is off, the current through the transistor is at its minimum. This condition is
obtained when there is no bias on the base. When the transistor is on, the current
through the device must be at maximum to drive the transistor into saturation.
In this case, the voltage drop over the collector and emitter will be at the
minimum.
Three practical examples in which an N-P-N transistor is used as a switch are
shown in Figure 6.16. The simplest way of remote control is shown in Figure 6.16
(a). Imagine that a lamp or motor must be controlled over a distance; a relay is
needed to switch this device on and off. S1 is the remote switch.
When S1 is closed, B1 receives a positive potential by means of the remote
connection and this switches the transistor on. This energises the coil of the relay
and closes the contacts to switch on the load. When the transistor switches off,
there will be a back emf generated by the coil of the relay.
The emf must be limited (or it will destroy the transistor), and this is done by means
of the diode.
This is an example of the working of this type of circuit; a more practical method
is indicated in Figure 6.16 (b), which shows a photocell or light dependent resistor
(the more light on the device the lower the resistance and vice versa).
The photocell is used to control another transistor, which switches a relay. When
the light on the cell is limited, the resistance is high and therefore there is little or
no voltage on the base of the transistor.
The transistor therefore does not conduct and the relay is not operated. When
the cell is lit, the resistance decreases and the base is made positive, which
causes the transistor to start conducting. The coil is energised and the relay
contacts close.
Figure 6.16. (c) is a variation of the previous circuit and works the other way
round: when the light is low, the relay operates, and vice versa. The working
point of this circuit can be preset by means of Rv1.
As light falls on R1, the resistance decreases, pulling the base towards emitter
potential, thus switching the transistor off This circuit has a more positive action
than the previous one. These basic circuits can be expanded into a great variety
of different circuits.
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6.10 Operating point
Biasing methods were mentioned previously, and the purpose of this bias is to
achieve the correct working point for safe operation. The working point
determines a lot of different factors: the quiescent current, the class (A, B and
C) of amplification, whether it is an amplifier or a switch, etc.
The working area of a transistor is the area of current or voltage within the
maximum limits of the particular device. It is impossible to give a full exposition
of how to detem1ine the bias at this level, but it is important to discuss it in view
of the different classes of operation.
Note:
We therefore only study this aspect with respect to the dc conditions
and the method most commonly used. The case studied is the
common emitter.
6.10.1 The loadline
Figure 6.17
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The characteristic curve of the common emitter circuit was given in Figure 6.7,
where the different areas were also mentioned. If we take a general example
of the circuit and characteristic curve in Figure 6.17, the following is true:
The amplifier which we study must be a class A-amplifier and therefore the
collector voltage must be roughly half of the supply voltage Vcc. When the
transistor is fully on, that is, with low resistance between collector and emitter,
the maximum current will flow through the transistor and therefore through Re.
Take this value as 10 mA, which is still in the linear portion of the curve. If the
transistor is off, the voltage on the collector will be Vcc: take this value to be 20
V.
Note:
According to Ohm's law, it follows that:
Rc = 20/10 x 10-3, and that is 2 kΩ.
When Rc is taken as 2 kΩ, the characteristics will be such that the transistor will
be in the linear portion for all base currents from 10 ߤA to 60 ߤA.
The sketch shows how the loadline is drawn, and it can clearly be seen, by using
the loadline, within which limits the base current can be changed to still operate
within the linear portion. This type of biasing network is known as the fixed point
bias circuit.
By using Ohm's law it is very easy to determine Rb because the base current is
now known, that is, 35 ߤA and Vbe must be 0,7 V. VRh must now be = 20-0,7 V or
19,3. Thus, Rb is 562,857 kΩ, and the nearest value to this is 560 kΩ. In this example,
it was assumed that the collector and emitter currents were the same.
This can be done because the base current is so small in relation to the emitter
and collector currents. This is common practice in calculating the de values for
these biases.
6.10.2 Stabilisation of the bias voltage
It has been pointed out how important it is to have constant temperatures with
transistor circuits. The current amplification(ߚ) was also mentioned and it is clear
that it depends on the collector current. The fixed bias circuit gives rise to good
gain for the transistor amplifier, but it gives no stability for biasing.
The collector current changes when the temperature increases due to the
following:
• The reverse saturation current (leakage current), Ico, doubles with each 10 °C
increase in temperature.
• The base to emitter current, Vhe, reduces with 2,5 m V for each ° C.
• The gain of the transistor increases with an increase in temperature.
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To establish better stability in a transistor amplifier, it is necessary to find a circuit
which is not dependent on Figure 6.18 illustrates such a circuit.
Figure 6.18
Note:
There is more than one method to calculate these values.
There are methods where certain assumptions are made, in which the values
are determined by trial and error. It cannot be said, however, that one method
is better or more inaccurate than the other. Always bear in mind that
component values have certain tolerances.
Also, if the transistor is not working to its limit, it is irrelevant whether the collector
current alternates between 2 V and 6 V or 4 V and 8 V. The important principle
is that the change must be 4 V.
The method we are going to follow is used in several textbooks. In this case,
certain assumptions are made, and certain formulas are deduced which in turn
are also based on assumptions. The first assumption is that the voltage at the
emitter must be 1/10 of the supplied voltage.
If the collector to emitter voltage is not given, it must be taken that the collector
to ground voltage is half the supplied voltage.
It is also taken that the current flowing through the bias network must be at least
10 times bigger than the base current.
The base current is again dependent on the ߚ of the transistor which is given by:
ூ
ߚ = ூ
್
Take ܫ = ܫ
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And ܫ = 10 x smaller than the current through ܴଶ
ூ
= ߚ ଵூ
It is assumed that the voltage between base and emitter, which is 0,7 V for Si, is
discarded and thus:
ೇ
ೃ
ߚ = ೇ್
ೃ್
ൈோమ
= ܴ is now = ܴଶ and ܸ ൌ ܸ
್ ൈோ
ோ
Thus we get ߚ ൌ ோమ
ଵ
From this follows that ܴଶ ଵሺఉோ
ሻ
Worked Example 6.2
Study Figure 6.18 and determine the values with a supply voltage of 12 V. The
current gain is 120 at Ic = 1 mA and Ve = 5 V.
Solution:
ଵ
ܸ = ଵ ൈ ܸ
ଵ
= ଵ ൈ ͳʹ ൌ ͳǡʹܸ
ܴ ؆ ூ
ଵǡଶ
= ൈ ͳͲିଷ ൌ ͳǡʹ݇π
ଵ
ି ି
ܴ =
ூ
ଵଶିହିଵǡଶ
= ൌ ͷǡͺ݇π
ଵൈଵషయ
ܸ = ܸ ܸ
= ͳǡʹ Ͳǡ ൌ ͳͻܸ
ଵ
ܴଶ ߚܴ ଵ
ଵଶൈଵǡଶൈଵయ
= ൌ ͳͶǡͶ݇π
ଵ
14,4 kΩ is not a standard form of resistance; the nearest resistance to this value
is 15 kΩ and this must be used. To determine R1, a common voltage distribution
network is considered which acts in a ratio:
Vb to Vcc will be in the same ratio as R2 to R1 + R2;
ൈோమ
Thus we have ܴଵ ൌ ್
െ ܴଶ
ଵଶൈଵହൈଵయ
ܴ ଵ = െ ͳͷ݇π
ଵǡଽ
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= ͻǡͶ݇π
79,74 kΩ is also not a standard resistance value and therefore 82 kΩ must be
used.
To be able to calculate Ce, the lowest frequency possible for the amplifier to
operate must be known.
Assume this value is 20 Hz. The value of C is given as that value whereby the
reaction of the capacitor is at least 1/10 the value of R, and therefore:
ଵ
ܥ ଶగൈൈோ
ଵ
= ଶగൈଶൈଵǡଶൈଵయ ൌ ǡ͵ʹߤܨ
6.11 Classes of amplifier operation
It was mentioned before that there are basically three classes of operation, ie
A, B and C, but class AB is widely used as well.
Basically the class of operation is determined by the setting of the bias which in
turn determines the operating point on the characteristic curve.
Only the common emitter circuit is discussed.
The only class of operation so far considered has been class A.
Class A operation provides collector (or output) current during the complete
signal cycle (over a 360° interval).
Figure 6.19 (a) shows the output for class A circuit operation, the bias level of
current as at point Q and for the loadline shown.
The output signal does not exceed the maximum and minimum values.
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Figure 6.19
Note:
You must remember that the scales for Figure 6.19 are different. The
graphs give the impression that the output signal is smaller than the
input signal, but remember the input is in micro amps and the output
is in milli amps!
Figure 6.19 (b) shows class B operation. The bias point is set at cutoff, the output
current varying for only about 180° of the cycle.
Note:
The device is biased with no collector current and therefore no
power is dissipated by the transistor. Only when the signal is applied
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does the transistor handle an average current which increases for
larger input signals.
This is in contrast with class A where the worst condition occurs with no input
signal and the least power is dissipated by the transistor for maximum input
signal. Since the average current in class B operation is less than in class A, the
amount of power dissipated by the transistor is less in class B.
Figure 6.19 (c) represents a condition in-between class A and Band it is called
class A B. The collector current occurs for more that 180° of the signal cycle but
for less that 360°.
Class C operation is where the operating point is moved even further than in
class B, ie the output conducting for less than 180°. This circuit is mainly used in
resonant or tuned amplifier circuits.
There is a class D operation which is not mentioned in the syllabus. Operation in
this class is on pulse-type signals.
6.12 Push-pull amplifiers
So far we have dealt with only one transistor working in class A. It was mentioned
that class B only amplifies half the input signal, so the question now is how to get
the full 360° signal at the output and still use class B?
The solution to this problem is to use two transistors and have them operating
180° out of phase so that they each conduct 180° alternately.
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Figure 6.20
We get basically two types of push-pull amplifiers by using transistors (or PETs), ie
transformer-coupled and transformer-less circuits.
The basic circuits are given in Figure 6.20 with the proper waveforms.
6.13 Distortion
Output signal variations of less than 360° of the signal cycle are considered to
have distortion. This means that the output signal is no longer just an amplified
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version of the input signal but in some ways is distorted or changed from that of
the input.
Distortion is often heard in motor car sound systems where the amplifier is so
overdriven, and the voltage is only 12 V, that the sound coming out of the
loudspeakers is not a true representation of the original recording.
Distortion can come from a number of different places in the amplification
chain. It can occur due to non-linearity, nonlinear or amplitude distortion. The
circuit elements and the amplifying devices can respond to signals differently at
various frequencies and this is called frequency distortion.
6.13.1 Cross-over distortion
Figure 6.21 shows clearly how cross-over distortion arises in class B push-pull
amplifiers, especially with the P-N-P/N-P-N combinations which result from the
non-linearity of the transistor characteristics.
Figure 6.21
As we know, the transistor does not switch on and off at the same time at zero-
voltage condition. There is still the diode effect up to 0,7 V for a silicon transistor.
Up to 0, 7 V, the curve is an exponential curve and not linear, which means that
the transistor is not working in the linear region.
It is quite difficult to minimise this type of distortion in push-pull circuits. Class A
(which is possible with push-pull although some textbooks only mention class B
with push-pull), has a minimum of this distortion.
That is why class AB was developed, so the amplifier works in class A at low signal
conditions and then, to be more efficient, starts working in class B with higher
input signals, hence the name class AB.
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6.13.2 Feedback
As mentioned in the previous paragraph, class A operation is used to reduce
distortion.
Two types of feedback are normally used:
• negative feedback (the feedback is out of phase with the input);
• positive feedback (the feedback is in phase with the input).
Note:
Another common method to reduce distortion is to use negative
feedback.
Basically, negative feedback is where a portion of the output is fed back to the
input, or one of the intermediate stages, out of phase. This means that the fed-
back signal is out of phase with the distortion, thus cancelling it out or reducing
it.
Figure 6.22
The diagram shows a mixer circuit, an amplifier, an input and an output and
then the feedback network.
These feedback circuits can be obtained by resistor or capacitor networks either
locally in and around one transistor, or by bypassing one or more transistor
stages, depending on the phase of the signal at that stage and if positive or
negative feedback is required.
If only negative feedback is considered, then it can be subdivided again in four
units:
• series current feedback;
• shunt voltage feedback;
• shunt current feedback;
• series voltage feedback.
Figure 6.23 (a) shows the current-series negative feedback circuit. The emitter of
this stage is not bypassed and therefore has current-series feedback.
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Figure 6.23
The current through Re results in a feedback voltage that opposes the source
signal applied so that the output voltage Vo is reduced. To remove the current
series feedback the emitter resistor must be either removed or bypassed by a
capacitor.
Figure 6.23 (b) is the circuit of voltage-shunt feedback. The negative feedback
is obtained by coupling a portion of the output voltage in parallel (shunt) with
the input signal.
Note:
Remember, the output at the collector of this circuit is 180° out of
phase with the input signal.
This circuit has the additional advantage that it stabilises amplifier overall gain
while decreasing both input and output resistances.
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Figure 6.23 (c) represents the current-shunt feedback circuit. It is usually taken
over more than one amplifier stage. The feedback connection samples the
output current and develops a feedback voltage in shunt with the input signal.
The un-bypassed emitter resistor of the second stage provides current sensing
and the feedback signal is then connected in shunt with the first stage input
through a feedback network.
Note:
Series voltage feedback is similar to series current feedback.
The circuit also consists of a two-stage amplifier similar to current-shunt feedback
but instead of taking the output from the second emitter, it is taken from the
collector of the second stage.
In this case, the signal is then fed through the feedback network to the emitter
of the first stage instead of the base as with the current-shunt feedback.
A much simpler circuit is given in Figure 6.23 (d).
Note:
In this circuit, the output is taken from the emitter which actually
represents the common collector circuit. This circuit is accepted to
be that of the series voltage feedback.
6.14 Cut-off frequencies of transistor amplifiers
This concept is very important and two categories must be mentioned: base
cut-off frequency and emitter cut-off frequency.
Base cut-off frequency is the frequency at which the current gain ߙ of the
common base amplifier falls below the 3 dB point of the low-frequency value.
Emitter cut-off frequency is the frequency at which the current gain ߚ of the
emitter amplifier falls below the 3 dB point of the low-frequency value.
6.15 Regulators
Regulators can be subdivided into:
• voltage regulators, constant voltage but variable current depending on the
load, in series and parallel;
• series current regulators, constant current but variable voltage depending
on the load;
• series current limiting regulators, which limit the current to a pre-set value. If
the load changes, the voltage changes but the current does not increase.
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6.15.1 Series voltage regulation
The regulation in this case can be represented by means of a switch in series
with the load and the rectifier output.
Figure 6.24
The above can easily be understood by studying Figure 6.24 (a). When the
switch is open, no voltage will be supplied to the load; when it is closed, the
voltage over the load will start to increase to reach towards the peak supply
voltage.
In this case, if the switch is opened again when a predetermined voltage has
been reached, the output will not go higher than this value, but immediately
start to fall again; the switch must be closed again and the action is repeated.
By means of a fast-switching circuit, the voltage can be kept constant over the
load. This has the disadvantage that the output is pulsed and in turn there is
interference.
Figure 6.25
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A more practical method is the variable resistance seen in Figure 6.24 (b). The
transistor is a device that can achieve this. When the load is low, the resistance
is increased; when the current increases, the resistance is reduced to compare
to the fall in voltage.
The internal resistance of the transistor is now determined by means of the
working point. It works according to the principle that for all decreases or
increases in RL, R, must change in step to maintain a constant voltage over the
load. If we look closely at the circuit, Vbe must = VZ - VL, but VZ is constant.
When VL reduces, Vbe must increase, because VZ is constant. This will increase
the conduction of the transistor, which in turn will cause the resistance between
emitter and collector to reduce, which is exactly what is required.
6.15.2 Shunt voltage regulation
Figure 6.26
We can repeat Figure 6.24 but instead of having the switch or resistor in series, it
must be in parallel to the load. The voltage in this case is the same over the
device and the load.
Note:
In Figure 6.26 the switch must be open for the voltage to rise and
vice versa. This is also valid for the resistance; the value must be high
for the voltage to rise and vice versa.
Another important component in this circuit is the protection resistance Rs which
prevents the current from rising too high.
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Figure 6.27
A practical circuit is shown in Figure 6.27, for which the following holds true:
Vbe = VL - VZ, again with VZ a constant.
Note that in this case, the current must flow in an opposite direction through VZ,
that is, the bias, so as to switch VZ on. The rest of the current flows to the transistor.
The diode must have the ratings required by the transistor to regulate its gain.
When the voltage decreases over the load, the current through Rs is reduced as
the conduction current through the transistor was reduced, because there was
a reduction in the base emitter voltage.
This principle implies that a decrease in load voltage will cause the base emitter
voltage to drop, which will cause the base current to reduce. This again has the
effect that the collector current reduces and consequently the voltage across
Rs also reduces.
This again means that the load voltage will increase, etc. In practice, this circuit
is not often used due to the power dissipation and heat loss which follows.
The disadvantage of this circuit is that when little or no current is drawn, all the
power must be dissipated by means of Rs and the transistor. The series circuit
does not have this problem because it only uses the power it requires.
6.15.3 Constant current power supply
The characteristic of this circuit is that the output current remains constant for all
loads, irrespective of the voltage.
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Figure 6.28
When h reduces, Ic will in turn also reduce because the voltage over RL is
reduced. This has the effect that le also reduces, because Ie is just about equal
to Ic. This causes VRe to reduce.
The base to emitter voltage formula is as follows:
Vbe = Vz - VRe, and we know that Vz is constant.
A reduction in the voltage over Re will cause the voltage over the emitter to
base to start rising and the conduction of the transistor to increase. This has the
effect that IL remains constant.
6.15.4 Current limiting power supply
The purpose of this circuit is to limit the current to a preset value and to deliver a
constant voltage also at a preset value. The current can change in this circuit,
but the voltage stays constant irrespective of the load.
When the load increases above the pre-determined value, the control circuit
limits the current, preventing the load getting damaged and safeguarding the
power supply from overheating or burning out.
Figure 6.29 only shows the controlling part of the power supply. The principle of
operation is that R3 forms a current sensing transducer.
It monitors the total current in the circuit and as soon as the current through the
resistor causes a voltage higher than 0,7 V, the transistor will switch on, causing
a short circuit which moves the bias to the main series transistor, causing it to
switch off.
When this transistor switches off, there is no output voltage, nor voltage, current
flow or voltage over R3. The transistor switches off and restores the bias to Q1
again.
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Figure 6.29
When it conducts again, there is output voltage and thus current flow. The whole
cycle then repeats itself.
6.16 The phototransistor
The photo transistor is the last of the junction transistor devices discussed in this
module.
Figure 6.30
The phototransistor has a photosensitive collector-base P-N junction. The current
induced by photoelectric effects is the base current of the transistor.
If we assign the notion for the photo-induced base current, then the resulting
collector current is Ic.
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Figure 6.31
Figure 6.30 shows how the emitter current increases with an increase in incident
light.
The incident light falling onto the junction will cause a change in base current lb.
We know that Ic = ߚlb. This will have a dramatic influence on the collector current,
which is caused by a change in light intensity. The sensitivity of a general-
purpose phototransistor is typically 500 mA/lm.
The phototransistor is widely used today as an infrared switch in burglar alarm
systems, opto couplers, fibre optics to transmit communications etc.
Figure 6.31 shows a simple circuit to switch a relay on and off by using light
intensity. The relay can be used to control bigger devices.
Note:
The normal bias network is not used in this circuit because the
photons supply electrical energy to control the current through the
transistor.
6.17 Field-effect transistors (FETs)
We have seen that the transistor is a bipolar device, however, the field-effect
transistor (FET) is unipolar. The transistor is a current-controlling device, whereas
the FET is a voltage-controlled device.
Like the BJT, (Bi-directional-Junction-Transistor) the FET can be used as an
amplifier in various modes.
The following are a few characteristics of FETs:
• the FET is relatively immune to radiation;
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• it can be operated to provide a great deal of thermal stability;
• the FET has no offset voltage when used as a switch;
• it has an extremely high input resistance;
• it is less noisy than the transistor for inputs of low-level amplifiers;
• it has a relatively small gain-bandwidth compared to the transistor.
6.17.1 Characteristics of the J-FET
The FET contains one basic P-N junction, but it is also a three-terminal device. It
is either a junction FET (J-FET) or a metal-oxide semiconductor FET (MOS-FET).
Figure 6.32
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Figure 6.33
The construction of both P and N channel J-FETs is given in Figure 6.32 (a) and
(b). It consists basically of a bar into which the N- or P-type is diffused.
Figure 6.32 (c) shows the working principle. The supply VDD provides a voltage
across the drain source VDS, which results in a current In from drain to source
(electrons move from the source to the drain).
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Figure 6.34
The drain current passes through the channel at the P-type gate. VGS is shown to
be set by a voltage supply VGG between gate and source. Owing to the reverse
bias from the gate source, no gate current will flow.
A depletion region is created in the channel by the gate voltage. This will reduce
the channel width to increase the drain-source resistance, and this causes less
drain current.
First consider the case where VGS = 0 V. The drain current through the N material
of the drain source causes a voltage drop, with the drain-gate junction more
positive than the source-gate junction. This causes a depletion region to form.
Note:
The current In increases as a result of the increase of VDD, and this
causes a larger depletion region with increased channel resistance.
See Figure 6.34. A point will be reached where the current will not increase
further, but will remain constant, as shown in the graph.
This is an important point, known as the pinch-off point, and is a very important
parameter; it is the maximum current that this device will let through and is
known as the IDss; the drain-to-source current with gate-to-source shortened, VGS
= 0 V.
When the gate is reverse biased, making the gate negative in the N channel,
(Figure 6.32 (b)) the depletion region is formed faster and causes the channel
to close off quicker; thus less current will flow in the channel. Figure 6.34 shows
these characteristics for both N and P channel operations.
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6.17.2 MOS-FET construction
The metal-oxide-semiconductor FET (MOS-FET) is basically a J-FET, but with its
gate terminal insulated from the channel. This MOS-FET is constructed in either a
depletion MOS-FET or an enhancement MOS-FET.
6.17.2.1 The depletion MOS-FET
A channel is physically constructed in the depletion mode, and current will flow
from a voltage between drain and source. The enhancement MOS-FET has no
channel formed in the construction.
Note:
A channel of charged carriers is formed by applying a voltage to
the gate in which the current can flow when a voltage is applied
between drain and source.
The characteristic curves for both N and P channel devices are shown in Figure
6.35. The device operates with either positive or negative gate-source voltages;
it can be seen in both graphs which voltage causes more or less current flow.
Figure 6.35
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Figure 6.36
6.17.2.2 The enhancement MOS-FET
As mentioned, the enhancement MOS-FET is formed with no channel between
drain and source.
Application of a "+" on the N channel and a "-" on the P channel will form the
depletion region. If this voltage is big enough, it will cause electrons to be
attracted into the depletion region, making it act as an N channel between
drain and source. (The reverse applies for the P channel.)
There will be no drain current until the gate-to-source voltage exceeds the
threshold value, VT. These characteristics are shown in Figure 6.36.
6.17.3 Practical circuits
Figure 6.37 is a one stage J-FET amplifier. You can see that it is basically the same
as the junction transistor, even the biasing on the gate and the RC coupling is
similar.
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Figure 6.37
Figure 6.38 is a similar circuit but a MOS-FET is used instead of the J-FET. Take note
of the bias method.
Figure 6.38
Activity 6.1
1. Transistor types N-P-N and P-N-P are often referred to as ... transistors.
2. The three electrodes of an N-P-N or a P-N-P transistor are the ... , the ... and
the . . . .
3. The arrowhead on the emitter of a P-N-P transistor symbol points ... the
base.
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4. A device or circuit which increases the value of a voltage or a current is
called an . . . .
5. A transistor can act as an amplifier because the current in its ... circuit can
be controlled by a much smaller current in its ... circuit.
6. A transistor acts as a variable ... , which can be increased or decreased by
varying the bias voltage of the ... circuit.
7. A transistor amplifier circuit in which the emitter is a part of both the input
and output circuits is called a ... circuit.
8. The base emitter P-N junction of a transistor in a common emitter circuit is
... -biased.
9. In an N-P-N transistor circuit, the voltage applied to the collector makes this
electrode ... with respect to the emitter.
10. In an N-P-N or a P-N-P transistor circuit, the voltage applied to the collector
makes this electrode ... with respect to the emitter.
11. The output or collector emitter current in a transistor circuit is controlled by
the ... in the input or base emitter circuit.
12. The input signal to a transistor amplifier stage is applied between the ... and
the ... of the transistor.
13. Define the word "transistor".
14. What is meant by an amplifier device or circuit?
15. Name the regions of an N-P-N or P-N-P junction transistor.
16. Which terminal is represented by the arrow in the transistor symbol and in
which direction does it point in the symbol for the N-P-N and P-N-P transistors
respectively?
17. Explain the basic operation of an N-P-N transistor (not the resistance model
mentioned in the notes).
18. Draw the structure of the N-P-N and P-N-P transistors with the load
distribution with and without bias.
19. Draw the schematic diagrams of a simple, one stage common emitter N-
P-N and P-N-P transistor amplifier circuit and explain the operation of both
these circuits. The polarities must be clearly indicated as well as the input
and output waveforms.
20. State the bias conditions for a transistor to work as an amplifier.
21. Calculate the base current in a transistor with an emitter current of 150 mA
and a collector current of 145,3 mA.
22. Use N-P-N and P-N-P transistors and draw the three basic configuration
amplifiers for each. Clearly indicate the polarities and the relevant
waveforms.
23. What are the conditions under which a transistor can operate as (a) a
switch, and (b) an amplifier?
24. Name the three areas in which a transistor can operate and state what is
meant by each.
25. Explain by means of a labelled diagram how a thermistor can be used to
limit thermal runaway.
26. Draw labelled diagrams and briefly describe the relationship between
input and output of the three basic circuits.
27. Draw labelled diagrams of three inter stage coupling methods.
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28. Describe what you understand about the following:
a) power dissipation;
b) current gain;
c) trans-conductance;
d) cut-off frequency;
e) cut-off current;
f) breakdown voltages;
g) punch-through voltage;
h) saturation voltage;
i) temperature effects;
j) current gain;
k) base-to-emitter voltage;
I) collector-to-emitter saturation voltage;
m) collector leakage current;
n) maximum ratings;
o) maximum voltage;
p) minimum current and temperature ratings;
q) thermal runaway;
r) special considerations when designing power transistors.
29. Use a graphical representation to discuss the working point principle.
30. What is meant by push-pull amplifiers?
31. Use two labelled diagrams to explain the full push-pull operation of a class
B amplifier by firstly using transformers and then only transistors.
32. Name the four types of power supplies and state their differences.
33. By using labelled block diagrams, explain the difference between series
and parallel voltage regulation.
34. By using an N-P-N transistor in labelled circuit diagrams, explain the four
basic regulating circuits mentioned in the text.
35. State the difference between constant current and current limiting.
36. State the difference between the FET and the BJT.
37. Give six advantages of the FET.
38. Make six sketches indicating the characteristics of the J-FE1', depletion
MOS-FET and enhancement MOS-FET, in both P and N channels.
39. What is the basic difference between the JFET and the MOS-FET?
40. Draw two labelled diagrams indicating the two types of FETs in amplifier
circuits; full bias must be indicated.
Self-Check
I am able to: Yes No
x Describe the basic junction transistor
x Describe the characteristic curve
x Explain the three basic circuits:
o Common emitter circuit
o Common base circuit
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o Common collector circuit
x Describe biasing
x Explain interstage couplings
x Explain frequency response
x Describe switching speed
x Explain the electronic switch
x Explain the operating point with regard to:
o The loadline
o Stabilisation of the bias voltage
x Explain the classes of amplifier operation
x Describe push-pull amplifiers
x Explain the following aspects of distortion:
o Cross-over distortion
o Feedback
x Describe cut-off frequencies of transistor amplifiers
x Define:
o Series voltage regulators
o Shunt voltage regulation
o Constant current power supply
o Current limiting power supply
x Define the phototransistor
x Explain Field-effect transistors (FETs):
o Characteristics of the J-FET
o MOS-FET construction
The depletion MOS-FET
The enhancement MOS-FET
o Practical circuits
If you have answered ‘no’ to any of the outcomes listed above, then speak
to your facilitator for guidance and further development.
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Learning Outcomes
On the completion of this module the student must be able to:
x Define the SCR
x Explain commutation
o Commutation circuits
Parallel-capacitor commutation
Series-capacitor commutation
Impulse commutation
x Describe alternating-current circuits
x Explain the duty cycle
x Describe phase control and phase delay
x Explain interference
x Describe transients:
o L-C filters
o Zener diodes
o Trans-zorps
o Varistors (MOFs)
x Explain the following different control methods:
o Phase control
o Cycle control
o Cyclotronic control
7.1 Introduction
Before electronic power control devices were in general use,
mechanical contacts opening and closing were used both in high
and low current devices.
All motor car generators (not alternators) used basically two relays; one to cut
the current from causing the generator to act like a motor when the car was not
running ("cut-out"), and the other one to sense the voltage and vibrate to
control the field ·current, which in tum determined the charging current.
These control devices were quite expensive compared to the devices of today
and they had a relatively short lifetime due to erosion, pitting, slow operating
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speed, metal fatigue, sparking etc. Most of these factors are ruled out
completely or are reduced with solid state devices.
Note:
The semiconductor devices discussed in this module are of the
thyristor family. One type of thyristor is the SCR (silicon-controlled-
rectifier).
Others are the triac, quadrac and diac. All these devices are classified as high-
speed switches. They can work from very low voltages up to several hundreds of
volts, and can handle from milliamperes up to hundreds of amperes.
Advantages of SCRs:
• relatively low cost;
• high efficiency;
• small size;
• wide rage of voltage, power, current and frequency ratings;
• when switched on in a de circuit, stays on even with bias removed.
Disadvantages of SCRs:
• specialised circuitry necessary for switching it off under dc conditions;
• electrically noisy devices;
• transients are easily generated;
• special smoothing circuitry necessary for above;
• require large heat sinks to control large powers;
• tendency to overshoot during switching.
It must be kept in mind that the everyday uses of SCRs are to control power. All
the following uses therefore have to do with power control:
• light dimming;
• heater control;
• ac motor speed control (induction motors are more complicated, as their
frequency must be controlled);
• battery chargers;
• dc to ac converters;
• ultrasonic cleaning apparatus;
• replacing relays and switches where contact breakers are used;
• burglar alarms.
7.2 The SCR
The SCR is a four-layer P-N-P-N silicon semiconductor with three P-N layers. The
symbol is shown in Figure 7.1 (a).
The symbol represents an ordinary diode with a third terminal known as the gate.
The SCR can act as a normal diode or as an open circuit in both ways,
depending on how the gate is controlled. Figure 7.1 (b) shows the equivalent
circuit represented by transistors.
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Basically it is the circuit of a complementary feedback switch where the
collector current is fed back from the N-P-N transistor Q1, directly into the base
of the P-N-P transistor Q2. The collector current of Q2 is then fed back to the base
of Q1.
This equivalent circuit is important to the understanding of the principle of the
SCR. Figure 7.1 (c) shows an SCR in its simplest form, as a switch in a dc circuit.
The load is in series with the SCR so that the anode of the SCR is more positive
than the cathode. R1 limits the current that flows to the gate.
The SCR operates as follows:
• When the switch S1 is closed, no current will flow in the circuit. Examine Figure
7.1 (b). It is clear that the base of Q1 is shorted out to the cathode via R1 and
R2. Q1 is thus off, and allows only the leakage current to flow towards the base
of Q2, which is also off and allows only the leakage current towards Q1. Both
these transistors are off under these circumstances and a limited leakage
current flows between anode and cathode.
• The SCR can now be switched on to act like an ordinary diode. Closure of S2
in Figure 7.1 (c) gives a positive potential on the gate relative to the cathode.
When this happens, a positive feedback action takes place and the SCR
switches on very quickly to transmit full current between anode and
cathode.
Figure 7.1
This action can be explained as follows:
When the gate is made positive, current flows through R2 and R1, and through
the base and emitter junction of Q1. If the current in Q1 is sufficient, the
collector current of Q1 will flow into the base of Q2 to switch this transistor on
as well.
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The current is amplified by Q2 and fed back, and so on. Both transistors reach
saturation point very quickly. The anode-to-cathode saturation voltage will
be the sum of the two saturation points, which follow Ohm's law according
to the current flowing.
It is usually lower than 1 V and sometimes lower than 0,6 volt, because the
dynamic resistance of the SCR is very low. The switch-on time of the SCR is
only a few microseconds.
• Once the SCR is on, the gate loses control of the SCR. The bias can now be
removed from the gate.
The SCR will remain on for as long as current is flowing through the device.
This current has a minimum value called the holding current. It is this holding
current that provides enough internal voltage to keep the device on. The
holding current can be found in the manufacturer's tables and data.
Note:
Only a minor pulse on the gate is needed to switch the SCR on. It is
clear that a small pulse can be used to switch a large load.
The above is clear from Figure 7.1 (b) because Q1 and Q2 are connected in
the form of a bias network.
They have a bias cycle that stays on as long as current flows from anode to
cathode. It is also clear that a voltage of approximately 1 V is needed on the
gate to switch the device on. Milliwatts can thus be used to control kilowatts.
• When the SCR is conducting, it can only be switched off by reducing the
current through it to less than the holding current. This is done by removing
the anode current or by reducing it to zero. In an ac circuit, this is simply done
because the current changes from peak to peak and goes through zero in
the process;
Note that in this case the pulse on the gate or the positive potential on the
gate must be removed or the device will switch on as soon as the anode is
more positive than the cathode.
The reason the device switches off is that the gain of the transistors is not high
enough to provide the bias needed to switch on again. The holding current
is determined in the manufacturing process, and a few milliamperes is typical
for these devices.
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Figure 7.2
• Another characteristic of the SCR is that a capacitance exists between
anode and gate. If there is a sudden increase in the voltage on the anode,
this might act with the internal capacitance and fire the gate, which would
cause the SCR to switch on by itself. This unwanted action can also break in
from the line in the form of transients. The unwanted pulsing can usually be
eliminated by using a good RC filter network in series with the transmission
line.
The characteristic curve for the SCR without bias is shown in Figure 7.2 (a). It is
important to notice that the SCR starts to conduct when the forward bias
reaches a certain value, ie the forward break over voltage.
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The SCR will not be damaged at this point if the current through it is limited, but
if this value is exceeded to any extent, by a transient or something similar, it will
be destroyed. The reverse-bias area is the same as that for an ordinary silicon
diode.
Another important point on the curve is the holding current. As with any
electrical circuit, there can be no current without a voltage to develop that
current.
Therefore for this current, there is a corresponding voltage on the X-axis to define
the holding voltage.
Different gate pulses are shown in Figure 7.2 (b) to switch the SCR before the
break over voltage is. reached.
An SCR is used in this mode; it is never used in the break over state because
thermal fatigue can result. The break over voltage is usually lower than the
reverse breakdown voltage.
Figure 7.2 (b) clearly indicates that when an SCR is used, a resistor or load should
always be included in series with the SCR, otherwise the current will be so high
that the SCR blows up.
In the off state, the forward resistance is very high, but the moment the SCR is in
the on state, the internal resistance decreases to a very low value, so that the
current will increase dramatically.
When the gate is pulsed, the break cover voltage "shifts" to a lower value on the
X-axis.
The energy in this case is however much less than would have been the case
had it happened spontaneously.
Despite the advantages of the SCR, the main problem in de circuits is to switch
the SCR off. If the current has to be switched off in a circuit, a switch might just
as well be used instead of the SCR.
In Figure 7.1 (c), switch S1 could be used to switch off both the load and the
circuit without the SCR, but the principle of the SCR is shown. It has many
advantages and is widely used in electronic circuits.
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Figure 7.3
Figures 7.3 (a) and (b) show simple on-off circuits that work on 12 V dc to switch
a lamp on or off. S2 will always be on in Figure 7.3 (a).
It is a press-button switch that is normally on, and works under a spring load. The
lamp will not bum in spite of the fact that S2 is on, because the SCR is not
conducting.
If S1 is pulsed for a brief moment, the gate will be forward biased and the SCR
will switch on. The pulse can be removed and the SCR remains on.
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It is only necessary to interrupt S2 for a moment to switch the SCR and the lamp
off. S2 will close again but the lamp will not switch on until the SCR is switched on
again.
Figure 7.3 (b) is basically the same as (a), except that the off switch is now
parallel with the SCR. This means that when the switch is closed, the internal
resistance of the switch is lower than that of the SCR.
All the current will therefore flow through the switch instead of the SCR, and with
no current through the SCR, it will switch off instantly.
When S2 is reset, the SCR is already off and will not switch on again before the
next on pulse. This type of circuit can be used on a motor shaft that is turning, if
the facility is there to have such a switch driven from the shaft.
(An example is found in the so-called self-parking contacts in the windscreen
wipers of a motor car.)
The operation of the circuit is, apart from this aspect, the same as before.
7.3 Commutation
As already mentioned, it is difficult to tum off thyristors when they are in
conduction in a dc circuit.
In an ac circuit there is no problem, since the ac goes through zero each half
cycle. At that point voltage and current are both zero. This action, where the
voltage goes through zero and reduces the current below the holding current,
forcing the SCR from conduction into the OFF state, is known as commutation.
Note:
All thyristors (not only SCRs) thus require commutation methods to
switch them off.
Commutation does not damage the thyristor, but controls the power to the load
by means of switching the thyristor. In resistive loads, commutation is no problem
because voltage and current are in phase.
Problems are, however, experienced when inductive and capacitative loads
have to be controlled.
7.3.1 Commutation circuits
Commutation circuits are circuits used to switch off SCRs. The purpose of this
circuit is to bypass the main current or shunt it below the holding current so that
the SCR is switched off.
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This only lasts a moment, and has already been described in Figure 7.3 (b),
where the switch S2 was used to shunt the current so that the SCR could switch
off. Capacitors in various modes are normally used to do this.
7.3.1.1 Parallel-capacitor commutation
One of the simplest commutation circuits is the capacitor parallel to the load as
in Figure 7.4.
Figure 7.4
Figure 7.5 is a variation of Figure 7.4, but the switch is now replaced by a
capacitor, resistor and switch.
This circuit has the advantage that the full current does not flow, even
momentarily, through the switch contacts. When the SCR is on, the capacitor
will charge almost to full voltage, and when S2 is energised, the positive side of
the capacitor will discharge instantly.
This will cause the anode of the SCR to become negative momentarily, thus
switching off the SCR.
Figure 7.5 is basically the same as Figure 7.4 except that a "slave" SCR2 is used to
replace S2. The capacitive switching of SCR1 is achieved by means of SCR2,
which is switched on by means of S2. SCR2 will switch off when S1 is switched on,
and this will switch SCR1 on, which will switch SCR2 off by means of the capacitor.
Note:
The two SCRs actually ride on each other's backs. This is known as
forced commutation.
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Figure 7.5
7.3.1.2 Series-capacitor commutation
Figure 7.6
A basic series capacitor commutated circuit is shown in Figure 7.6 (a). The
inductor L1 and the capacitor C1 form a series-resonant circuit. Current through
this resonant circuit builds up sinusoidally (it must go through the load as well) to
a maximum decreases to zero and then attempts to reverse.
This will cause the SCR to switch off, and reverse voltage is maintained across
the SCR by the charge on the capacitor.
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This type of circuit causes the SCR to be switched on only once, owing to the
voltage on the capacitor.
A more practical circuit is given in Figure 7.6 (b). In this circuit, the SCRs are gated
on alternately with sufficient time between gating pulses to permit the LC circuit
to commutate the conducting SCR.
It is also clear from this circuit that an ac flows through the load. This happens as
follows: when SCR2 is gated on, the capacitor discharges through SCR2 and this
causes a reverse current through the load.
7.3.1.3 Impulse commutation
Impulse commutation is obtained when a very short pulse is used to briefly
reverse the voltage on the SCR.
The pulse must be of sufficient magnitude and duration to permit the SCR to
recover its forward blocking capability. There are three general types of impulse
commutation:
(a) Complementary impulse commutation
Complementary impulse commutation is obtained by using a second SCR. The
parallel capacitor commutation circuit in Figure 7.5 is an example of
complementary impulse commutation.
The disadvantage of this circuit is that if the gating signals are lost for any reason,
the conducting SCR will not be switched off, which may result in an excessive
forward dissipation that may destroy the SCR.
Moreover, hot SCRs might switch on at the same time, and then there will be no
control whatsoever.
(b) Self-impulse commutation
Refer to Figure 7.6. Figure 7. 7 shows a basic "chopped" circuit in which the com
mutating impulse is generated by the action of the circuit. When the SCR is off,
but load current has been established, this load current will be maintained by L2
because there is a return path through D1.
During the off period of the SCR the capacitor charges (through L1, L2 and the
load) up to the supply voltage B1. When the SCR is gated to the on state, the
voltage at the junction of L1 and L2 rises immediately to the supply voltage B1.
Diode D1 is reverse-biased in this condition and the current flows through the
SCR.
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Figure 7.7
Capacitor C1 also discharges through L1 and the SCR in an oscillatory manner
and reverses its charge within one cycle. After the first half-cycle, the current
through inductor L1, and capacitor C1, reverses and causes current to flow
through the SCR, which is in a reverse direction from the load current. This causes
the SCR to switch off.
Gating to the SCR causes the cycle to repeat itself. The well-known "Morgan
circuit" of self-impulse commutation is based on the circuit in Figure 7.7. It works
in the same way except that it uses a specially designed coil and core
characteristic of this type of circuit. This helps to make the circuit more reliable.
(c) Auxiliary-impulse commutation
Fig. 7.8
Auxiliary-impulse commutation is where the, commutating impulse is generated
by some auxiliary means, separate from the power-generating portion of the
inverter.
If SCR2 in Figure 7.8 is triggered on, capacitor C1 is permitted to charge from the
supply with the polarity as shown. SCR2 will switch off automatically once
capacitor C1 becomes fully charged. When SCR1 is triggered, load current flows
through SCR1 and the load.
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This will cause C1 to discharge through L1 and D1 and SCR1 until it has reversed
its charge.
The hold-off rectifier D1 then prevents the current through capacitor C1 from
reversing again. Load current keeps on flowing through SCR1 until SCR2 is
triggered. This causes C1 to discharge through SCR2, and in a reverse direction
through SCR1. SCR1 will switch off when the load current equals the reverse
current.
In all the commutation methods discussed above, the commutation current for
the conducting SCR had to be carried by the capacitor. This imposes a severe
burden on the capacitor.
The capacitor must be able to carry high-peak currents necessary for
commutation without excessive losses that would reduce circuit efficiency.
The high currents cause high temperatures and consequently low efficiency and
capacitor failure. It is therefore essential to check the manufacturer's
specifications when a circuit is designed.
7.4 Alternating-current circuits
The circuit in Figure 7.9 shows a basic on-off circuit that controls a 240 V ac lamp
control. With S1 open, the SCR will be off, because there is no gate current.
Note:
Assume that the break-over point of the SCR is not reached. This
value can also be obtained from tables.
An SCR with at least a 400 V PIV (peak inverse voltage) must be used. If S1 is
energised, a positive voltage will be led to the gate for each positive half cycle.
This switches the light on, which causes the lamp to bum for that half cycle.
When the input cycle goes through zero, the SCR will switch off automatically
and will remain off for the full negative half cycle.
This circuit gives a 50% duty cycle and is relevant to the ordinary half-wave
rectifier circuit. An important component in this circuit is the diode in series with
the gate. Its purpose is to prevent back emf to the gate, which could damage
the junction in the SCR.
The value of R1 must be such that it prevents too much current on the gate
during the positive peak value, but it must be low enough to maintain positive
triggering of the SCR as near to zero voltage as possible.
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Figure 7.9
The duty cycle could be reduced to less than 50% in this circuit. All that has to
be done is to trigger the SCR at a later stage during the positive half cycle; this
will reduce the power to the load. This principle is dealt with later.
For full-wave control, another method must be used. One possibility is shown in
Figure 7.10. In this circuit, the load is connected in series with the diode bridge.
The ac is rectified to a pulsating dc, which goes through the SCR. The current
flows through the SCR in only one direction, but in both directions through the
load. (Follow the direction yourself; the electrons flow only upwards through the
SCR.)
Figure 7.10
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Also, note that the gate pulse is obtained only from a positive point out of the
bridge. Again the lamp will burn only when the SCR is on, because all the current
must flow through the SCR. The SCR thus controls all the power to the load.
Note:
This circuit can also be used on a dc load. In this case, the load must
be put in series with the SCR. There is only current flow in one
direction through the SCR and a de load can very well be used with
full-wave control from the ac.
Figure 7.11 shows a special use of the SCR. These SCRs work alternately. Each
SCR transfers only one specific half cycle of voltage. When S1 is in the open
position, all SCRs are off because there is no positive voltage applied to any of
the SCRs.
If the input signal is positive, SCR1 can conduct if its gate is made positive. This
can be effected through D1 and the switch. If the switch is on during this cycle,
SCR1 will conduct and the lamp will burn.
When the input becomes negative, SCR1 cannot conduct but SCR2 can, if it is
pulsed. The pulse can be obtained through D2 and S1, because when the signal
becomes negative at the top, it is positive at the bottom. SCR2 thus conducts for
the negative signal. This type of control is known as back-to-back
control.
Figure 7.11
Figure 7.11 can be simplified as shown in Figure 7.12. This sketch clearly shows
the two SCRs coupled opposite each other and parallel. The device can thus
conduct current in both directions, like the previous example.
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A point to note is that the two gates are also coupled together and that either
a positive or a negative voltage can be coupled to the gate.
These pulses are again relative, because the gate of the specific SCR that is to
conduct that half cycle must always have a positive voltage on that gate
relative to its own cathode. This is a typical back-to-back switching situation of
SCRs.
Figure 7.12
This type of circuit leads to more thyristor devices like the triac, diac, quadrac
etc.
7.5 Duty cycle
The principle of duty cycle is now discussed.
Note:
The most important characteristic of the duty cycle is that of time. It
is not a difficult concept, but time must never be forgotten in the
duty cycle. The reference time determines the duty cycle.
Worked Example 7.1
A lamp is connected to a battery by means of a switch and conductors. It is
switched on for two seconds and then off.
For how long did the lamp burn? Two seconds, obviously.
What was the duty cycle during those two seconds? 100%, because during
the two seconds maximum current was drawn. The reference time was two
seconds.
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Different duty cycles in terms of two seconds can now be defined. (two
seconds is the important concept.)
Figure 7.13
Figure 7.13 shows different duty cycles with reference to two seconds. Say that
the switch is kept on for only one second out of the two seconds. The lamp will
only draw current for one second and the duty cycle will be 50%.
If the switch is kept on for only half a second, the duty cycle is reduced further
to 25% and if the switch is kept on for one and a half seconds, the duty cycle is
75%.
Duty cycle can be defined as the ratio of on-time to reference time. The
reference time is the on-time plus the off-time.
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Note:
You must be careful to understand off-time; an appliance can be
off for one year, and in the next year it could be on for half an hour
out of an hour. Then the duty cycle is 50%.
Duty cycle takes another form when a sine wave is used. A sine wave oscillates
between positive and negative. In this case though, time is already in the
frequency involved, and a sine wave can therefore have its own duty cycles
while it is in use.
Figure 7.14 shows a sine wave with, firstly, a 100% duty cycle. Different ways are
shown by which a 50% duty cycle can be obtained from a sine wave.
Figure 7.14
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The last form is not often used because it is very difficult to obtain with available
semiconductor switching circuits.
7.6 Phase control
Up to now, control over the SCR has only been at the beginning of the cycle.
This type of control gives a 50% duty cycle with half-wave control and almost
100% with full-wave control. This means the load is either half strength or full
strength. This type of circuit has limited uses, such as in the cut-out of mechanical
contacts and remote control. The main advantages of these circuits are seen
where the amount of power delivered to a load must be controlled.
Examples are found in the control of motors, lamp intensifiers, heaters, etc. These
types of control can be achieved by changing the duty cycle of the load. This
is done by simply controlling the time at which the gate is pulsed in the triac or
the parallel working of the SCR.
This controls the contact between anode and cathode, which in tum controls
the load. This type of control is !mown as phase control, because the duty cycle
controls the phase angle of the incoming signal to the load.
Three types of control are discussed and this one is the simplest of the three. It
provides for regulating the intensity of a lamp from zero to full intensity.
These controls are commercially available and take the form of a lamp switch
that fits in the normal wall-mounted switch box. Note that these controls must
not be used on fluorescent lamps.
Figure 7.15 shows the basic block diagram of a phase control and the
waveforms at different phase control gate pulses applied to the input
waveform.
Note:
The regulated phase delay network is synchronized with the
incoming signal and therefore does not automatically pulse the
input.
This type of delay network can regulate the input pulse to the device from 0° to
almost 180° for a positive and a negative incoming signal.
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Figure 7.15
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Only delays of 0° to 180° are mentioned, not those from 181° to 360°. The latter
provide a duty cycle of less than 50%. When a delay of 10° full cycle is referred
to, it means the device is triggered at 10° as well as 190°.
In other words, from 10° to 180° the device will be on, from 180° to 190° it will be
off, and then it will be on again from 190° to 360°. Figure 7.15 (b) shows clearly
what is meant by this statement. Such control will give a duty cycle from 0 to
almost 100%.
Figure 7.15 (a) shows a trigger device. Its function is to switch on the moment a
predetermined voltage is applied to it. This will cause the triac to switch on
immediately.
Figure 7.15 (b) shows the waveforms of three different phase controls. If the
phase delay is 10°, the triac switches on only at 10° and conducts for 170°.
Then it pulses again at 190° and remains on up to 360°. Out of the possible 360°,
the device is on for only 340°.
When the delay is adjusted for 90°, the triac is not on for the first 90°. Then it
switches on immediately and conducts to 180°, after which it is off up to 270°,
and then switches on up to 360°. In this case, a complete 50% duty cycle is
obtained.
Finally, the delay is set to 170°. The device is off up to 170°, and conducts only
for 10° during the first half cycle. It is then off again until350° is reached, when it
comes on again for the last 10°.
Note:
This type of control is achieved by delaying the supply to the load.
The controller remains on for the rest of the cycle only to switch off automatically.
Students often explain this type of control with an initial on-cycle followed by an
off-cycle in the middle or at the peak value. This is incorrect. If the SCR is on, it
remains on until the holding current is reduced below the threshold value.
7.7 Phase delay
The phase delay described above can be designed in many ways. It can take
the form of a single or multiple RC-controlled phase-shift network, or an RC
adjustable time-delay network that simulates a phase delay relative to its time
equivalent, or it can be made with a voltage-dependent trigger diode.
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A half cycle of the 50 Hz mains voltage has a period of 10 milliseconds which
gives 55,5 microseconds per degree of phase delay. Therefore, 90° phase delay
can be simulated by a time delay of 5 milliseconds, and so on.
Figure 7.16 (a) shows a vector diagram of an ideal capacitor and resistor. The
reactance of the capacitor is on the vertical line XC while the resistance R is on
the horizontal axis.
Figure 7.16 (b) shows an example of a capacitor with a reactance of 200 Ω.
Figure 7.16
Remember,
ͳ
ܺ ൌ
ʹߨ݂ܥ
and the resistance is also 200 Ω. To determine the impedance, the vector
diagram is drawn as in Figure 7.16 (b), and the parallelogram must be
completed; in this case, R = Xc.
The diagonal line of R and XC is the impedance and equals 283 Ω. It is indicated
by Z. The angle between R and Z is the phase angle and is given in degrees or
radians.
It is clear from the above that if R changes, the impedance changes. (It is easier
to change R than C). It is this principle that is sometimes used to change the
phase angle and fire the SCR.
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7.8 Interference
SCRs act as high speed power switches. They have typical tum-on times of only
a few microseconds.
When they are used to switch power into a load, these high switching speeds
result in the generation of a series of harmonically related radio-frequency
signals.
Assume that a load is switched on at 90°; it has the same effect as a coil spring
that is pulled out and allowed to return to its original state. It does not return to
the original state and remain there, but oscillates around this point with
decreasing amplitude until it comes in line. This has a smoothing effect on the
transient.
The same happens with the signal; it goes straight to the peak value at the time,
shoots past it and oscillates at a high frequency around that point. The
frequency generated at this point is in the radio-frequency band and causes
noise and interference in that band.
There are two types of interference to be considered. The first is direct emission
from electric sparks such as those in ignition systems and those caused by relays.
This is why motor car engines must have suppressors in the form of a high
resistance.
This type of interference from SCRs is not serious – the changeover is electronic
and no physical spark is generated.
If such interference is generated, it is easy to mount the device in a can or
container and thus shield it.
7.9 Transients
If something is at rest or in uniform motion, and a sudden change relative to time
occurs to this state, then a transient has taken place. It follows that any change
in a current, relative to time, is a transient.
The second type of interference that SCRs generate in power lines are these
transients. These transient voltages develop around the switching-on point, can
have very high peak values, and are fed back into the power line, often with
disastrous effects on some devices.
These interferences must therefore be filtered and smoothed. Transients are
largest when the device is switched on at 90°, because peak current and
voltage are developed at this point.
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Another problem with transients is that the load is also pulsed. This can cause the
load not to react to these pulses as it should, and a large loss in power results.
These losses are known as eddy currents.
Transients sometimes make a triac start to conduct without it even being fired.
They can also damage other devices. Losses must be kept as low as possible so
that as much power as possible is transferred.
7.9.1 L-C filters
Several circuits can be used to suppress transients, but only a few will be
discussed here. The simplest of them all is the L-C filter, which is available in
different forms. The most common is the "pi"-filter, in which two capacitors in
parallel, with a coil between them, are connected in series with the output.
7.9.2 Zener diodes
Zener diode theory makes it clear that the device can provide a very good way
to clamp peak voltages.
The only problem is that Zeners are made for specific values. Zeners with high
values must be used for this purpose. Another point is that they must be used, for
both positive and negative signals and the switching times of the Zeners are
relatively low.
Efficient circuits are available in which Zener diodes are used.
7.9.3 Trans-zorps
Trans-zorps, known as zorps, are actually high speed Zener diodes, and are
available in one-way and two-way versions. The two-way zorp is actually two
Zener diodes head-to-head.
If the peak value in a 220 V line is 310 V, and a two-way zorp of say 320 V is used,
all voltages above 320 V will be short-circuited. Due to the high switching times,
the transients will not have a chance to hann other circuits. These devices can
quite effectively be used in lightning arresters and in TV antenna protection.
7.9.4 Varistors (MOFs)
Another semiconductor is the varistor. It is generally used in lightning arresters.
The resistance of this device decreases with an increase in voltage. The
resistance is inversely proportional to the voltage.
Figure 7.17 shows how a varistor can be used in a circuit where there is a
possibility of transients.
When a transient arises in the line, the voltage rises and the resistance of the
varistor decreases. The varistor conducts the unwanted current to earth and
suppresses the unwanted peaks. However, this circuit has a certain time lag and
very sharply rising transients are still able to damage the circuits.
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Figure 7.17
7.10 Different control methods
7.10.1 Phase control
Phase control is the method that has been discussed up to now. It is achieved
by varying the conduction angle of the thyristor, which varies the voltage to the
load. The conduction angle is proportional to the input control signal (Figure
7.15).
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Figure 7.18
Figure 7.18 (a) gives a summary of how phase control is achieved at two
different conduction angles where the gate is pulsed. In this way, the total rms
voltage to the load is controlled. This is clear in Figure 7.18 (b).
The graph also shows the average value of percentage voltage supplied to the
load. Figure 7.18 (c) shows that a specific pattern is followed between the
percentage control and the percentage voltage supplied.
For instance, for a control of 20%, 30% rms voltage is supplied. The regulation of
this type of control is not linear and it flattens to a great extent at the top.
7.10.2 Cycle control
Cycle control is achieved by the application of full voltage for a series of
incoming cycles, followed by the switching off of the supply for a predetermined
time. The ratio of on to off signals determines the amount of control and the duty
cycle.
This type of control (see Figure 7.19 next page), is often referred to as zero
crossing. The advantage is that no noise or transients are developed. The SCRs
must be triggered - at exactly 0° and 180°.
The question arises: what actually exercises the control? It is still the SCRs, but
now the number of full cycles is added to the load. Assume that 50 Hz mains
voltage must be controlled.
In one second, 50 full cycles will be applied. Switch on the SCRs for half a second
and then off for half a second. During one second, a 50% duty cycle is achieved.
Take one second again as reference but switch the SCRs on for five full cycles,
then off for five full cycles, etc.
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Figure 7.19
Again, a 50% duty cycle is achieved as shown in Figure 7.19. This circuit provides
half output power at 30% control, thus the power rises quickly and smooths off
at the top.
Figure 7.19 (b) shows the percentage output voltage versus the percentage
control. As with the previous example, the voltage does not increase linearly.
7.10.3 Cyclotronic control
This is the third type of control discussed. It is a combination of the previous two
types and provides a very good control for heavy-duty motors.
Examine Figure 7.20 (a). Cyclotronic control in Figure 7.20 (a) is achieved by
phase control of the first part from zero proportionally to full power. The power is
cycle controlled for the next period and the phase control is proportional from
full power to zero. There follows an off period before the cycle starts again.
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Figure 7.20
Figure 7.20 (b) shows that the speed of a motor can be controlled very smoothly
at the bottom end, when the speed is low. This is a very important factor in the
control of cranes, etc.
Activity 7.1
1. Name five characteristics of the SCR.
2. By using a labelled sketch, describe the action that takes place when an
SCR works.
3. Show by using labelled diagrams how an SCR can be switched off in a dc
circuit.
4. Draw a labelled diagram for a circuit that will switch a relay on and off to
drive a fan that cools the radiator in a motor car whenever necessary. The
motor car has a 12 V dc battery.
5. Describe by using labelled sketches what you understand by back-to-back
full-wave control.
6. Use labelled sketches to describe phase shifting and show by using a simple
sketch of an RC circuit how phase shifting occurs.
7. Draw a labelled circuit symbol of the triac and give its main characteristics.
What is its advantage over the SCR?
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8. Draw a labelled diagram to show how two SCRs can be used to keep the
temperature in a container at a certain value.
9. What do you understand by transients? Name four methods for their
elimination and describe each method.
10. Draw a neat sine wave and directly beneath it show how this wave
appears to the load if it is controlled by means of a triac at:
a) 45°
b) 130°
c) a duty cycle of 50%.
There must be four graphs directly beneath each other. You must draw at
least two full cycles
11. By using labelled sketches, describe the differences between phase
control, cycle control and cyclotronic control. Use a sine wave for your
description.
12. Draw a neat labelled characteristic curve for the SCR and show all the
important points.
13. What do you understand by commutation?
14. Using five labelled sketches, briefly describe methods of commutation.
15. Describe the limitations of capacitors in terms of commutation.
16. Describe briefly what you understand about the following:
a) definite ratings of thyristors, such as volt age, current etc.
b) critical rate of rise of on and off-state conditions;
c) holding and latching currents;
d) on and off-state times.
17. Describe briefly by using sketches what you understand by the wording
"duty cycle". Give practical examples with known values.
Self-Check
I am able to: Yes No
x Define the SCR
x Explain commutation
o Commutation circuits
Parallel-capacitor commutation
Series-capacitor commutation
Impulse commutation
x Describe alternating-current circuits
x Explain the duty cycle
x Describe phase control and phase delay
x Explain interference
x Describe transients:
o L-C filters
o Zener diodes
o Trans-zorps
o Varistors (MOFs)
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x Explain the following different control methods:
o Phase control
o Cycle control
o Cyclotronic control
If you have answered ‘no’ to any of the outcomes listed above, then speak
to your facilitator for guidance and further development.
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Learning Outcomes
On the completion of this module the student must be able to:
x Describe a differential amplifier:
o Single-ended input
o Differential or double-ended input
x Describe the op-amp
o The ideal op-amp
x Explain these operating modes:
o Inverting amplifier
o Non-inverting amplifier
o The voltage follower
o Voltage summer (adder)
o Integrator
o Differentiator
x Describe the audio amplifier
8.1 Introduction
The original concept of the operational amplifier came from the field
of analogue computers, in which operational techniques were used
as early as the 1940s.
The name operational amplifier derives from the concept of an extremely high
gain, differential- input dc amplifier, whose operating characteristics were
determined by the feedback elements used with it.
By changing the types and arrangement of the feedback elements, different
analogue operations could be implemented, enabling the same amplifier to
perform a variety of operations. Solid-state techniques made widespread use of
the op-amp possible from the 1960s.
Note:
With the mass production capabilities of IC manufacturing
techniques, IC op-amps became available in large volumes.
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Figure 8.1
Figure 8.1 gives an idea of how these ICs look, (a) from the outside and (b) from
the inside.
The IC itself is very small, but its large outer dimensions allow room for the multiple
pin connections to connect the outer circuitry to the IC.
8.2 Differential amplifier
This is a special type of circuit with a wide variety of applications. A few block
diagrams enable us to understand this concept better.
This amplifier differs from the types of amplifier we have dealt with so far. It has
two inputs (1 and 2) and two outputs (3 and 4). The relationship between these
inputs and outputs can only be seen if they are broken up.
A ground connection is also shown separately in the figure, since both input and
output terminals may be different from the ground terminal.
Inputs can be applied to either or both input terminals, and outputs will appear
at both output terminals.
There are, however, some very specific polarity relationships between both input
and both output terminals which are shown in Figure 8.3.
Figure 8.2
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Figure 8.2 shows only the block of a basic differential amplifier. The inputs are
essentially to each base of the two separate transistors (inside the IC) since the
emitters are connected to a common resistor so that the outputs are affected
by either one or both input signals.
The input and output terminals are numbered for reference. There are two
supply voltages and a ground terminal which is normally connected to the
centre tap of the power supply. (Only the ground terminal is indicated in this
diagram.)
8.2.1 Single-ended input
Figure 8.3
Figure 8.3 shows an input to the number 1 terminal while number 2 is connected
to the ground terminal.
The output at the number 3 terminal will be 180° out of phase, as in the normal
common-emitter circuit. The output at the number 4 terminal will be in phase
with the input as in the common-base circuit.
The same reasoning can be used for an input at the other terminal (see Figure
8.4).
Figure 8.4
8.2.2 Differential or double-ended input
It is possible to operate these amplifiers with two different input signals with
opposite polarity outputs appearing at the two output terminals.
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Figure 8.5
The double-ended or differential mode of input is used when the two input
signals are opposite in polarity and of about the same magnitude.
To understand this principle better, the inputs to the amplifier should be super
positioned, ie each input should be considered separately (see Figure 8.5).
The input applied to terminal 1 results in an opposite polarity amplified output at
terminal 3, and a same polarity amplified output at terminal 4.
Assume the output to be V and of the same magnitude. The same principle
applies for input 2, as in the figure. Note that in both cases, the outputs have the
same phase relation. By superimposing the two cases, the voltage at the output
increases, as indicated.
Figure 8.6 shows how this principle is applied in practice. The input to the first
amplifier could be a single input from a radio or tape recorder; the output drives
the normal differential amp and the output to this is twice the input, etc.
Figure 8.6
8.3 The op-amp
8.3.1 The ideal op-amp
The best approach to understanding the ideal op-amp is to forget any
conventional thinking about amplifier components. Think only in general terms
and consider the amplifier in block form with its input and output terminals as in
Figure 8.7.
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Figure 8.7
Figure 8.7 (a) represents the common symbol for the op-amp in general and the
student will see this symbol in many circuit diagrams.
Figure 8.7 (b) shows the important connections to the op-amp and Figure 8.7 (c)
shows the ideal amplifier.
Refer to Figure 8.7 (c). It is a direct-coupled device with differential inputs and a
single-ended output.
The amplifier responds only to the different voltage between the two input
terminals, not to the common potential.
A positive-going signal at the inverting (-) input produces a negative-going
signal at the output, and a positive-going signal at the non-inverting(+) input
produces a positive-going signal at the output.
Both input terminals of the amplifier will always be used, regardless of the
application. The output signal is single-ended and is referred to ground; thus,
bipolar (±) power supplies are used. (The ± sign means a + voltage as well as a -
voltage and not more or less.)
The characteristics of the op-amp can now be defined:
x The voltage gain is infinite - AVo= λ
x The input resistance is infinite - Rin = λ
x The output resistance is zero - Ro = Ͳ
• The bandwidth is infinite - BW = λ
x There is zero input offset voltage - Vo = 0 if Vin = 0
From the above, two more properties can be deduced:
x The differential-input voltage is zero.
x There is no current flow into either input terminal.
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These two properties are often used in op-amp circuit analysis and design. In
practice it is not unusual to get IC op-amps with a typical voltage gain in the
range of 20 000 to 1 000 000.
Figure 8.8 gives the layout of the well known 741 op-amp and its characteristics
can be summed up as:
x The voltage gain is 100 000 times at dc and low frequencies without
feedback applied.
x Input impedance is 1 MΩ, which means that it will draw almost no current
from the input; thus it needs only millivolts to give a full signal output.
x Output impedance is in the order of 150 Ω. This low impedance makes it
possible to provide a large output current.
x It is short-circuit protected.
x The common-mode rejection ratio is in the order of 90 dB, giving it the
property to suppress induced noise signals.
x It normally works from a dual power supply providing equal positive and
negative voltages in the range from ± 5 V to ± 15 V. The 0 V (centre point of
the power supply) must be connected to the common terminal to both the
input and output circuits and is taken as the voltage reference of the device.
(Also called the ground connection. See Figure 8.12.)
Figure 8.8
It is possible to work it from a single power supply by carefully selecting the type
of biasing to the op-amp.
8.4 Operating modes
Because the op-amp has such a high gain, it is necessary to limit this gain. For
this purpose, negative feedback is applied from the output to the inverting input
terminal.
This provides the following:
x more stable gain;
x reduced signal distortion;
x extended frequency bandwidth;
x more predictable gain.
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Because the gain is much greater than is required for most purposes, it is possible
to sacrifice some gain for the advantages mentioned above.
A resistor () from output to the inverting input is normally used to supply this
negative feedback. The gain of the amplifier is then controlled by the amount
of negative signal feedback applied.
The basic ratio of /ͳ determines the feedback fraction and also the overall
op-amp gain. ͳ is the input resistance in series with the input signal and not the
input impedance of the amplifier. and ͳ are also referred to as ʹ and ͳ
respectively.
8.4.1 Inverting amplifier
The ideal op-amp has an infinite resistance between the two inputs, and can
thus be considered an open circuit. Therefore the current flowing into the op-
amp for all practical purposes equals zero.
Figure 8.9
ൌǦ
is very small since typically equals 100 000 when comparedandand
for all practical purposes can be taken as 0 V.
ܸ = ܫ ൈ ܴ (Kirchhoff to input)
and ܸ = ܫ ܴ (Kirchhoff to output)
But ܫ = െܫ ǡ ݅݁ܫ ൌ െܫ
Substitute in ܸ = ܫ ܴ
ܸ = െܫ ܴ
We know that voltage gain ܣ௩ ൌ
This gives ܸ = െܫ ܴ and ܸ = ܫ ൈ ܴ
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ܣ௩ =
ோ
ܸ = െ ቀ ோ ቁ ܸ
Worked Example 8.1
If the input voltage is 1 V and the input resistance to the inverted input of an
op-amp is 1 K, determine the output voltage if the feedback resistance is 10
K.
Solution:
ோ
ܸ = െ ቀ ቁ ܸ
ோ
ଵൈଵయ
= െ ቀ ଵൈଵయ ቁ ൈ ͳ
= െͳͲܸ
8.4.2 Non-inverting amplifier
Figure 8.10
Figure 8.10 shows the basic non-inverting op-amp with the applied input voltage
= 0 and the voltage drop over to be = and form a voltage-divider
network.
ܸ = ܸ
ோ
= ൬ோ ାோ ൰ ൈ ܸ
ோ ାோ
ܸ = ቀ ቁ ൈ ܸ
ோ
ோ
= ቀͳ ቁ ൈ ܸ
ோ
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Worked Example 8.2
Determine the output voltage in the non-inverting mode of an op-amp with
input voltage 1 V, feedback resistance 10 K and input resistance 1 K.
Solution:
ோ
ܸ = ቀͳ ቁ ൈ ܸ
ோ
ଵൈଵయ
= ͳ ቀ ଵൈଵయ ቁ ൈ ͳ
= ሺͳ ͳͲሻ ൈ ͳ
= ͳͳܸ
8.4.3 The voltage follower
Figure 8.11
Figure 8.11 shows the simple voltage follower circuit. This circuit uses 100%
feedback.
Apply = 0 and therefore =
Since the op-amp has a high input and a low output impedance, a voltage
follower can be used to match impedances. It can also be used as a buffer
between two stages to protect the output of the first stage.
The low output impedance means that a large output current can be drawn
while the input draws almost no current. The gain of this type of amplifier is unity
or 1.
8.4.4 Voltage summer (adder)
Figure 8.12 shows the simple summing amplifier.
The total output voltage is given by:
ோ ோ ோ
ܸ = ቀோ ܸଵ ோ ܸଶ ோ ܸଷ ቁ
భ మ య
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భ ೞ య
= ܴ ቀ ቁ
ோభ ோమ ோయ
Figure 8.12
It is used in analogue computers and is also often used as signal mixers in audio
equipment. The overall gain of the circuit is set by the feedback resistance and
the gains of the individual inputs are then scaled independently by the relative
input resistances.
Worked Example 8.3
Calculate the output voltage of a voltage summing op-amp if the input
voltages are 3 V, -7 V and +5 V respectively. Take it that the input resistances
are all equal to 1 0 kW and the feedback resistance is 33 ill.
Draw the circuit diagram first.
Solution:
Figure 8.13
ܸ = ܴ ቀோభ ோೞ ோయ ቁ
భ మ య
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But ܴଵ = ܴଶ = ܴଷ
ோ
ܸ = ோ ሺܸଵ ܸଶ ܸଷ ሻ
భ
ଷଷൈଵయ
= െ ଵൈଵయ ൈ ሺ͵ െ ͷሻ
= െ͵ǡ͵ܸ
8.4.5 Integrator
The input and feedback components of the op-amp can take the form of
different types of components.
This makes it possible to perform different mathematical operations usually
associated with calculus called integration and differentiation.
The first one looked at is the integrator, which performs the mathematical
operation of integration which is, essentially, to find the area under the curve
generated by the input waveform.
For the op-amp integrator, the output voltage is equal to the integral of the input
waveform divided by the RC time constant.
Figure 8.14
Figure 8.14 shows the basic integrator circuit with the input through a resistor to
the inverted input. The feedback component is now a capacitor.
ொ
The voltage over the capacitor ܸ ൌ
The time constants of the resistors and capacitors are critical.
Note:
A square wave is used for the input signal.
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8.4.6 Differentiator
Differentiation is the process of finding instantaneous rates of change by finding
the slope of a line tangent to the point of interest on the graph of the function.
Figure 8.15 is an example of a simple electronic differentiator.
The differentiator consists of an input to the op-amp through a capacitor. The
feedback to the inverted input is via a resistor.
Figure 8.15
The formula for the output voltage is a differential equation which again falls
outside the scope of this course.
The same precautions taken for the integrator must be taken here. It is interesting
to note that different input waveforms behave differently at the output.
Figure 8.16
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The sine wave gives a cosine at the output whereas a cosine at the input delivers
a "minus sine". The square wave produces a bipolar train of sharp pulses, etc.
Figure 8.16 shows some outputs from different inputs.
More practical applications are also possible, ie the log amp and the anti-log-
amp where diodes and transistors are used in the input and feedback circuits,
etc.
8.4.7 Summary
Four circuits have been described to illustrate the use of the op-amp with
negative feedback. A summary of the output waveforms of these circuits for a
square-wave input is given in Figure 8.17.
In these four examples it can be seen that the analysis of op-amp circuits with
negative feedback can be greatly simplified by using the circuits given so far.
8.5 Audio amplifier
Figure 8.18
Figure 8.18 shows the basic circuit in which the op-amp uses only one power-
supply lead, working in the inverting mode with negative feedback and
coupling capacitors. Although it is not specified, the formulas, for the calculation
of these capacitors are given and an example of how it is applied follows.
ଵ
ܥ = ଶగோ and
ଵ
ܥ = ଶగோ
ಽ
where is the lowest operating frequency in the audio spectrum, which is
generally accepted as 30 Hz. The voltage divider circuit consisting of ͳ and ʹ
makes it possible to work from one supply line and also provides class A output.
The gain is still / ͳ and the value of the capacitors can be worked out.
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Figure 8.17
Worked Example 8.3
Refer to Figure 8.18 and calculate:
• the gain of the amplifier;
• the values for Ci and Co;
• the output voltage.
Use the following values:
ͳ = 20kΩ;
= 200 kD;
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= 1k5;
= 20 Hz and
= 100 mV
Solution:
ோ
ܣ௩ = ோ
ଶൈଵయ
= ൌ ͳͲ (no units)
ଶൈଵయ
ଵ
ܥ = ଶగோ
ଵ
= ଶగൈଶൈଶൈଵయ
= Ͳǡ͵ͻͺߤܨ
ଵ
ܥ = ଶగோ
ಽ
ଵ
=
ଶగൈଶൈଵǡହൈଵయ
= ͷǡ͵ͳߤܨ
ோ
ܸ = െ ቀ ோ ൈ ܸ ቁ
ଶൈଵయ
= െ ቀ ଶൈଵయ ൈ ͳͲͲ ൈ ͳͲିଷ ቁ
= െͳͲ ൈ Ͳǡͳ
= െͳܸ
Activity 8.1
1. Define the term "op-amp".
2. State the characteristics of the ideal op-amp.
3. Determine the output voltage of an op-amp with an input of 0,5 V fed to
the inverted input. The input impedance is 10 kΩ and the feedback
resistance is 100 kΩ.
4. A dc signal of 3 V is applied via a 10 kΩ resistor to an inverting op-amp using
a balanced ± 9 V power supply. Calculate the value of the feedback
resistor to obtain the maximum output voltage swing. State the value of this
voltage.
5. A summer op-amp has a feedback resistor of 560 kΩ and three voltages of
2,2 V, -3 V and 4,2 V are applied to it through resistors of 470 kΩ, 330 kΩ and
220 kΩ respectively. Calculate the output voltage.
6. Draw labelled circuit diagrams of the op-amp when it is connected as
follows:
a) unity-gain mode;
b) inverting mode;
c) non-inverting mode;
d) integrator mode;
e) differentiating mode;
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f) as a summer.
7. Draw a diagram by using the op-amp as an audio amplifier stage.
8. The input signal to an op-amp in the inverting mode is -2 V and the input
resistance is 20 kΩ. If the output voltage is 20 V, calculate the feedback
voltage.
9. A summer op-amp is represented by the following equation: ൌǦሾʹ
͵ሿ. Draw the circuit diagram of the op-amp.
Self-Check
I am able to: Yes No
x Describe a differential amplifier:
o Single-ended input
o Differential or double-ended input
x Describe the op-amp
o The ideal op-amp
x Explain these operating modes:
o Inverting amplifier
o Non-inverting amplifier
o The voltage follower
o Voltage summer (adder)
o Integrator
o Differentiator
x Describe the audio amplifier
If you have answered ‘no’ to any of the outcomes listed above, then speak
to your facilitator for guidance and further development.
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Learning Outcomes
On the completion of this module the student must be able to:
x Describe a wheatstone bridge
x Define a potentiometer
x Describe strain gauges
x Define thermistors
x Explain pH measurements
x Describe capacitive transducers
x Describe inductive transducers:
o Variable reluctance transducer
o Linear variable differential transformer (LVDT)
x Describe solid-state devices:
o Photovoltaic cells
o Photoconductors or light depend4ent resistors (LDRs)
o Photoelectric junction devices
o Opto-isolator
x Describe crystal transducers
9.1 Introduction
This modules discusses transducers: the principles of operation of the
four groups of transducers, a variety of applications and practical
considerations.
Electrical measuring systems usually have one task in common. They have to
convert the physical variable measured to some or other form of electrical
variable so that it can be registered on a measuring instrument.
Definition: Transducer
An appliance that converts one form of energy to another form of
energy.
Transducers converting mechanical energy into electrical energy are discussed
in this course. Transducers are not necessarily used for instrumentation but can
be used for any type of control.
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There are three basic problems to be considered with regard to transducers:
• The variety of transducers and the technical literature describing them are
vast. Virtually any physical effect leading to a change in some electrical
property of a material may be used to make a transducer. Two commercially
available transducers for measuring the same variable may use completely
different operating principles.
• The applications of transducers are even more varied than the choice of
transducers.
• The field is developing rapidly. Improvements to existing types of transducers
and the development of new types make comments about transducers
quickly out of date. As a result, it is impossible to give a comprehensive
description in this book of all the transducers students are likely to come
across. Similarly, it is impossible to recommend the type of transducer to use
in a given application. Almost any industrial or scientific application has its
own special needs and problems which make generalisations useless. Always
consult the manufacturer's specifications to ensure that the proper
transducer is chosen for the job.
The transducers covered in this module can be divided into four groups:
• resistive;
• capacitive;
• inductive;
• photosensitive.
9.2 Wheatstone bridge
All bridges are derived from the Wheatstone bridge, which is composed of four
ring-connected resistors, X, R, a and b (see Figure 9.1).
One diagonal of the quadrilateral contains the voltage source, which in its
simplest form is a battery. The other diagonal contains the null detector, in this
case a galvanometer G.
The galvanometer is a very sensitive current-measuring device that measures
currents in both directions, + and -.
It is important in this case to determine whether a current does flow. The amount
of current flow is not necessarily important; what is important is that there is a
current flow and in which direction it flows.
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Figure 9.1
The basic ratio of the bridge is as follows:
ୟ ଡ଼
ୠ
= ୖ or
ୟ
= ୠ
Thus, the unknown X equals the standard R (which can be read from a known
scale) multiplied by the ratio of a over b. Fixed ratios of 1, 10, 100, etc. (as well
as 1/10, 1/100, etc.) are available in the standard bridge.
The same bridge can be supplied by an ac source, but. then the galvanometer
must be replaced by a suitable ac detector (null detector).
Generally this takes the form of an amplifier to increase sensitivity, and is some
or other detector circuit capable of monitoring ac.
If there is some form of capacitance or inductance present in the circuit, it must
be able to cancel out these unwanted factors.
This bridge is mentioned because it provides a way to get rid of the temperature
problem mentioned earlier. In practice it also makes more accurate
measurements possible.
Note:
It should be clear that the bridge principle may be used for the
majority of transducers discussed below.
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Figure 9.2
Figure 9.2 shows how the Wheatstone bridge can be used to measure pressure.
The bellows expands or contracts with a change in pressure. This movement is
mechanically coupled to a variable resistance which in turn forms one arm of
the bridge.
9.3 Potentiometer
This is probably one of the oldest transducers. This type of transducer is often
used in power control. It can take one of two forms: rotation or linear
displacement.
The rotation type is found in most radios and hi-fi equipment, where it is used to
adjust the volume level. (Slide types are also used, but the rotation type is more
common.)
Figure 9.3
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Figure 9.3 illustrates the operating principle. The circuit is virtually self-
explanatory.
Voltage charges develop in the same ratio as the resistance changes due to
the rotation of the slip ring. If the potentiometer has a linear characteristic, the
voltage will also change linearly.
This device can be used to measure torque on a shaft or to measure the amount
of petrol in a car's petrol tank.
A float is used to observe the level of the petrol and is in turn coupled by means
of a rod to the potentiometer and then through the battery to a voltmeter.
It is only necessary to calibrate the voltmeter in terms of petrol quantity.
(Nowadays, other types of transducers are used.) A potentiometer with a linear
movement can also be used.
Figure 9.4
Figure 9.4 shows a linear-movement potentiometer. In this case the angle of
rotation must be converted by means of lever linkages from rotational to linear.
Note:
This type of transducer can be used in many different applications.
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Figure 9.5
Figure 9.5 shows another form of the pressure transducer. The pressure is actually
measured by means of a manometric capsule.
Figure 9.6
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The displacement is amplified by means of the levers and converted into a
rotation by means of the toothed sector. An electrical barometer can be made
in this way but nowadays semiconductors are used.
Figure 9.6 shows another interesting type of transducer. In this case the
potentiometer is used in an ingenious way to measure humidity. This meter is
generally known as a hygrometer and uses a human hair that stretches and
contracts according to variations in humidity.
It is quite easy to understand the principle of operation by studying the sketch.
Remember that in all the previous sketches, .the variable resistance could either
be coupled to a battery and voltmeter or it could form part of a Wheatstone
bridge.
9.4 Strain gauges
The strain gauge is also a resistive type transducer and its applications nowadays
are nearly unlimited.
It may be necessary to observe very small displacements such as the torque in
a shaft or compression in a pillar. These movements are too small to transfer to
the potentiometer. The strain gauge is a relatively new technological
development that solves this problem.
It is a transducer that interprets a dimensional variation in a supporting element,
reflecting it as a change in resistance. It is a tiny device about 5 mm x 2,5 mm,
and consists of a thin piece of paper onto which is glued a zigzag length of fine
resistance wire (Figure 9.7).
The device is cemented as accurately as possible to the structure whose
measurements are to be taken.
Figure 9.7
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ߩ݈
ܴ ൌ
ܽ
Where:
ܴ is resistance in ohms
݈ is the length in metres
ߩ is the resistivity
ܽ is the cross-sectional area
When you consider the formula representing resistance, it will be clear why this
device is so sensitive.
The only way to change R when rho is kept constant is to extend I or to reduce
a.
When a conductor is stretched out, its length increases while the diameter and
consequently the cross-sectional area is reduced. Two variables therefore
change when a conductor's length is increased.
This is why a strain gauge has to be mounted in a specific way (Figure 9.7). If the
gauge is mounted 90° relative to this position, the changes are negligible.
Resistance is also affected by temperature; when strain gauges are used,
temperature compensation should be taken into account. This is where the
Wheatstone bridge is useful.
Two strain gauges are mounted in a range close to that of the object to be
measured; the one is the active component and the other the temperature-
compensation component.
Figure 9.8
Figure 9.8 (a) indicates the circuit used, while (b) shows how these strain gauges
are mounted on the beam (in this case, a bending beam).
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Figure 9.9 (a) shows how the strain gauges are mounted to measure
compressive or tensile forces and (b) shows the positioning on a torque bar. The
strain gauge undergoes only a very small change in resistance; normally it is
necessary to amplify the output of the strain gauge.
The ideal amplifier in this case is the operational amplifier. It is available in "IC"
form, has two inputs capable of adding and subtracting and has a very high
gain factor.
Figure 9.9
Figure 9.10
Figure 9.10 shows a simple circuit to couple this device. There are numerous uses
for these devices, such as in lifts (to safeguard them against overloading), cranes
(to keep the lifting speed constant), weighbridges, etc.
9.5 Thermistors
The methods mentioned so far for measuring temperatures are not the only ones
available. We already know from transistor theory that semiconductors have a
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negative temperature coefficient, while conductors have a positive
temperature coefficient.
Figure 9.11
Figure 9.11 shows the characteristic curve of a typical semiconductor thermistor
(usually referred to as an NTC). The thermistor can be defined as an active
variable resistor because it is made from semiconductor material. The resistance
of the thermistor decreases very sharply with an increase in temperature.
Figure 9.12 shows the construction and colour code of the device.
Figure 9.12
The thermistor consists of a sintered metallic oxide with two connecting wires
attached to it on both sides (Figure 9.12). This device is very temperature-
sensitive - in the order of 0,55 °C per 2% of resistance. They are available in a
number of different forms and sizes.
Value P. max T. max Tolerance
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R25 °C (W) (°C) (+ %)
6 1 120 10
8 1 120 10
15 1 120 10
33 1 120 10
50 1 120 10
130 1 120 10
500 1 120 10
1,3k 1 120 10
47k 1 120 10
Table 9.1
Figure 9.13
Figure 9.13 shows the circuit of a simple oven-control device. The NTC switches
the relay, and the relay switches the heating element.
Large thermistors show a somewhat sluggish response to a rapid temperature
change, while the small bead types (the size of a pinhead) reach thermal
equilibrium in a matter of seconds.
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The small types are today built into wristwatches to measure temperature. This
type of watch even compensates for the temperature of the human wrist,
cancelling out its effect to measure the ambient temperature.
The easiest way to use this device to measure temperature is to bias the device
on the linear portion of the curve and couple a voltmeter in series with it.
These devices are used in numerous circuits in modem electronics and you are
advised to look at electronics magazines and books for more practical
applications.
Note:
The normal silicon diode can also be used, and is found in a large
variety of applications as a temperature transducer.
Figure 9.14
Figure 9.14 (a) shows a simple temperature meter. If the thermistor is used on the
linear portion of the graph, it can be used to measure a large variety of
temperatures.
Figure 9.14 (b) shows the the1mistor in a bridge circuit. This is the circuit of a very
sensitive measuring device. It is used for a small range; but by switching in
different ratios in the bridge circuit, it is possible to cover a larger range. The
tempo of gas flow can also be measured with this device.
Two identical NTCs are used. The one NTC is kept in the gas that is not flowing,
while the other is put directly in the gas flow. The one in the stationary gas is used
as a reference. Both thermistors are heated slightly by means of a bias.
The one in the gas flow will cool down due to the flow of gas and the current will
then reduce relative to the second one. This difference in current is then
calibrated in terms of temperature.
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9.6 PH measurements
The pH-factor of a liquid is an indication of the acidity or alkalinity of that liquid.
The pH-factor therefore also determines the conductivity of that liquid.
There are various ways to measure pH, but the simplest is to place two
electrodes a certain distance from one another in a glass container.
The resistance of the liquid is measured and compared to the standard. The
difference is read out on a pH-calibrated scale.
9.7 Capacitive Transducers
Three factors determine the capacity of a capacitor:
• the area of the plates (if the plates are of different sizes, then the smallest one
is the deciding factor);
• the distance between the plates;
• the insulating material between the plates.
In transducers making use of capacitive effects, the first two factors should
always be kept in mind. In the case of the third, the material must be an insulator,
otherwise it is not a capacitor.
Figure 9.15 shows some of these transducers. In some cases, the area of the
plates is increased or decreased, whereas in others the total area is moved
closer to or away from one another. In both cases the capacity changes.
Figure 9.15
Where the area becomes larger, the capacity increases; the same happens if
the plates are brought closer to one another and vice versa. When a capacitive
transducer is used, it is clear that an ac source must be used for the bridge.
Normally the transducer forms part of an oscillator, and the frequency changes
with the capacitance.
There are a number of uses for these transducers.
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In Figure 9.16 gas flow is measured by means of a capacitive transducer. When
the flow of gas increases, the pressure increases at point P.
This higher pressure causes the bellows to expand, therefore X moves closer to
Y, which increases the capacity between X and Y. This brings down the
frequency of the oscillator. The detector from the oscillator can then be
calibrated in terms of gas flow rate.
Figure 9.16
This type of transducer is still used for measuring barometric pressure,
temperature and humidity.
To operate a humidity transducer on this principle, it is only necessary to change
the potentiometer by means of a plate capable of moving closer to and away
from another plate. This type of sensor is used in weather balloons.
Torque and angular displacement can also be measured by means of
capacitive transducers.
Figure 9.17
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The differential capacitive effect is illustrated in Figure 9.17 where it is used to
measure angular displacement.
Two capacitors are used in this case; when the capacity of one increases, the
capacity of the other decreases. This has an amplifying effect, obtained at
virtually no cost. In this case the ratio between the two windings is of greater
importance than the absolute voltage value.
Figure 9.18
When this method is applied, as in Figure 9.17, with the shaft stationary and in
the middle, so that the two capacitors have the same value, no output will be
observed at the zero detector.
When angular displacement is applied to the device, the equilibrium is upset.
The zero detector will register both the quantity and direction. This differential
principle can be expanded to other, similar transducers.
Figure 9.18 (a) shows how this principle is applied to measure linear
displacement. (As in a seismograph.)
Figure 9.18 (b) indicates how it is used to measure the roundness of a rod. This
method can also be used to measure the thickness of material.
Both these methods are applied in bridge circuits and the principle is the same
as in Figure 9.17.
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9.8 Inductive transducers
Figure 9.19
Figure 9.19 shows a simple generator. As the magnet is moved closer to the coil,
a voltage is generated within it. The voltage can only be generated when
there is movement of the magnetic field relative to the windings. The field lines
must be cut. This principle is very versatile and applies to many transducers.
Figure 9.20
9.8.1 Variable reluctance transducer
A variation of this principle is where the coil is wound around a core. A bias is
now applied to the coil, magnetising the core in a certain direction.
When this magnetic field is disturbed, the current in the coil changes and this
change can be measured.
A second coil, wound on the same core, registers a voltage according to the
change in magnetic field. This principle is known as variable reluctance.
Both transducers in Figure 9.20 make use of the variable reluctance principle.
Both have a pulse output; the pulses are used in this case to count the number
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of revolutions of the shaft. The only difference between the two is in the
construction.
In both cases, the soft iron could be replaced by a small magnet. If this is done,
the bias on the coil is unnecessary and one coil can be discarded.
The disadvantage of this method is that very fast pulses cannot be monitored.
The previous method has a faster reaction time.
Figure 9.21 shows another form of variable reluctance transducer. The principle
of operation is obvious.
Figure 9.21
A variation of Figure 9.21 is the arrangement in Figure 9.22 which is much more
sensitive and works in the push-pull configuration.
In Figure 9.22 the armature A is fixed to the object whose movement is to be
measured, which is placed between two facing iron cores. Around these iron
cores, two like coils, L1 and L2, are wound.
The displacement of A is such that the air gap of one core is reduced while the
other is increased, resulting in opposite variations of L1 and L2.
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Figure 9.22
The bridge is completed by two like impedances, Z1 and Z2, which are fed by an
ac signal from a transformer. The bridge rectifiers facilitate a de voltage being
generated relative to the displacement of A.
This displacement is then read off the meter M, but it only shows the amount of
displacement and not the direction in which the displacement took place.
Note:
Certain seismographs work on this principle.
9.8.2 Linear variable differential transformer (LVDT)
This is a highly specialised type of transducer and is being used more and more
frequently. Anything moving to and fro can be monitored by means of an LVDT.
Basically the transducer is made of three coils wound around an in-line former.
By moving the core in and out of the former, the magnetic coupling between
the coils can be changed. The core is normally in the middle.
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Figure 9.23
Figure 9.24
Depending on the application, the interconnections of the coils could be in
parallel, in series or independent.
Normally the input of the ac is at the middle coil, while the output is taken from
the outer coils. When the core is moved to one side, that side will have a better
coupling and thus a higher output.
At the same time the coupling to the other coil will be weaker, thus providing
less output on that side.
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If the inter-coupling between the coils is correct, the two outputs will be
complementary. The output is normally amplified or fed to a differential
amplifier, which can either add or subtract the outputs depending on the
requirements.
Figure 9.24 shows a circuit with such an amplifier, with a phase detector to
register displacement and direction of movement.
9.9 Solid state devices
Solid-state transducers are becoming more and more common. We discuss the
principles and look at a few examples. It often happens that a device is
developed for one purpose but is later applied to other uses as well.
A good example is the normal junction diode. It has negative temperature
characteristics, for it is made of semiconductor material.
If a current is sent through a diode, this current will change according to
temperature if the voltage is kept the same over the junction. This method is
often used in digital thermometers.
Another characteristic of solid-state devices is that they are sensitive to light
exposure. Light falling on the junction changes the characteristics of the device.
Photoelectric semiconductor devices can be divided into photovoltaic cells,
photoconductors and junction devices.
Photogalvanic cells are also known as photovoltaic cells and have the unique
property of developing an electromotive force when exposed to light. The
amount of emf depends on the amount of light: the more light, the greater the
emf.
Note:
An older type of cell is the selenium cell, also known as the solar cell.
9.9.1 Photovoltaic cells
The energy conversion efficiency of conventional selenium cells is rather low
(about 1-2%). Silicon cells have an efficiency of about I 0%, but are much more
expensive due to their complexity.
Figure 9.25 shows a section of a selenium cell. Selenium is deposited on a metal
base and covered by a film of a metal such as gold, which is thin enough to let
light shine through it onto the selenium.
A metal frame acts as a contact for this translucent conductor. The active side
is covered by a glass window to protect the device.
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Figure 9.25
Figure 9.26
Figure 9.26 shows a cross-section of a silicon cell. The light-sensitive surface is
composed of a slice of N-type silicon that is diffusion-treated to form an
extremely thin P-layer, thin enough for light to pass through it and reach the P-N
junction.
When this junction is exposed and illuminated, it generates about 0,5 V. The P
material is the positive and the N material is the negative of the cell.
Since the voltage and current of such a cell are limited, a number of cells are
series and parallel connected to produce a useful output.
9.9.2 Photoconductors or light dependent resistors (LDRs)
Photoconductivity is the process by which the resistance of certain
semiconductor materials decreases when exposed to light.
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Photoconductors are made of amorphous materials such as cadmium sulphide,
cadmium selenide, selenium and lead sulphide, which are infrared sensitive.
These materials have a high dark resistance that drops to a very low value on
illumination. Ratios of 10 000:1 are quite common.
The devices do not produce energy and therefore they must be provided with
power to do their job. The most sensitive area of the CdS-cell is in the visible light
spectrum and therefore it is used in most cameras as a transducer for the
exposure meter.
Figure 9.27
Figure 9.27(a) shows circuit symbols commonly used for bulk-effect
photoresistors. The construction of a typical broad cadmium sulphide (CdS)
photoconductive cell is shown in Figure 9.27 (b).
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This and other types of photoconductive cells are often referred to as
photoresistors or light-dependent resistors. A graph illustrating the relationship
between the resistance of the cadmium sulphide cell and the intensity of the
illumination to which it is subjected is shown in Figure 9.27 (d).
These devices are also available in different sizes. The normal types can handle
a load of 7 mW to 2 W, which is normally sufficient for a standard relay.
This cell can easily be used to control a transistor driving a big relay.
The reaction times of these devices are relatively low; from 7 ms for intense light
to as much as half a second for low-level illumination. This limits their use to fairly
slow-moving objects. For repetitive events, 1 000 Hz is about the frequency limit
for a fair light level.
9.9.3 Photoelectric junction devices
These transducers were discussed under diodes and transistors. A summary here
is not out of place and a special type incorporating photo diodes and transistors,
called the opto-isolator, is discussed.
It consists of semiconductor diodes or transistors with a housing containing an
opening that holds a tiny convex lens to concentrate incoming light rays on the
junction. The junction is reverse-biased so it passes only a small leakage current.
Illumination of the junction increases this current, which becomes the operating
current of the device.
Note:
These devices are made with both germanium and silicon, but
silicon is less sensitive to temperature changes and its dark current is
lower.
These are very small devices operating at frequencies much higher than other
light-sensitive devices, up to 100 kHz for germanium and 1 MHz for silicon. The
working current is less than 1 mA and an amplifying stage is normally necessary.
The infrared LED is used in conjunction with the photo transistor in Figure 9.28 to
count items on a conveyor belt.
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Figure 9.28
The phototransistor is a type of photodiode with a built-in amplifier. It differs from
the conventional transistor in that it has a glass window in the top of the case to
let light strike directly on the emitter base junction. Sometimes the base is not
even connected.
As in injecting current in the base of a normal transistor, illuminating this junction
results in an amplified collector current. Sometimes it is necessary to bias the
base, depending on the mode of operation.
The light-activation principle also works with other semiconductor devices such
as the silicon controlled rectifier; in this case it becomes a light activated switch
(LAS).
9.9.4 Opto-isolator
This is a package that contains both an infrared LED and a photo detector such
as a silicon diode, a transistor, a Darlington pair or SCR.
Figure 9.29 shows a possible chip configuration. There is a transparent insulating
cap between each set of elements embedded in the structure to permit the
passage of light.
The device is used in cases where two signals or voltages must be isolated from
each other. Figure 9.30 illustrates one such application.
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Figure 9.29
Figure 9.30
Figure 9.31 has a slot between the two devices. Any object moving through this
slot cuts the ray coming from the LED and is detected by the phototransistor.
It can also be used to read an optical tape when the transparency of the tape
varies from light to dark, etc.
Figure 9.31
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Figure 9.32
Figure 9.32 shows the same type of device that works on a reflective principle.
The LED transmits the beam of light, which is then reflected by a mirror or any
reflective device, e.g. a revolving shaft with a white spot on it to make up a
revolution counter.
9.10 Crystal transducers
This transducer uses the so-called piezo-electrical effect. A voltage is developed
across some crystals when they are subjected to a force.
Figure 9.33
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Figure 9.34
Figure 9.33 shows the basic construction of this device. It has no external power
source and can be used very effectively. This transducer is also reversible, ie
when a voltage is applied to it, it will expand in the other direction.
An application of this device as a crystal microphone is given in Figure 9.34.
When the diaphragm vibrates due to the incoming sound waves, the plunger
transfers these vibrations to the crystal. It compresses and releases, causing a
voltage to develop directly proportional to the incoming waves.
This device delivers a high voltage (200 mV to 1V) and has a very high
impedance.
These devices were commonly used in record players where a needle is
coupled to the crystal, which picks up the signals from the grooves on the
record, converts them to electrical signals and then to audio sounds by means
of the amplifier. It is also used in burglar alarn1s to detect broken glass, etc.
Note:
Ordinary microphones, loudspeakers, earphones, etc. are all forms
of transducers, which gives some idea of how many transducers
there are.
9.11 Conclusion
No module on transducers will be complete unless the "Hall effect" transducer is
mentioned. This transducer is so important today that the diagram is given in
Figure 9.35. Most motor car ignition systems today use this device.
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Figure 9.35
The principle of operation is shown in Figure 9.35 and consists of a semiconductor
chip with two sets of electrodes diagonal to one another, placed in a magnetic
field.
An electric current is sent from A + to B -, while the magnet M induces a
magnetic field H in the gap housing the chip. The current I and the field H
induces a de voltage C+ and D-.
Activity 9.1
1. Photoconductive cells belong to a family of devices often called . . . .
2. The energy used to activate a photocell is .. .
3. The resistance of a photoconductive cell .. . when light strikes the active
surface of the cell.
4. A thermistor operates as a . . . –controlled resistor.
5. The resistance of a thermistor ... when it is heated.
6. What characteristics of a photoconductive cell enable it to act as a light
sensor?
7. Describe the operation of a photoconductive cell with the aid of a sketch.
8. Explain with the aid of a graph the operation of a thermistor.
9. Define the term "transducer".
10. Draw a labelled diagram to show how each of the following transducers
could be used to measure barometric pressure:
a) LVDT;
b) a linear resistor;
c) strain gauge.
(You have to use all the above principles to draw the various transducers.)
11. Draw a labelled diagram indicating the positioning of strain gauges to
measure torque.
12. Draw a labelled diagram of a circuit for keeping a container of water at a
constant temperature by using an NTC to control a relay.
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13. Draw a labelled circuit of a relay to control street lamps by switching them
on at night and off in the morning.
14. Make a labelled sketch showing the construction of a transducer to register
the revolutions of a shaft.
15. State the main factors to consider when choosing a transducer.
16. Explain by using labelled sketches the opto-coupler as an isolating device.
17. Draw a circuit diagram showing how a relay can be made to operate
when it becomes dark.
18. Draw a circuit diagram showing how a relay can be made to switch on a
heater when it becomes cold.
19. State the four groups transducers can be divided into.
Self-Check
I am able to: Yes No
x Describe a wheatstone bridge
x Define a potentiometer
x Describe strain gauges
x Define thermistors
x Explain pH measurements
x Describe capacitive transducers
x Describe inductive transducers:
o Variable reluctance transducer
o Linear variable differential transformer (LVDT)
x Describe solid-state devices:
o Photovoltaic cells
o Photoconductors or light depend4ent resistors (LDRs)
o Photoelectric junction devices
o Opto-isolator
x Describe crystal transducers
If you have answered ‘no’ to any of the outcomes listed above, then speak
to your facilitator for guidance and further development.
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Learning Outcomes
On the completion of this module the student must be able to:
x Describe measuring instrument specifications
x Explain the following measuring errors:
o Gross errors
o Systematic errors
o Random errors
x Describe calibration of instruments and precautions that need to be taken
x Describe maximum and peak-to-peak values of a sine wave
x Describe Rms and average values of a sine wave
x Explain the operational amplifier in meters
x Describe different measurements
x Explain analogue-to-digital conversion (ADC):
o Basic principles of the ADC
o Accuracy
o Series-mode rejection
o Speed
o Kick-back signals and input impedance
x Describe the advantages and disadvantages of the staircase ramp
x Describe the successive-approximation method
x Describe the advantages and disadvantages of the variable-frequency
method
x Describe the advantage of dual-slope integration
x Describe the delta-pulse modulation system
x Explain general circuits
x Describe the advantages and disadvantages of digital meters
x Describe digital-to-analogue converter (DAC)
x Explain the Schmitt trigger
x Describe the frequency counter
x Explain the following with regard to the oscilloscope
o Why use an oscilloscope?
o The cathode-ray tube
o Stable display of a repetitive signal (triggering)
o Main controls and their functions
o Dual trace and dual beam
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10.1 Introduction
In this module the handling of multimeters is dealt with in respect of
accuracy, error, sensitivity, resolution and precision. Specifications
related to measuring instruments are explained. The instruments
explained are the frequency counter, digital voltmeters and the
oscilloscope.
The most common measuring instrument is designed to measure at least one of
the three basic electrical quantities, ie current (dc or ac or both), ac and dc
voltage and resistance.
Even the cheapest multimeter today is able to measure all the above plus much
more such as diocles, capacitance, frequency, etc. There is a measuring
instrument today for just about any quantity.
Note:
Three systems are used today in instruments: analogue, digital and
visual, although analogue and digital combined is used to form the
visual system.
The analogue system delivers a continuous output of some sort, which is in
relation to the input. This output can be linear, logarithmic, etc. It can also be
mechanical or electrical, eg the speedometer of a motor car. The read-out is
usually a pointer which moves with the increase in speed. The speed can be
read off a calibrated scale.
Systems of this type are very common. How much milk is there in the fridge? The
bottle is half full. What is the time? About five past eight, and so on.
A digital system has output in the form of numbers or figures. Each unit has a
value which could change from moment to moment according to the input. An
example is the odometer of a motor car.
It is unnecessary to determine the relative position - the exact numbers are given
periodically. This reading out and determination of the position from time to time
is known as updating. How much milk is left in the fridge? 500 ml. What is the
time? It is now five-thirty and seven seconds.
The visual system is used to observe waveforms and readings can be read on a
scale in front of the visual device. The oscilloscope is the most important visual
measuring device. It can be used to make many kinds of measurements.
There are different uses for all types of meters, each with its advantages and
disadvantages. Each has its own preferred use. Analogue meters are more
difficult to read than digital ones; the relative position of the needle with regard
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to the scale must be determined, parallax must be eliminated and usually
interpolation is necessary, as the needle is not exactly on a calibrated value.
A minor is used in the more expensive meters to eliminate parallax. In addition
to this, the pointer of the needle has to be flat and thin to reduce parallax.
These problems do not occur in digital meters, they always give exact readings.
Movements of the needle of an analogue meter, can, however, be observed
easily, and maximum and minimum values can be estimated fairly accurately.
Note:
The digital meter must update all readings first before displaying a
new reading, which takes time.
During this time the reading may change and be lost It was found that for certain
jobs, operators reacted better to analogue meters than to digital ones.
A pilot, for instance, is only interested in whether the aeroplane's engine is
working in the "green" area; a digital reading makes little sense. The pilot can
see on an analogue meter at a glance that all is running well; if he or she had
four digital readings to interpolate a mistake could easily be made.
The navigator, on the other hand, has to determine the exact position of the
aircraft, therefore a digital meter is of greater use. Digital meters are normally
more accurate than analogue meters. They are also usually more expensive, as
their electronic composition is more complex.
The visual instrument is much more complicated to set up and is much more
expensive, but it has the advantage that wavefom1s can be observed and
compared if necessary. We will come back to the oscilloscope later.
10.2 Specifications
To be able to judge the performance of an instrument, it must comply with a set
of specifications.
The most important specifications are:
• Range. This indicates from zero to the maximum reading quantity available
on the meter. Normally this total range is divided into sub-ranges which are
accessible by means of a switch. Say the total voltage which can be
measured is 1 000 V. This scale is impossible to read with accuracy, therefore
it is subdivided in ranges like 0-10; 0-100 and 0-1 000, which makes reading
much more accurate.
• Sensitivity. Different meters react to different levels of quantities, ie the lowest
measurable input value. A moving-coil meter without built-in amplifier has a
typical sensitivity of 100 m V.
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• Accuracy. This value defines how close the measured value can be to the
true value of the quantity being measured. It is normally given in terms of a
percentage.
• Error. The deviation from the true value being measured, also expressed as
a percentage.
• Precision. This quality refers to how much successive measurements made of
the same quantity will differ from each other.
• Resolution. The smallest change in input value to which the instrument will
respond by giving a change in the value displayed by the meter.
• Frequency. All ac signals have frequency as a component. When measuring
an ac voltage or current, the meter must be able to handle these
frequencies reliably. This makes it complicated at high frequencies. It must
thus be specified up to which frequency the meter will register values reliably.
• Stability. This indicates how constant the indications of the meter will be when
it is connected to a stable source for a certain time. Lots of factors can
influence this specification, ie temperature, built-in power-supply,
interference from outside, etc.
• Response time. The time taken by the instrument to give an accurate reading
from the moment it is connected to the signal.
10.3 Measuring errors
Human error and instrument inadequacies are the two main causes of
measuring error. These errors can be divided into gross, systematic and random
errors.
10.3.1 Gross errors
These are usually due to humans who makes mistakes when reading the scales,
or who select a scale not sensitive enough. They can also occur when the meter
is not properly zeroed, if the battery is not strong enough or the test probes are
dirty and not making good contact, etc.
Another form of error is the meter loading the circuit to be measured. To illustrate
this concept, study the following examples.
Note:
When two or more resistances are connected in parallel, then the
total resistance of the combination is lower than the lowest
resistance.
It is thus obvious that when a meter (which has internal resistance) is connected
to a load (in this case a resistance), then the meter must reduce the total
resistance of that combination. This effect can best be shown by means of an
example.
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Example 10.1
In Figure 10.1 (a), two 100 Ω resistances in series are connected to a 200 V
voltage source. According to Ohm's law, the voltage across each resistance
will be 100 V.
If we connect a voltmeter with an internal resistance of 100 Ω across one of
the resistances (see Figure 10.1 (b)), then the total resistance of that part
becomes 50 Ω (see Figure 10.1 (c)).
ଵ
According to Ohm, the voltage across this 50 Ω must be ଷ of 200 which is 66,67
V.
Figure 10.1
The influence a meter has on a circuit is known as circuit load, which means that
it has an extra influence on the working of a circuit.
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A voltmeter must therefore have a very high internal resistance. A practical point
to remember is that the internal resistance of a voltmeter must be at least 10
times higher than that of the highest resistance in the load.
Like the voltmeter, ammeters also have a big influence on loading a circuit.
Because the ammeter is connected in series with the load, its internal resistance
will increase the total resistance of the circuit. This effect is best illustrated by
means of an example.
Example 10.2
Figure 10.2
When a circuit is built up as in Figure 10.2 (a), the total current in the circuit will
be 1 mA, according to Ohm's law. If a milliammeter with a sensitivity of 1 000
ohms per volt is used to measure this current, the internal resistance of the
meter will be 1 000 ohms, which gives a full scale of 1 mA.
The meter will be able to measure the current. When the meter is connected
into the circuit to measure the current, the circuit is as in Figure 10.2 (b).
The total resistance of the circuit is now increased to 2 000 Ohms.
According to Ohm's law, the total current in the circuit will be reduced to 0,5
mA. The meter will therefore register only 0,5 mA, which is halfway to full-scale
deflection, ie 1 mA.
This example, like the previous one, shows the influence a meter can have on
a circuit. An ammeter must therefore have a very low internal resistance.
A practical point to remember is that the internal resistance of an ammeter
must not be more than a tenth of the lowest resistance in the load.
Example 10.3
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A 2 000 Ω/V voltmeter is connected across an unknown resistor with a
milliammeter in series with it and reads 120 V on the 150 V scale. The reading
on the ammeter reads 6 mA.
Calculate:
• the apparent value of the unknown resistor;
• the exact value of the unknown resistor;
• the error expressed as a percentage.
Figure 10.3
Solution:
ܴ௧ = ூ
ଵହ
= ൈଵషయ ൌ ʹͷ݇π
ܴ = ʹͲͲͲπȀܸ ൈ ͳʹͲ
= ʹͶͲ݇π
Voltmeter and resistance is in parallel
ோ ൈோ
ܴ௫ = ோିோ
ଶସൈଵయ ൈଶହൈଵయ
= ሺଶସିଶହሻൈଵయ
ൌ ʹǡͻͲ݇π
௧௨௩௨ି௧௩௨
% error = ൈ ͳͲͲ
௧௨௩௨
ሺଶǡଽିଶହሻൈଵయ
= ൈ ͳͲͲ
ଶǡଽൈଵయ
= ͳͲǡͶͳΨ
10.3.2 Systematic errors
These errors are divided into two groups:
• Instrumental. Mechanical factors are the main culprits with mechanical
meters: Examples of these are friction in the pivot bearings of the moving coil,
inertia of the meter and coil combination, oxidation on the electrical
connections, fatigue in the hairspring, tolerances in the range-switching
resistances and bad contacts on the range and selector switch.
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• Environmental. Environmental factors like temperature, barometric pressure,
humidity, magnets, radio or electrical interference, etc. have an influence
on the behaviour of the meter. To reduce the effect of some of these factors,
the following precautions can be taken:
calibration of the meter against a known standard;
using a meter at a constant temperature, i.e. with an airconditioner;
sealing some of the components inside the instrument, preventing it from
becoming damp.
shielding the meter so that external induction does not enter the meter;
correcting factors can be applied provided that they are determined
beforehand;
the most suitable meter must be selected for the job to be done.
10.3.3 Random errors
These are errors not mentioned in the above two sections. They can be
eliminated by making multiple measurements of the same quantity until at least
two of the same readings are obtained.
10.4 Calibration
Calibration is the adjustment of an instrument so that it gives the same reading
as a known, accurate standard.
Where it is not possible to readjust the scale of a meter, a correcting factor must
be determined and taken into consideration when a reading is taken. If the
problem is not solved in this way, you might find that the error changes from
scale to scale and from one range to the other.
Note:
Regular calibrations must be done to ensure the minimum of errors.
Different methods must be used for different types of measuring instruments. A
simple method to calibrate a multirange voltmeter is shown in Figure 10.4.
Very accurate voltage reference ICs are available today. Even high stability
Zener diodes are available. Before these devices became available, the so-
called Weston standard cell was used. This cell has a very constant 1,5 V voltage
output at a constant current.
The resistances must all be ± 0,1% tolerance resistances. The values of the
resistances are chosen so that a reasonable current flows through them and the
values are such that the voltages as in the sketch appear over them. The meter
is then switched over the combinations and adjusted.
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Figure 10.4
A similar method can be used to calibrate an ammeter by using a variable
resistor and a standard resistor.
By varying the current, the voltage over the standard resistor can also be varied.
The current can then be calculated and the meter calibrated.
10.5 Precautions
Before we use a multimeter in a circuit, we must know what we want to measure
and more or less how much. In the case of an analogue meter, set the pointer
on zero, or make sure that it points to zero. (A digital multimeter must indicate
zero.)
In the case of a digital meter, make sure that the batteries are in good condition.
When the meter is switched on, and with the probes shorted out, the reading
must be zero. When measuring resistance with an analogue meter, the terminals
must also be shorted out and the meter set to read zero ohms.
This can be done by means of the potentiometer provided on the outside of the
meter. Now the meter has to be set to the correct function: ac, de, voltage, etc.
The range switch is turned to the highest value.
Did you know?
There are meters today that adjust the scale electronically and even
show whether your reading is positive or negative by indicating a
plus or minus sign.
The meter must be connected correctly in the circuit, eg in parallel for voltage
and in series for current. Make sure that the meter is read off correctly and
eliminate parallax. Always try to obtain the reading from the largest scale.
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For instance, read a value of 6 V on the 0 to 10 V scale instead of the 0 to 100 V
scale. Such a reading is more reliable. Never take a reading of a resistor in a
circuit; always disconnect one of its legs, since this resistor might be parallel to
another or connected to another component that might influence the reading.
When a specific reading has been taken, remove the meter and switch it off.
Even an analogue meter should be switched off. The switch usually puts a short-
circuit across the coil, protecting it against accidental misuse.
When dc is measured, the positive terminal must be connected to the positive
and the negative to the negative. An analogue meter, for instance, will tend to
move to the opposite side past zero, and that might damage the meter.
Measuring dc is usually simple, but ac creates problems, since three types of
readings can be obtained:
• rms value (root mean square value),
• average value and
• peak or maximum value.
10.6 Maximum and peak-to-peak values of a sine wave
The sine wave is probably the most widely used alternating current wave. The
majority of power transmission lines carry a sine wave alternating current.
A few transmission lines make use of direct current, but this direct current must
be converted to alternating current before a transformer can be used.
The form of a sine wave is shown in Figure 10.5. There are 360° in one cycle and
the positive peak is the same size as the negative peak.
The peaks are also symmetrical but 180° out of phase. If it takes one second to
complete the cycle shown in Figure 10.5, then the frequency will be 1 Hz.
The frequency will be 4 Hz if it takes 0,25 seconds to complete the cycle, and so
on.
The number of times a cycle of alternating current is repeated during one
second is called the frequency of the current.
Did you know?
The basic unit of frequency is the hertz (Hz), named after Heinrich
Rudolph Hertz, a German physicist.
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Figure 10.5
The hertz has replaced cycles per second (cps) as the unit of frequency, but cps
still appears in some older notes.
In South Africa the frequency supplied by power companies is 50 Hz but in some
other countries it is 60 Hz. Frequencies in thousands and millions are used in radio
and television sets. They are expressed in kilohertz (kHz), megahertz (MHz) and
gigahertz (GHz).
Figure 10.6
There is a marked difference between the average value of a square wave and
that of a sine wave. The amount of power obtained from these waves also
differs, because the peak value of a square wave is also the average value and
the power obtained from a wave is the area under the curve.
The amplitude of a sine wave changes all the time. The average value will thus
differ completely from the peak value, and the area under the curve can only
be obtained mathematically. This difference can be seen in Figure 10.6.
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Figure 10.6 shows half-cycles of a square wave and a sine wave on the same
axis of a graph. If the square and sine waves start at the same time and they
have the same peak value, it is clear that the area under the square wave is
much bigger than that under the sine wave.
These two waves have the same peak value as well as the same frequency.
Study Figure 10.5 again for a full understanding of peak-to-peak value. In every
complete alternating current cycle, there are two maximum or peak values, one
for the positive half-cycle and one for the negative half-cycle.
The distance between the positive and negative values is known as the peak-to
peak value. This value is twice the maximum or peak value and is sometimes
used to measure voltages.
Normally though, the alternating current voltage is expressed in the rms value
rather than the peak-to-peak value.
Definition: Root Mean Square (rms)
The RMS value of a set of values (or a continuous-time waveform) is
the square root of the arithmetic mean (average) of the squares of
the original values (or the square of the function that defines the
continuous waveform).
10.7 RMS and averages values of a sine wave
When current flows through a resistor, heat is generated, depending on the
value of the current and the value of the resistance. Figure 10.6 shows that the
heat generated by a square wave is higher than the heat generated by a sine
wave.
The amplitude of the sine wave changes all the time, whereas the amplitude of
the square wave remains constant. A method must be found to compare these
two characteristics.
The method that is used subjects a standard resistance to both of these waves
alternately for a predetermined time, and the temperatures of the resistances
are then measured.
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Figure 10.7
The effective value of the alternating current, which is expressed as a fraction of
the maximum direct current, is known as the rms value. It can be proved that
this figure is 0,707 of the maximum or peak value of the direct current.
In other words, to obtain the same heat in the resistor in Figure 10.7, the peak
value of the alternating current must be increased by a factor of 1/0,707 of the
peak direct-current value, which equals 1,414 A.
The average value of the sine wave is determined by taking only one half-cycle
of the sine wave (a whole cycle will give an average value of zero) and by using
the mid-ordinate rule.
Worked Example 10.4
An alternating voltage has a peak-to-peak value of 360 V. Calculate the rms
and average values:
Only the peak voltage is required, in this case it is 360 ൊ 2 = 180.
Solution:
Rms voltage = 0,707 x 180 = 127,26 V.
Average value = 0,637 x 180 = i 14,66 V.
To make the moving-coil meter more sensitive, electronics can be used. We call
this an electronic voltmeter. All the principles that follow can be applied to these
meters, but, in these cases, it is not necessary to follow the input with an ADC –
the moving-coil meter is already a dc device.
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A bridge output circuit is most commonly used. Here the output is in the form of
a bridge, and the meter is used as a zero detector.
FETs are used in Figure 10.8 to obtain the bridge balance. In this circuit the two
FETs form the one arm of the bridge and the source resistance the other arm.
R1C1 is a filter circuit to filter out possible ac components. With no input, the
bridge is supposed to be in balance; if not, it must be set by RV1. This is obtained
by means of a bias on F2 and by decoupling C2.
With signal input, an imbalance will develop over the meter; this is then
calibrated in terms of voltage. This system is very sensitive and is given in terms
of Gm/2, where Gm is the mutual conductance of the FET.
Figure 10.8
10.8 Operational amplifier in meters
As we now know, an operational amplifier is an amplifier with a very high open-
loop voltage gain.
This gain G can amount to over 1 00 dB ( = 10-5) The basic "op amp" is a
difference amplifier with one output and two inputs. Due to the flexibility of these
amplifiers, they are used in all types of electronic systems. There are a large
number of these amplifiers available in 1C form.
Figure 10.9
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Figure 10.9 shows the normal circuit of an operational amplifier.
Note:
The signal is fed in at the inverted mode; therefore there is negative
feedback to limit the output due to the high gain of the amplifier.
Some of the uses of the op amp are in sensitive zero-detectors, pre-amplifiers,
integrators and differentiators (used to produce waveforms), ac to dc
converters, impedance transformation and constant-current sources.
10.9 Different measurements
It has already been mentioned that the rms value is indicated on most meters.
The method used for measuring average voltages in conventional electronic
instruments is based on the assumption that only sine waves have to be dealt
with.
Because of the well-defined shape of the sine wave, its average value can be
derived from either the peak value or the rms value, whichever is easier to
measure.
A suitable scale is then added to the existing scale and average values can
then be read from it. In the electronic meter, electronic circuitry is used to
convert between these values.
Figure 10.10
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In such cases, the peak value is measured and conversions to rms and average
values are done electronically. These meters are not well known to everyday
technicians, only the normal rms value meters being familiar to them.
In Figure 10.10 the peak value of a sinusoidal voltage is detected with a peak
detector and the output multiplied by 0, 707 to obtain the rms value.
The basic circuit of a peak detector is shown in Figure 10.10 (a). The diode D is
in the feedback loop of the op amp, therefore the forward voltage drop will be
divided by the open loop gain.
Once the diode is conducting, the output voltage is multiplied by R1/R2, which
is 0,707, and thus the detected dc voltage at the output Eout will have a value
equal to the rms value of the input Ein.
If R1 is replaced by a 1 kΩ resistor, the peak value will be shown. To get a basic
averaging circuit the circuit in Figure 10.10 (b) must be used. It is basically the
same as (a) but now C is fed via a large resistor R3; these two together form an
integrating circuit.
ଶ
The theory of a sine wave implies that the average value of half a sine wave is గ
times the amplitude, so if half a sine wave is integrated over a whole period, the
ଵ ଶ ଵ
average will be half this value, or ଶ ൈ గ, which is గ times the amplitude. Since the
ଵ
rns value is times the amplitude, we have to multiply by:
ξଶ
భ
ξమ
భ
ഏ
గ
=
ξଶ
؆ ʹǡʹʹ
As in Figure 10.10 (a), this calculation is performed by R1 and R2.
Note:
For a voltmeter designed to respond to a full-wave rectified sine
wave, this factor becomes 1,11.
10.10 Analogue-to-digital conversion (ADC)
Two important multimeter devices still have to be discussed. The first is the
analogue-to-digital converter (ADC). It does exactly what it says; it converts the
analogue input signal into a distinct number of "steps" or pulses that can easily
be counted by means of a frequency counter.
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This conversion is necessary because the voltage and current to be measured
nom1ally have an analogue nature. This analogue identity first has to be
converted so that it is capable of being displayed on a digital voltmeter.
Measuring current is very simple with a voltmeter. It is only necessary to put a low
resistance in the circuit and measure the voltage drop across it due to the
current and recalibrate the scale in terms of current.
If you use the correct instrument, the conversion is simple, but if you don't know
exactly how to do it, it is very difficult. The op amp is again used as the basic
device to do the job.
The analogue signal has to be converted into a distinct number of steps; the
higher the signal, the more pulses and vice versa.
Depending on the use, the pulse can take on a number of different forms and
sizes. In all cases, though, the step must correspond with an accurate known
voltage. This implies that for all dc digital voltmeters a very accurate reference
must be used for the measuring of dc inputs.
Note:
The ratio between the input and this reference is very important.
10.10.1 Basic principles of the ADC
An ADC can be designed according to several different principles. The three
most widely used are direct compensation, voltage-to-time conversion and
voltage-to-frequency conversion.
x Direct compensation. The input signal is compared with an internally
generated voltage, which is increased in steps, starting from zero. The
number of steps needed to reach full compensation are counted.
x Voltage-to-time conversion. Both input voltage and reference voltage are
converted into a time and the ratio of the two times is calculated.
x Voltage-to-frequency conversion. The input voltage is converted into a
number of pulses and the number of pulses in a well-defined constant time
period are counted. It is however important to consider certain requirements
before you study the block diagrams.
10.10.2 Accuracy
One of the advantages of a digital instrument is the very high resolution it can
provide, which permits high accuracy, since sources of error can be avoided.
The overall accuracy is mainly determined by the ADC, so the sources of error
at this stage must be kept to a minimum to ensure high accuracy and stability.
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10.10.3 Series-mode rejection
All ADCs discussed here measure de voltages. The voltage presented to the
input of the ADC is rarely a pure dc voltage. In most cases this input has some
form of ac component, such as hum and noise.
If dc is to be measured, the ac should not be included in this reading. The ac
signal should thus be rejected. (It is a series-mode signal.) A filter could be used,
but this slows down the instrument.
A better solution is to integrate the signal over a period of time. If the integration
period is long enough, the average ac signal is nearly zero and a good series-
mode rejection is obtained.
The design of this type of circuit is outside the scope of this course, but it is
important to know what series-mode rejection is.
10.10.4 Speed
For normal bench operation, two to three measurements per second are quite
enough, but 10 to 50 or more may be required for applications in automatic
measuring systems. The reaction time or speed of the ADC can be determined
by these factors.
10.10.5 Kick-back signals and input impedance
The more accurate the measurement, the more important it is that the voltmeter
itself should not influence the signal to be measured. We should make sure that
the input impedance is high and that feedback of signals from the voltmeter to
the signal source is kept to a minimum.
Figure 10.11
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10.11 Staircase ramp
This is a simple compensation system. The principle of operation is shown in Figure
10.11 in block form.
The input signal Vc is compared with an internal staircase voltage V; generated
by a series circuit consisting of a pulse generator (clock), a counter counting the
pulses and a digital-to-analogue converter (DAC) converting the counter
output into a dc signal.
As soon as Vc is equal to Vi, the input comparator closes a gate between clock
and counter (see Figure 10.11), the counter stops and the counter output is
shown on the display.
The operating sequences are as follows:
x Pulses are generated continuously by the clock.
x At the start of a measurement (time t1) the counter is reset to zero so that the
output of the DAC is also zero.
x If Vi is not zero, the input comparator supplies an output voltage that opens
the gate so that clock pulses are passed on to the counter.
x The counter starts counting and the DAC starts producing an output voltage
increasing by a small step at each count of the counter.
x The result is a staircase voltage supplied to the second input of the
comparator (see Figure 10.12).
Figure 10.12
This process continues until the staircase voltage is equal-to or slightly greater
than the input voltage Vi.
At that moment (t2) the output voltage of the input comparator changes in
polarity; this closes the gate and the counter is stopped. The display unit displays
the number of pulses counted. The number of counts is directly proportional to
Vc and therefore to Vi.
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Figure 10.13 shows the block-diagram of another analogue-to-digital converter
which works on the same principle as the one in Figure 10.11. It makes use of op-
amp comparators, a precision supply voltage and a precision resistor network.
This converter detects four different analogue input voltage levels and converts
them to two-state output voltages which can be interpreted as binary digital-
signal levels.
The precision supply voltage and resistors provide the following stable reference
voltages at the respective inputs of the comparators, ie ¼V; ½V and ¾V. The
responses of the comparators to the four different levels of input voltage are
tabled in Table 10.1.
Input voltage Comparator output
C3 C2 C1
0 - + ¼V Low Low Low
+ ¼V to +½V Low Low High
+½V to + ¾V Low High High
+ ¾V to + V High High High
Table 10.1
Figure 10.13
10.11.1 Advantages
x Thanks to the compensation method, the input impedance is high.
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x The stability and accuracy of the reference voltage and the DAC determine
the accuracy of the device.
10.11.2 Disadvantages
x The instantaneous value of the input signal is measured by the system the
moment compensation is reached. If the input is not a pure dc, it means that
the reading will be somewhat unstable and have. rather poor series-mode
rejection.
x As long as full compensation has not been reached, the input impedance is
relatively low, and this may affect the accuracy.
x The kick-back signal is rather high because of changing input conditions
during the measurement and the risk of cross-talk from clock pulses to the
input.
Figure 10.14
10.12 Successive approximation method
The main difference between this method and the staircase ramp method is
that the compensation signal is built up more quickly by starting with higher
steps, as long as the difference between input signal and compensation signal
is high.
A simplified block diagram of this system is shown in Figure 10.14. At the
beginning of the measurement, the counters are all set to zero so that the
output of the DAC will be zero.
The chopper at the input is alternately connected to Vi and Vc, so that when an
input signal is applied, the chopper output will be a square wave with an
amplitude depending on the difference between Vi and Cc.
The pulse shaper converts the positive slope of the square wave into pulses with
an amplitude related to that of the square wave, and this signal is amplified by
three amplifiers in series.
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The measurement is completed when the best possible compensation has been
obtained, ie when the "1" decade does not change any further after a
predetermined number of chopper cycles. The next measurement is started by
resetting the counters to zero.
Figure 10.15
This system has the same characteristics as the previous one, except that it can
operate much faster because higher steps are taken at the start of the
measurement.
10.13 Variable-frequency method
This ADC makes use of a voltage-to-frequency conversion. The frequency is then
measured with a normal counter (see Figure 10.15). The input is integrated by
means of an op amp.
As soon as a fixed switching level V is reached, the level detector passes a
command pulse to a switch in parallel with capacitor C, causing it to discharge;
the switch then opens again and the cycle is repeated.
Each time the switch is closed, the level detector feeds a pulse to the counter.
By making the right choice of Ri, C and Vs, the output represents the input
directly. To read the frequency, the counter must be started and stopped at just
the right moment.
The pulses to do this are supplied by an internal generator, and are separated
by an exactly known time interval T (see Figure 10.16).
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10.13.1 Advantage and disadvantage
Since measurements are based on the integrating system the average ac
component of the input will tend towards zero, and the series-mode rejection
can be high. This system is not very accurate because there are too many
factors that may influence accuracy and stability.
Figure 10.16
10.14 Dual-slope integration
This ADC is based on integration of the input voltage for a constant time,
followed by measurement of the time interval required to discharge the
integrating capacitor using a constant current. The block diagram of this system
is shown in Figure 10.17.
At the start of the measuring period, the logic circuit closes the switch S1. At the
same time the timer starts counting a fixed number of clock pulses
corresponding to a time T.
During time T, with Vi connected to the op amp, the input voltage is integrated
in capacitor C, so that at the end of this period Vc will be directly proportional
to Vi. At the end of this period, the logic switch will open S1 and close S2, so that
the reference voltage is applied to the integrator.
Where the reference voltage Vref has an opposite polarity to Vi, it follows that C
will start to discharge. The discharge slope is constant because the voltage is
constant (Figure 10.18). The time t needed to discharge the capacitor
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completely is therefore a linear function of the value of V end of period T, and
hence of Vi.
Figure 10.17
The time t is measured by the counter. It starts immediately after time T is ended
and is topped by the logic unit when the zero detector indicates that the
capacitor is discharged.
If both t and T are measured by counting pulses from the same clock, the only
factor influencing the accuracy will be the reference voltage.
Figure 10.18
10.14.1 Advantage
Integration takes place over a longer period, which gives this system a good
series-mode rejection. The only possible source of error is the reference voltage,
and this makes this system a very accurate measuring device.
10.15 Delta-pulse modulation system
This system is gaining popularity because of its attractive features. A simplified
block diagram of this system is shown in Figure 10.19. It can be regarded as a
mixture of several of the above-mentioned principles.
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Figure 10.19
The detector consists of six sub-systems:
x flip-flop
x clock
x timer
x counter
x display
x switch driver
The difference between the input voltage Vi and the capacitor Vc is measured
by means of an op amp. A polarity detector connected to the op amp controls
selector switch S.
As long as Vi is more positive than Vc, switch S is in the upper position and the
positive reference voltage is connected to C. When Vi is negative compared to
Vc, C is connected to ground as S is in the lower position.
This is a continuous process and as the gain of the operational amplifier is high,
Vc will always be nearly equal to Vi; in fact, the maximum difference will only be
a few microvolts once the steady state has been reached.
In the final circuit, the flip-flop provides the pulses that are recorded by the
counter and displayed. This circuit has the same advantage as the previous one
and lends itself very well to the use of modem technology, such as large-scale
integrated circuits (LSI circuits).
10.16 General circuits
The ADC works only on de values and it is therefore necessary to add other
circuits for it to function as a digital multimeter. Normally only voltages of up to
10 V can be handled by the ADC.
Voltages above this must first be attenuated in the input stage of a DMM before
they can be passed on to the ADC.
Figure 10.20 shows a simple form of attenuator that may be used for this purpose.
In the 200 mV and 2 V settings, the input signal is applied directly to the ADC. In
all the other settings, it is first attenuated.
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It can be seen that the attenuator offers a fixed-input impedance of 10 MD in
all settings. A voltage overload device is also included in the circuit to protect it
against excessive input voltages.
Another method used is to employ an op amp connected as a pre-amplifier
with adjustable gain.
Figure 10.20
The dynamic range of the amplifier limits the number of steps; if the voltage is
too high, a divider must be included, as in Figure 10.21.
Figure 10.21
The voltmeter is used to measure current, but a current-to-voltage converter
must first be used before the voltmeter. It works on the principle that shunts will
develop voltage drops in such a way that the voltages across the shunt at full
range are the same for all current ranges, and are as low as possible.
Overload protection is built in in the form of two diodes parallel to the input. It
has been mentioned that the ADC only operates on dc. It is therefore necessary
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to convert ac to dc first. The most popular method to effect this is shown in Figure
10.22.
Figure 10.22
Figure 10.23
Two diodes are used in the feedback circuit of an op amp. When the resistance
is measured, a resistance-to-voltage converter must be used (see Figure 10.23).
Resistances are measured by passing a constant current through the unknown
resistance Rx, and by measuring the voltage across it. High resistances require
very low currents, and an alternative is to make use of the fact that the gain of
the op amp depends on the ratio of R2/R1.
Another method is to replace R2 with the unknown resistance; this will change
the gain of the amplifier and the meter can be calibrated.
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10.17 Specifications
These characteristics must be considered by an engineer before a meter is used:
x Input impedance. This is normally specified as an input resistance, which is
bypassed with a maximum capacitance. A typical value is 2 MΩ bypassed
with a capacitance of 50 pF. This means that when the meter is used, the
load is shunted with a 2 MΩ resistance, and the meter also puts a
capacitance of 50 pF across the load. This capacitance is only important
with ac and not with dc, especially when the frequency goes higher.
x Band width. This specifies the two outer frequencies between which the
meter can be used. A good meter must be able to handle a band width of
from 1 Hz to at least 10 MHz. The most important factors influencing band
width are input capacitance and the speed of the rectifier circuit.
x Volt-hertz ratings. This is the maximum product of input rms value and
frequency, in accordance with the band width and range specifications that
can be measured. A typical value for an ac meter is a 10 : 10 volt-hertz ratio.
x Measuring range. The range of a meter is the number of ranges and the
number of rms voltages necessary for full-scale deflection. Some voltmeters
have up to 15 ranges. Minimum voltages of 1 mV, and up to 1 000 V, are not
unusual. If it becomes necessary to measure higher voltages, a high-voltage
probe must be used.
x Overload range. This is the amount a meter can be overloaded on a specific
range without damaging it. Normally it varies from 5-50% of full scale.
x Speed (reaction time). This is the time it will take to give a reading within the
specifications, from the moment it is coupled to the signal. A typical value is
one second, but for the rms reaction meter it is twice as long.
x Updating. This is only applicable to digital meters, and refers to how many
readings per second must be taken to keep up to date with changing inputs.
It can change from as little as one reading per two seconds up to as high as
1 000 readings per second. Some meters flash during the updating, but many
keep the reading steady and only change readings when the input changes.
x Sensitivity. This is the smallest reading a meter can
x make within the specifications.
10.18 Advantages and disadvantages of digital meters
One of the main features of digital voltmeters is their high accuracy under
optimum measuring conditions, ranging from 0, 1% to 0,001%. They are also very
stable over a wide temperature range, for example 23 °C ± 1°C.
As with analogue meters, the load on the line is very important. The high degree
of accuracy will be of no use if the load on the line (by the meter) is going to
affect the reading. A 10 MD input impedance for a multimeter is not unusual.
Because the basic meter is a de instrument, it is usually the other subsystems that
cause most of the faults accruing with measurements. Some of the advantages
are:
x High accuracy can be obtained.
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x A relatively simple reading is obtained, which is very useful when large series
of measurements have to be performed. No interpolation of the reading is
necessary.
x High resolution, which is particularly useful for the measurement of small
differences or stabilities (1 part in 103 or 104, or even better).
x The possibility of full automation makes measurement a simple task,
especially by taking many readings.
Many of these meters are today used in computers for the above reasons and
because it is very simple to obtain a series of digital outputs from a computer.
Some of the disadvantages are:
x It is difficult to obtain an average reading when low signals are present.
Because of the noise in the circuit, the low reading keeps moving up and
down. The meter is too "sensitive".
x It is difficult to align an instrument by means of a digital meter unless exact
readings are given and the process of alignment is carried out repeatedly.
10.19 Digital-to-analogue converter (DAC)
The DAC is a much simpler device than the ADC.
Figure 10.24
The easiest method is to use a bi-stable multi-vibrator in combination with the
inertia of the moving coil of the meter. This method is used in the rev counters of
motor cars. A capacitor has to be used to represent the charge and discharge
of the pulses.
We look at two other types. Information is stored in a series of flip-flops, Q0 to Q3.
The flip-flops are arranged so that they all deliver the same output in the "on"
state.
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It can be seen in Figure 10.24 that each flip-flop is coupled with a certain
"weighted" (value) resistor. These resistors are coupled in the "BCD" (binary
coded decimal) code, ie 1:2:4:8.
Figure 10.24 shows a simple block diagram of the system. When the current is
Q3/I, that of Q2 will be I/2, etc. The resistors will be connected to a current
summer R, so that:
I2 = Io + I1 + I2 + I3
The voltage drop due to I over R can be measured by a high-impedance
voltmeter. This reading will be an analogue output of the digital input obtained
from the flip-flops Qo to Q3.
Figure 10.25 illustrates another form of DAC known as the R/2R type of converter.
It has the advantage that resistors of only two different values are used for the
converter part. Two resistors are used for each input.
10.20 Schmitt trigger
Figure 10.25
It is often necessary to switch on a circuit when a specific value for the input
tension is reached. The purpose is to cause switching as fast as possible while the
level of switching voltage is reached relatively slowly (see Figure 10.26).
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Figure 10.26
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The circuit remains in the switched condition until the threshold value is reached,
when it switches off. This circuit is known as the Schmitt trigger and is related to
the multi-vibrators. To understand this circuit, it is necessary to look at certain
voltage and current equations.
Looking at Figure 10.26, we have:
ܴଷ
ܸଶ ൌ ܸ
ܴଵ ܴଶ ܴଷ
When R3 is large enough, the voltage will cause Q2 to switch on strongly. The
current of Q2 through Rs makes point E positive with respect to earth, and with
Vin = 0, Q1 is off.
Assume that the instant voltage at EVE,= VE, and that a Vin is coupled to B1, and
that this voltage increases slowly with time.
The moment that Vin is larger than VE, Q1 starts to conduct and Vc, and Vs2
decrease. This causes the current to decrease through Q2, as well as VE, which
causes the effective VB1, to increase, Q1 to switch on very quickly and Q2 to
switch off very quickly.
When Q1 conducts and Q2 is off, E has another value which takes the form VE =
ܸாଵ . This condition exists as long as Vin is larger than ܸாଵ . When Vin ؆ ܸாଵ and keeps
on reducing, the inverse switching starts, and Q1 switches off and Q2 on.
Due to the positive feedback by means of R2 and R5, change-over of Q1 to off
and on is very fast. The voltage at which the circuit changes over from Q1 off to
Q2 on and from Q2 off to Q1 on, can be written as follows:
Vin = V1 =VBE1 + VE
If ratios are taken and it is assumed that VaE, and VaE, are very small, the
equation reads as follows:
ܴଷ
ܸଵ ؆ ܸ
ܴଵ ܴଶ ܴଷ
This represents the value at which the Schmitt trigger will change over with
increasing voltage. The value at which the circuit will switch over at decreasing
voltage is given by:
ோ ோ ሺோ ାோ ሻ
ܸாଵ ؆ ோ ൈ ܸ where ܴ ൌ ሺோఱ ାோమ ାோయ ሻ
భ ାோ ఱ మ య
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This shows that ܸாଵ is now equal to V2, if we assume that the saturation voltage of
Q1 is small enough to ignore and that Q2 takes no base current in the "off' state.
In general we also have that V2 is smaller than V1 and the situation in the
illustration is obtained. The difference between V1 and V2 is known as the
hysteresis of the Schmitt trigger.
Figure 10.26 (c) shows how the Schmitt trigger converts a sine wave to a 100%
duty-cycle square wave. By changing the values in the circuit, 50% duty-cycle
square waves can be obtained from a full sine wave. The switching procedure
can drastically be changed by coupling a capacitor across R2 in Figure 10.26
(a).
Characteristics of the Schmitt trigger
x The Schmitt trigger is similar to the monostable multivibrator.
x It is used for wave-shaping.
x Basically, it has two opposite working conditions.
x The trigger does not have to be a pulse. As a matter of fact, it changes very
slowly.
x It is level-sensitive and switches the output at two definite levels. The one is
known as the lower trigger level (LTL) and the other is known as the upper
trigger level (UTL).
x The circuit usually works from a slowly rising signal such as a sine wave or
something similar, and gives a digital output.
x The output frequency is the same as the input frequency.
10.21 Frequency counter
The frequency counter is surely one of the most useful instruments ever
developed. It is relatively simple. The rev counter in a motor car is a frequency
counter, counting the pulses of the ignition system.
There are other types as well, but this system is the most common. (A diesel
engine has no ignition pulses!) A counter contains five basic units (see Figure
10.27).
The first is the input circuitry, whose main purpose is to act as a signal conditioner,
converting the signal into a form compatible with the logic circuitry in the rest of
the digital counter.
It may have an attenuator network, for the input might be too high for the
counter. It must convert the signal to a square pulse with a fast-rising leading
edge and a fast-rising trailing edge. (The Schmitt trigger is used here.)
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Figure 10.27
Normal counters only work from square-wave pulses. The purpose of this unit is
therefore to convert all types of waveforms into a square-wave pulse,
irrespective of what type of waveform comes in.
The second module is the main gate, whose function is to pass the shaped pulses
on to the next stage for a predetermined time only, so that it can be counted
by the counter and displayed.
This gate is usually a standard dual-input logic gate. One of its inputs is for the
information signal while the other receives the gate control signal.
The third unit is the decimal counting unit (DCU) and display which can be
considered the heart of the digital counter, and which usually consists of a
number of counter decades in cascade.
Each decade usually consists of five basic units
x a decade counter
x a memory
x a BCD-to-decimal decoder
x a numerical indicator driver and
x the numerical indicator
The fourth unit is the time-base circuitry. Basically a digital counter counts pulses
for a predetermined period. This period is generated by means of this time-base
unit. If this time base is not accurate, then the counting of the pulses (and
therefore the input frequency) will also not be accurate.
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It is very important that this time base should be accurate; manufacturers
therefore, try to design this circuit as accurately as possible. The design that gives
the best results employs a crystal osciilator placed in an oven, to keep it at
constant temperature and therefore constant frequency.
It osciilates at a very high frequency. This high frequency is then divided by
means of dividers to the correct required frequency (see Figure 10.28).
The high frequency has the characteristic that if it drifts by a couple of hertz, this
drift is also divided and eventually has no influence on the control.
The last part of the counter can be regarded as its "brain" and is known as the
control circuit. Depending on the operating mode, various commands are
given automatically, manually or by remote control.
Note:
During a measuring cycle the operating conditions must be
controlled so that the measuring process can proceed without
disturbance.
The control circuit exercises the following functions:
x control of the main gate;
x generation of the reset pulses for· the counting decades and the time-base
dividers;
x control of the main-gate signal lamp;
x control of the display time;
x generation of the memory-transfer pulse;
x generation of the clock pulses needed for a dynamic display;
x control of printer or other devices which may be connected to the BCD
output.
10.22 Oscilloscope
10.22.1 Why use an oscilloscope?
The specific characteristics of a signal can be measured by a variety of
instruments. For example, a counter can measure a signal's frequency or its
period, and an ac voltmeter can measure the rms value of the signal.
Although these instruments are very useful and can be more accurate than the
oscilloscope, their applications are mainly limited to the measurement of
perfect signals.
With the oscilloscope, one can visualise the signal of interest and also observe
whether the signal contains properties that would not be made apparent by
most other instruments, for instance signals from a computer.
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Figure 10.28
Figure 10.29
10.22.2 The cathode-ray tube
The heart of the oscilloscope is the cathode-ray tube, which focuses a bright dot
on the phosphorus screen (a miniature television screen).
This dot can be moved up or down as well as to and fro by changing the voltage
on the Y and X plates. The intensity of the dot can be changed as well as the
focus. The main components of this tube can be seen in Figure 10.29.
݂݂ : heater
ܭ : cathode (emitting electrons)
ܩ : Wehnelt cylinder (beam-current intensity
is controlled)
ܽଵ െ ܽଶ : focusing anodes
ܦ െ ܦǯ : vertical deflection plates
ܦ െ ܦǯ : horizontal deflection plates
ܣ : post, acceleration (the very high voltage between
K and A causes the electrons to strike the phosphor
layer at such high speed that a bright dot is
produced)
The basic principle of operation of the oscilloscope is that the dot is moved at a
constant speed (adjustable from the outside) from left to right. The signal is
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applied to the Y-plates, giving a two-dimensional effect. Think of a roll of paper,
being pulled at a constant speed by a motor.
If you take a pen and make regular up-and-down movements with the pen on
the paper, a curve will form on the paper with a continuous waveform. The lines
will not cross one another.
If the lines are drawn at a constant speed, ' the wave will be symmetrical. If the
ratio at which the lines are drawn to the speed of the paper is correct, the ideal
sine wave will be obtained.
The operating principle of the oscilloscope is based on the above example. The
dot is moved from left to right, and returned, by means of the X-plates.
Note:
The return movement must be as quick as possible, and the dot must
be blanked off during this movement.
When the dot is back, the whole movement starts all over again. This re-setting
of the dot is known as flyback, and the movement from left to right is known as
sweep. The reaction of the scope is so quick that it will appear to the human
eye as if there is a continuous line to form the waveform.
The screen has the characteristic that it keeps on glowing for a couple of micro
or milliseconds after the dot is removed; this is known as persistence. This should
not last too long, otherwise there will be overlapping if the waveform changes.
The displayed waveform will be distorted if the time base is not kept constant.
Think again of the sheet of paper; if the speed of the motor is not constant, the
waveform will not be of uniform nature.
Where the frequency of the incoming wave is too high relative to the time base,
only a broad line will appear on the screen. If the time base is increased step by
step, the waveform will appear.
Figure 10.30
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At first there will be a large number of cycles per line, but later only one will
appear on the whole screen.
10.22.3 Stable display of a repetitive signal (triggering)
Apart from single-shot measurements, the signal to be measured must be
repetitive, as in Figure 10.30.
The signals in Figure 10.30 are all repetitive, in the sense that a time span can be
defined in which the same signal is repeated sequentially. Modern oscilloscopes
all have automatic triggering devices that maintain a high degree of accuracy.
The oscilloscope will maintain a stable display of these waveforms as follows:
x Each sweep is started (triggered) at the same point on the waveform. The
sweep is produced horizontally on the screen by means of a voltage applied
to the X-plates in the form of a sawtooth wave. The sweep is triggered by
means of an electronic circuit. This is often taken from the input signal and
always starts at the same point. This triggering can be on either the positive
or negative slope of the signal (see Figure 10.31). The starting position of the
waveform on the screen is thus determined by two settings of the scope: the
level position on the waveform and the slope (positive or negative).
x When the dot reaches the right-hand side of the screen (end position), it must
be brought back very rapidly to the left-hand side (starting position). This is
the flyback of the sweep and the dot is blanked off during this period (see
Figure 10.31). The sweep is then restarted by the next trigger pulse, at the
same position where it started the previous time.
x The sweep circuit ensures that during the sweep time (the flyback time
included) no other triggers at the input of the sweep circuit will have any
effect.
Figure 10.31
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Figure 10.32
Figure 10.33
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10.22.4 Main controls and their functions
Figure 10.33 illustrates a basic oscilloscope with all its major controls. Depending
on the instrument, there may also be other controls. The attenuator and vertical
amplifier enable signals from a few millivolts to several hundred volts to be
displayed on the screen.
The focus and intensity controls permit a well-focused display of convenient
brightness to be set on the screen. It is important to always work at as low an
intensity as possible to protect the screen from burning marks.
Note:
Vertical and horizontal position controls enable the operator to
adjust the image up or down, or to the left or right, so that it can be
centred exactly in the screen.
Accurate amplitude measurements can be made with the V/DIV switch when
the vernier is set to CAL, for instance from 10 m V/DIV to 10/DIV in a 1-2-5
sequence. A calibrated matrix is also provided in front of the screen and can be
lit up if necessary.
This raster has a feature known as "DIV'. It refers to a unit of the calibrated raster
and is usually 10 mm in length. Accurate timing measurements can be made
with the Time/DIV switch when the vernier is set to CAL, for instance from 0,1
ߤs/DIV to 1s/DIV in a 1-2-5 sequence.
The slope and level controls select the point on the waveform where the display
is to start. This is done automatically, as already mentioned, but these instruments
also have an external control. A switch is provided so that the operator can
select the mode to work in.
10.22.5 Dual trace and dual beam
Two techniques can be employed to obtain two traces simultaneously on the
screen of an oscilloscope: dual trace and dual beam. Virtually all scopes on the
market today employ one or other of these methods. The most common system
used is dual tracing, as it is relatively easy to do electronically.
This system consists of two inputs, each with its own attenuator, amplifier, etc,
but the final Y amplifier is alternately connected to the two signals by electronic
switching.
Apart from comparing the amplitudes, forms and frequencies of the two signals,
the operator can also compare the two (or more) signals in terms of their time
ratio to one another, something which is impossible with the single-beam
oscilloscope.
With the dual-beam oscilloscope the cathode-ray tube may be equipped with
two electron guns and two pairs of vertical deflection plates. Both deflection
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systems are driven by separate amplifiers in an uninterrupted way (see Figure
10.34).
Figure 10.34
The two beams are obtained by means of a special splitting technique, which
has the advantage of providing a uniform trace on each one instead of an
interrupted waveform.
In the dual-trace oscilloscope, the two inputs are connected alternately to the
Y amplifier by means of an electronic switch. The switch is either driven by an
oscillator or by a time-base generator. The oscilloscope works in either the
chopped or the alternate mode. The alternate pulse comes from the time-base
circuits and flows with the sweep.
Figure 10.35 clearly shows how these methods are used to get two traces on an
oscilloscope. The dual beam shows no interruption of the trace. In the dual-trace
chopped mode, both waves are chopped and played alternately.
This happens so rapidly that it cannot be seen by the eye, unless the sweep is
related to the input signal (less than 1 ms/DIV).
The dual-trace alternate method shows that a full wave from the one input is
swept in full for one scanning period, and that in the next scanning period the
waveform from the other input is swept in full.
Both these methods could easily be expanded to three or four channels. Both
modes could be used, but the chopped mode is given preference, for the
alternate mode could lead to flickering of the trace, which could be irritating to
the eyes.
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The dual-beam scope has many manufacturing problems, and it is difficult to
get it operational above 25 MHz. It is also much more expensive than others.
Figure 10.35
On the other hand, the trace of the dual-trace scope is not as bright as that of
the dual beam. The dual beam has certain advantages compared to the dual
trace, but it is so expensive that it is seldom used.
It is, of course, possible to start off with a single-trace scope and obtain a splitter
later. It can then be turned into a dual-trace oscilloscope.
Activity 10.1
1. Write brief notes indicating the difference between analogue and digital.
2. Name a few characteristics of multimeters and state what precautions
must be taken before and while using them.
3. State the difference between rms, peak and average values.
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4. What is the meaning of ADC and DAC?
5. What is the basic principle of the ADC?
6. What is meant by series-mode reject.ion?
7. Using labelled sketches, describe the following ADCs:
a) staircase ramp;
b) successive-approximation method;
c) variable-frequency method;
d) dual-slope integration;
e) delta-pulse modulation system;
f) each of(a) to (e)'s advantages and disadvantages.
8. Give the circuit and description of each of the following:
a) an initiator with five ranges and overload protection in terms of voltage;
b) the adjustable gain method, using an op amp to measure voltage
ranges;
c) a shunt, to measure four current ranges relative to voltage;
d) a full-wave rectifier, to measure ac;
e) a full-wave rectifier, to measure resistance.
9. Write brief notes on meter specifications. Deal with all possible
specifications.
10. Obtain a specification list of a multimeter and discuss this list in the
classroom, or study it and determine what every item means.
11. Give five advantages and two disadvantages of digital meters and discuss
them briefly.
12. Draw a labelled block diagram of a frequency counter and briefly describe
the purpose of each block.
13. State the purpose of a time-base generator. Draw a labelled block
diagram of a time-base generator and describe each block.
14. What is an oscilloscope used for?
15. Draw a diagram of a cathode-ray tube and describe it.
16. Describe, by using sketches, how a trace of a repetitive waveform is
obtained on the oscilloscope.
17. Make a neat labelled sketch of an oscilloscope and describe the purpose
of each component.
18. What is the difference between dual beam and dual trace and what is the
purpose of each?
19. Draw a block diagram of each of the systems in question 18.
20. Discuss the advantages and disadvantages of each of the systems
mentioned in question 18.
21. Describe by using a sketch how you would calibrate an ammeter.
Self-Check
I am able to: Yes No
x Describe measuring instrument specifications
x Explain the following measuring errors:
o Gross errors
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o Systematic errors
o Random errors
x Describe calibration of instruments and precautions that need
to be taken
x Describe maximum and peak-to-peak values of a sine wave
x Describe Rms and average values of a sine wave
x Explain the operational amplifier in meters
x Describe different measurements
x Explain analogue-to-digital conversion (ADC):
o Basic principles of the ADC
o Accuracy
o Series-mode rejection
o Speed
o Kick-back signals and input impedance
x Describe the advantages and disadvantages of the staircase
ramp
x Describe the successive-approximation method
x Describe the advantages and disadvantages of the variable-
frequency method
x Describe the advantage of dual-slope integration
x Describe the delta-pulse modulation system
x Explain general circuits
x Describe the advantages and disadvantages of digital meters
x Describe digital-to-analogue converter (DAC)
x Explain the Schmitt trigger
x Describe the frequency counter
x Explain the following with regard to the oscilloscope
o Why use an oscilloscope?
o The cathode-ray tube
o Stable display of a repetitive signal (triggering)
o Main controls and their functions
o Dual trace and dual beam
If you have answered ‘no’ to any of the outcomes listed above, then speak
to your facilitator for guidance and further development.
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Table of C
Past Examination Papers
APRIL 2012
NATIONAL CERTIFICATE
INDUSTRIAL ELECTRONICS N3
(8080613)
28 March (X-Paper)
09:00 – 12:00
Calculators may be used.
Candidates need drawing instruments.
This question paper consists of 8 pages, a diagram sheet and a formula sheet.
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TIME: 3 HOURS
MARKS: 100
__________________________________________________________________
INSTRUCTIONS AND INFORMATION
1. Answer ALL the questions.
2. Read ALL the questions carefully.
3. Number the answers according to the numbering system used in this question
paper.
4. Start each question on a NEW page.
5. ALL the sketches and diagrams must be large, clear and neat.
6. Keep questions and subsections of questions together.
7. Leave margins clear.
8. Questions must be answered in blue or black Ink.
9. ALL the final answers must be approximated accurately to THREE decimal
places.
10. Use ߨ ൌ ͵ǡ ͳͶʹ
11. Write neatly and legibly
___________________________________________________________________
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QUESTION 1
1.1 Indicate whether the following statements are TRUE or FALSE. Choose the
answer and write only 'true' or 'false' next to the question number (1.1.1 -
1.1.6) in the ANSWER BOOK.
1.1.1 Field-effect transistors are current-operated devices. (1)
1.1.2 An SCR will be switched off by means of a positive pulse on the gate terminal. (1)
1.1.3 In a capacitor, the applied voltage leads the line current. (1)
1.1.4 Static forward voltage of a diode is the minimum forward voltage drop for a (1)
given forward current.
1.1.5 Light-sensitive devices that radiate light are known as photoemission (1)
devices.
1.1.6 Digital variables change continuously with time. (1)
1.2 The following statements are descriptions or definitions of certain errors.
Choose from TABLE 1 the error that best describes the given statement.
Write only the letter of the option (A - D) next to the question number (1.2.1 -
1.2.4) in the ANSWER BOOK.
TABLE 1
A Instrumental error
B Random error
C Gross error
D Environmental error
1.2.1 A person takes an incorrect reading from a measuring instrument. (1)
1.2.2 The spring of the meter has stretched. (1)
1.2.3 The meter is affected by magnetic fields. (1)
1.2.4 This type of error is due to unknown factors. (1)
1.3 Various options are given as possible answers to the following questions.
Choose the answer and write only the letter (A - D) next to the question
number (1.3.1 - 1.3.1 0) in the ANSWER BOOK.
1.3.1 When increasing the frequency to above resonance in a series circuit, ... (1)
A the impedance decreases and the circuit becomes capacitive.
B the impedance increases and the circuit becomes capacitive.
C the impedance increases and the circuit becomes inductive.
D the impedance decreases and the circuit becomes inductive.
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1.3.2 Donor doping is achieved by adding to the silicon, impurity atoms which have (1)
...
A 3 valence electrons.
B 4 valence electrons.
C 5 valence electrons.
1.3.3 The transducer used to measure the force applied to bridge structures is a ... (1)
A Wheatstone bridge.
B linear variable differential transformer.
C strain gauge.
1.3.4 The output voltage of a four-diode full-wave rectifier is ... that of a two-diode (1)
full-wave rectifier.
A greater than
B less than
C equal to
1.3.5 Which ONE of the following statements is not an advantage of negative (1)
feedback?
A It increases the stability of the overall gain.
B It provides more distortion of the output.
C It improves the bandwidth.
D It provides less distortion of the output.
1.3.6 The device that develops a voltage when it is exposed to light, is referred to (1)
as a ...
A photoconductive cell.
B light-emitting diode.
C photovoltaic cell.
1.3.7 Refer to FIGURE 1 on the DIAGRAM SHEET (attached) and answer the (1)
following questions:
The circuit is called a ...
A constant current regulator.
B series voltage regulator.
C shunt voltage regulator.
1.3.8 A formula that describes the output voltage is ... (1)
A VL= Vz - Vbe.
B VL = VBE - Vz.
C VL= VBE + Vz.
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1.3.9 If VL increases, then ... (1)
A VBE decreases.
B VBE increases.
C VBE remains constant.
1.3.10 If VL increases, then ... (1)
A collector current increases.
B collector current decreases.
C collector current remains constant.
[20]
QUESTION 2
2.1 Study FIGURE 2 on the DIAGRAM SHEET (attached) and determine, with
the aid of Kirchhoff's Laws:
2.1.1 The equation for loop (HBAGFH). Set up the equation by starting at point (2)
Hand proceed in the direction of loop HBAGFH.
2.1.2 The equation for loop (H BCDH). Set up the equation by starting at point H- (2)
and proceed in the direction of loop HBCDH.
2.1.3 The magnitude of the currents I, and I, by making use of the equations in (4)
QUESTION 2.1, 1 and QUESTION 2.1.2.
2.2 Show, with the aid of neat and labelled sketches, the placing of the Fermilevel
in:
2.2.1 P-type material (2)
2.2.2 N-type material (2)
2.3 Draw the internal construction of a PN-junction diode. Explain, with the aid of (4)
this sketch, how reverse biasing is achieved.
[16]
QUESTION 3
3.1 Consider the diagram given in FIGURE 3 on the DIAGRAM SHEET
{attached). Make use of the values given and calculate the following:
3.1.1 The value of the resistor in ohms (3)
3.1.2 The value of the inductor in mH (3)
3.1.3 The value of the capacitor in flF (3)
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3.2 Show, by means of a labelled circuit diagram, how two SCRs are used for full- (7)
wave control.
[16]
QUESTION 4
4.1 Make use of NPN transistors to draw the circuit diagram of an RC-coupled (8)
transistor amplifier.
4.2 Draw the frequency response curve for the circuit diagram in QUESTION 4.1. (4)
Label ALL the important points.
4.3 State an advantage of RC-coupling when it is compared to transformer (1)
coupling.
4.4 Rating factors for rectifier diodes help in designing circuits so that the (3)
maximum advantages of satisfactory and reliable operation can be obtained.
Name the THREE ranges and the corresponding ratings used for each.
[16]
QUESTION 5
5.1 Describe how a strain gauge is used as a transducer by giving the following:
5.1.1 A labelled sketch of the construction (3)
5.1.2 The basic principle of operation (3)
5.1.3 Name TWO areas of application. (2)
5.2 Name the FOUR groups into which transducers can be divided. (4)
5.3 The following two statements explain the difference between dual-trace and
dual-beam oscilloscopes. Choose the correct word from the list below that
would make the statements true. Write only the word( s) next to the
question number (5.3.1 - 5.3.4) in the ANSWER BOOK.
electron guns; trace images; vertical input circuits; electron beams
Dual-trace oscilloscopes have two separate 5.3.1 ... and have the ability to
display two 5.3.2 . . . . (2)
Dual-beam oscilloscopes have two separate 5.3.3 ... and produce two 5.3.4
... . (2)
[16]
QUESTION 6
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6.1 Draw a labelled block diagram of a continuous-balance digital voltmeter. Use (7)
arrows to indicate the data flow.
6.2 Name TWO types of errors pertaining to measuring instruments and give a (4)
cause of each error.
6.3 Discuss the difference between a photodiode and an LED by giving the
following:
6.3.1 A brief explanation of the principle of operation of a photodiode (3)
6.3.2 A brief explanation of the principle of operation of an LED (2)
[16]
TOTAL: 100
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DIAGRAM SHEET
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INDUSTRIAL ELECTRONICS
FORMULA SHEET
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Marking Guidelines
APRIL 2012
NATIONAL CERTIFICATE
INDUSTRIAL ELECTRONICS N3
(8080613)
This marking guidelines consists of 7 pages.
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QUESTION 1
1.1.1 O
1.1.2 O
1.1.3 O
1.1.4 O
1.1.5 W
1.1.6 O (6)
1.2.1 C
1.2.2 A
1.2.3 D
1.2.4 B (4)
1.3.1 C
1.3.2 C
1.3.3 C
1.3.4 B
1.3.5 B
1.3.6 C
1.3.7 C
1.3.8 C
1.3.9 B
1.3.10 A (10)
[20]
QUESTION 2
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2.1
(8)
2.2.1
(2)
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2.2.2
(2)
2.3
(2)
If a voltage source is connected across a pn-junction with its positive terminal
connected to the n-type material and the negative terminal to the p-type
material, the junction will be reverse biased. (2)
[16]
QUESTION 3
3.1.1
(3)
3.1.2
(3)
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3.1.3
(3)
3.1.4
(7)
[16]
QUESTION 4
4.1
(8)
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4.2
(4)
4.3 RANGE RATING
Low current Up to 49A
Medium Current From 50 to 199A
High current 200A and higher (3)
[16]
QUESTION 5
5.1.1 (3)
5.1.2 The resistance of a conductor is changed by expansion and contraction due
to an externally applied stress.
If the length of the conductor or cross-sectional area of conductor changes
the resistance of the conductor would change. (2)
5.1.3 Force/pressure - aircraft wings,
concrete pylons,
compression
Displacement - bridges, tall buildings
Torque - cylindrical or torque bars (Any TWO) (2)
5.2 Resistive
Capacitive
Inductive
Photo-sensitive
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Piezo-electric (Any FOUR) (4)
5.3 5.3.1 Vertical input circuits
5.3.2 Trace images
5.3.3 Electron guns
5.3.4 Electron beams
(4)
[16]
QUESTION 6
6.1
(7)
6.2 Gross
human errors made in reading and/or using a measuring instrument
Systematic
Instrumental/ Instrument.
are due to the shortcomings of the instrument such as friction in bearings,
irregular spring tension and stretching of the spring.
Environmental
are due to external conditions affecting the instrument such as variations in
temperature, humidity and barometric pressure and also magnetic or
electrostatic field effects.
Random
caused by unknown factors (Any TWO) (4)
6.3.1 The photodiode is used under the reverse-bias conditions. When light falls
on the PN-junction, leakage current flows causing the diode to conduct. As
the light intensity increases, the leakage current increases and the diode
becomes more conductive.
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When the photodiode PN-junction is not exposed to any light, a small current,
termed the dark current will flow. (3)
6.3.2 The LED is used under forward-bias conditions. When an external voltage is
applied across the cathode and anode then light energy is given off. (2)
[16]
TOTAL: 100
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Table of C
Past Examination Papers
NOVEMBER 2011
NATIONAL CERTIFICATE
INDUSTRIAL ELECTRONICS N3
(8080613)
17 November (X-Paper)
09:00 – 12:00
Calculators may be used.
Candidates will require drawing instruments, pens and a ruler.
This question paper consists of 8 pages, 1 diagram sheet and a 1-page formula
sheet.
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TIME: 3 HOURS
MARKS: 100
__________________________________________________________________
INSTRUCTIONS AND INFORMATION
1. Answer ALL the questions.
2. Read ALL the questions carefully.
3. Number the answers according to the numbering system used in this question
paper.
4. Start each question on a NEW page.
5. ALL the sketches and diagrams must be large, clear and neat.
6. Keep questions and subsections of questions together.
7. Leave margins clear.
8. Questions must be answered in blue or black Ink.
9. ALL the final answers must be approximated accurately to THREE decimal
places
10. . Use ߨ ൌ ͵ǡ ͳͶʹ
11. Write neatly and legibly
___________________________________________________________________
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QUESTION 1
1.1 Indicate whether the following statements are TRUE or FALSE. Choose the
Correct answer and write only 'true' or 'false' next to the question number
(1.1.1- 1.1.10) in the ANSWER BOOK.
1.1.1 The current through a pure inductor will lag the voltage across the inductor (1)
by 90°.
1.1.2 Standard type oscilloscopes can measure voltage, current and resistance. (1)
1.1.3 The equation: VT = I1R2 + (l1-I2)R4 - I2R1 is an example of Kirchhoff's voltage (1)
law.
1.1.4 There are less electrons than holes in N-type material. (1)
1.1.5 The inductive reactance of an inductor is directly proportional to the (1)
frequency.
1.1.6 Zener breakdown occurs when the applied electric field pulls the electrons (1)
from the covalent bonds
1.1.7 An advantage of field effect transistors is the very high input impedance. (1)
1.1.8 The collector current of a transistor will increase when the base emitter (1)
forward-bias voltage is increased.
1.1.9 An SCR can also be called a thyristor. (1)
1.1.10 A delay line is inserted in the driving circuit of the vertical deflection plates of (1)
a CRT.
1.2 Various options are given as possible answers to the following questions.
Choose the answer and write only the letter (A - D) next to the question
number (1.2.1 - 1.2.10) in the ANSWER BOOK.
1.2.1 In the circuit shown in FIGURE 1 on the attached DIAGRAM SHEET, the (1)
value of the horizontal component of IRL is ...
A 2,11 A.
B 3,973 A.
C 1,881 A.
D 4,500 A.
1.2.2 The method used to switch an SCR off in a DC circuit: (1)
A Cyclotronic control
B Phase control
C Forced commutation
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D Cycle control
1.2.3 The output from a ... clipper consists only of the positive half of the input (1)
signal.
A positive series or positive shunt
B negative series or positive shunt
C positive shunt or negative shunt
D negative shunt or negative series
1.2.4 The output voltage waveform shown in FIGURE 2 on the attached DIAGRAM (1)
SHEET is that of a ... diode clipper.
A positive series
B negative series
C positive shunt
D negative shunt
1.2.5 A delay line is added to the ... (1)
A\ horizontal deflection plates.
B vertical deflection plates.
C horizontal amplifier.
D vertical amplifier.
1.2.6 The deviation from the true value of the quantity being measured is known as (1)
the ...
A sensitivity.
B error.
C resolution.
D precision.
1.2.7 When a PN-junction is formed, some free electrons from the N type material (1)
are attracted across the junction to fill the holes in the P-type material. This
is known as ...
A reverse bias.
B forward bias.
C diffusion.
D doping.
1.2.8 The process where a voltage is developed across a device when it is (1)
subjected to a force is called ...
A voltage regulation.
B photo-electric effect.
C piezo-electric effect.
D synchronisation.
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1.2.9 Which ONE of the following transducers cannot be used for the measurement (1)
of force?
A LVDT
B Strain gauge
C Crystal transducer
D Photo-conductor
1.2.10 The following transducers do not requ1re any external power source: (1)
A Photovoltaic cell and crystal
B Crystal and thermistor
C Strain gauge and thermistor
D Photovoltaic cell and thermistor
[20]
QUESTION 2
2.1 Consider FIGURE 3 on the attached DIAGRAM SHEET and determine, with
the aid of Kirchhoff's laws:
2.1.1 The equation for loop 1 (QPKUTSRQ). Set up the equation by starting at point (2)
Q and proceed in the direction of loop 1 (thick arrow).
2.1.2 The equation for loop 2 (QLUTSRQ). Set up the equation by starting at point (2)
Q and proceed in the direction of loop 2 (thick arrow).
2.1.3 The magnitude of the currents I1, and I2, by making use of the equations in (4)
QUESTION 2.1.1 and QUESTION 2.1.2.
2.2 Draw neat, labelled circuit diagrams of an operational amplifier used in the
following modes:
2.2.1 Inverting (2)
2.2.2 Non-inverting (2)
2.2.3 Summing (2)
2.2.4 Integrating (2)
[16]
QUESTION 3
3.1 Study the phasor diagram in FIGURE 4 on the attached DIAGRAM SHEET
and determine the following:
3.1.1 The supply current (2)
3.1.2 The phase angle (1)
3.1.3 The value of the resistor in kΩ (1)
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3.1.4 The value of the inductor in ߤܪ (3)
3.1.5 The value of the capacitor in ܨ (3)
3.2 If the wave form given in FIGURE 5 on the attached DIAGRAM SHEET is
used as the input to the following operational amplifiers. Draw the
corresponding output wave forms in the ANSWER BOOK:
3.2.1 Integrator (2)
3.2.2 Differentiator (2)
3.2.3 Summing amplifier (2)
[16]
QUESTION 4
4.1 Show, with the aid of a labelled circuit diagram using a transistor, how series (4)
current negative feedback is achieved.
4.2 Draw a neat, labelled circuit diagram of a push-pull amplifier. Indicate on the (6)
circuit ALL relevant wave forms and bias polarities.
4.3 FIGURE 6 on the attached DIAGRAM SHEET is the output characteristic
curves (with a load line drawn) for a common emitter amplifier. Redraw this
output characteristic curves in the ANSWER BOOK and answer the following
questions:
4.3.1 (a) On the characteristic curve, mark off where you would place the Q-point (1)
for a class A amplifier.
(b) Choose the answer from those in brackets: (1)
In class A amplifiers current flows for (the whole cycle/half a cycle/less
than half a cycle).
4.3.2 (a) On the characteristic curves, mark off where you would place the Q-point (1)
for a class B amplifier.
(b) Choose the answer from those in brackets: (1)
In class B amplifiers current flows for (the whole cycle/half a cycle/less
than half a cycle).
4.3.3 (a) On the characteristic curves mark off where you would place the Q-point (1)
for a class C amplifier.
(b) Choose the answer from those in brackets: (1)
In class C amplifiers current flows for (the whole cycle/half a cycle/less
than half a cycle).
[16]
QUESTION 5
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5.1 Describe how a capacitive transducer which can be used to measure
pressure is used as a transducer by giving the following:
5.1.1 A labelled sketch of the construction (5)
5.1.2 The basic principle of operation (2)
5.2 Name THREE points that should be considered before a transducer is (3)
selected for a particular application.
5.3 The following paragraph explains how semiconductor N-type material is (6)
formed. Complete the paragraph by using of the words given in the list below.
Write only the word next to the question number· (5.3.1 - 5.3.12) in the
ANSWER BOOK. A word may be used more than ONCE.
tetravalent; five; fifth; metal; acceptor; trivalent; covalent; fourth; four; hole;
holes; donor; pentavalent; ionic; electron; electrons; three; third
If a 5.3.1 ... atom, like phosphorous, is added to a pure silicon crystal, N-type
material is formed. In this process 5.3.2 ... phosphorous valence electrons
will form 5.3.3 ... bonds with 5.3.4 ... neighbouring silicon atom valence
electrons. This leaves the 5.3.5 . . . phosphorous atom valence electron
without a 5.3.6 ... bond and as a result, a free 5.3.7 ... exists. These atoms
are therefore known as 5.3.8 ... atoms. The process of generating electrons
is called 5.3.9 ... doping. Since the charge on a(n) 5.3.1 0 ... is negative, this
type of material is referred to as N-type material. Here the majority charge
carriers are the 5.3.11 ... and the minority charge carriers are the 5.3.12 ... .
[16]
QUESTION 6
6.1 Draw a labelled block diagram of a continuous balance digital voltmeter. Use (7)
arrows to indicate data flow.
6.2 Name TWO types of errors pertaining to measuring instruments and provide (4)
a cause of each error.
6.3 Discuss the difference between a photodiode and an LED by giving the
following:
6.3.1 A brief explanation of the principle of operation of a photodiode (2)
6.3.2 A brief explanation of the principle of operation of an LED (3)
[16]
TOTAL: 100
DIAGRAM SHEET
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INDUSTRIAL ELECTRONICS
FORMULA SHEET
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Industrial Electronics N3
Marking Guidelines
NOVEMBER 2011
NATIONAL CERTIFICATE
INDUSTRIAL ELECTRONICS N3
(8080613)
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QUESTION 1
1.1.1 T (1)
1.1.2 F (1)
1.1.3 F (1)
1.1.4 F (1)
1.1.5 T (1)
1.1.6 T (1)
1.1.7 F (1)
1.1.8 T (1)
1.1.9 T (1)
1.1.10 T (1)
1.2.1 A (1)
1.2.2 C (1)
1.2.3 D (1)
1.2.4 D (1)
1.2.5 B (1)
1.2.6 B (1)
1.2.7 C (1)
1.2.8 C (1)
1.2.9 D (1)
1.2.10 A (1)
[20]
QUESTION 2
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2.1.1 (2)
2.1.2 (2)
2.1.3 (4)
2.2
2.2.1 (2)
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2.2.2 (2)
2.2.3 (2)
2.2.4 (2)
[16]
QUESTION 3
3.1.1 (2)
3.1.2 (1)
3.1.3 (1)
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3.1.4 (3)
3.1.5 (3)
3.2.1 (2)
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3.2.2 (2)
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3.2.3 (2)
[16]
QUESTION 4
4.1 (4)
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4.2 (6)
4.3.1 (a) See attached sheet (1)
(b) Whole (1)
4.3.2 (a) See attached sheet (1)
(b) half (1)
4.3.3 (a) See attached sheet (1)
(b) Less than half (1)
[16]
QUESTION 5
5.1.1 (5)
5.1.2 The distance between the parallel plates is varied by the externally applied (2)
force/pressure, which causes a corresponding change in the capacitance.
This change in capacitance is used to measure the applied pressure.
5.2 physical quantity to be measured (3)
accuracy required
converting principle which is most suitable
5.3 5.3.1 pentavalent
5.3.2 four
5.3.3 covalent
5.3.4 four
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5.3.5 fifth
5.3.6 covalent
5.3.7 electron
5.3.8 donor
5.3.9 donor
5.3.10 electron
5.3.11 electrons
5.3.12 holes (½ mark each) (6)
[16]
QUESTION 6
6.1 (7)
6.2 Gross
human errors made in reading and/or using a measuring instrument
Systematic
Instrumental/Instrument
are due to the shortcomings of the instrument such as friction in bearings,
irregular spring tension and stretching of the spring . ./
Environmental
are due to external conditions affecting the instrument such as variations in
temperature, humidity and barometric pressure and also magnetic or
electrostatic field effects.
Random
ANY TWO
caused by unknown factors (4)
6.3.1 The photodiode is used under the reverse-bias conditions, When light falls (2)
on the PN-junction, leakage current flows causing the diode to conduct. As
the light intensity increases, the leakage current increases and the diode
becomes more conductive.
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When the photodiode PN-junction is not exposed to any light, a small current,
termed the dark current will flow.
6.3.2 The LED is used under forward-bias condition{ When an external voltage is (3)
applied across the cathode and anode then light energy is given off.
[16]
TOTAL: 100
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Table of C
Past Examination Papers
August 2011
NATIONAL CERTIFICATE
INDUSTRIAL ELECTRONICS N3
(8080613)
29 July (X-Paper)
09:00 – 12:00
Candidates will require drawing instruments, pens and a ruler.
Calculators may be used.
This question paper consists of 8 pages, 1 diagram sheet and a 1-page formula
sheet.
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TIME: 3 HOURS
MARKS: 100
__________________________________________________________________
INSTRUCTIONS AND INFORMATION
1. Answer ALL the questions.
2. Read ALL the questions carefully.
3. Number the answers according to the numbering system used in this question
paper.
4. Start each question on a NEW page.
5. ALL the sketches and diagrams must be large, clear and neat.
6. Keep questions and subsections of questions together.
7. Leave margins clear.
8. Questions must be answered in blue or black Ink.
9. Use ߨ ൌ ͵ǡ ͳͶʹ
10. ALL the final answers must be approximated accurately to THREE decimal
places.
11. Write neatly and legibly
___________________________________________________________________
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QUESTION 1
1.1 Indicate whether the following statements are TRUE or FALSE. Choose the
answer and write only 'true' or 'false' next to the question number (1.1.1 -
1.1.10) in the ANSWER BOOK.
1.1.1 An inductor is connected in parallel with a capacitor. If the inductance is
doubled, and the capacitance is halved, the impedance at resonance will be
doubled.
1.1.2 The inductive reactance of an inductor is directly proportional to the
frequency.
1.1.3 A common-base amplifier has a 0' phase shift between input and output.
1.1.4 A varactor diode can be used as a variable capacitor.
1.1.5 All ions are electrically neutral.
1.1.6 The parallax error is a gross error.
1.1.7 A phototransistor conducts when the base-collector junction is exposed to
light.
1.1.8 An SCR is also known as a four-layer PNPN device.
1.1.9 Current can flow through a zener diode in both directions.
1.1.10 A light-emitting diode is a transducer. (10 x 1) (10)
1.2 Various options are given as possible answers to the following questions.
Choose the answer and write only the letter (A - D) next to the question
number (1.2.1 - 1.2.1 0) in the ANSWER BOOK.
1.2.1 The phasor diagram in FIGURE 1 on the DIAGRAM SHEET (attached),
represents two alternating voltages:
A V1 lags V2 by 135°
B V1 and V2 are in antiphase
C V2 leads V1 by 45°
D V2 lags V1 by 135°
1.2.2 The charge of an electron is approximately ...
A 1,602 x 10-19 coulombs.
B -1,602 x 10-19 coulombs.
C 1,602 x 19-10 coulombs.
D -1,602 x 19-10 coulombs.
1.2.3 In the circuit shown In FIGURE 2 on the DIAGRAM SHEET (attached), which
of the following equations is correct for loop CDEC?
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A 4 = 5(I1 - I2 - 0,2A) + 40I2
B 0 = 5(I1 - I2 - 0,2A) + 40I2
C 0 = 5(I1 - I2 - 0,2A) - 40I2
D 4 = 5(I1 - I2 - 0,2A) - 40I2
1.2.4 Atoms with less than four valence electrons are called ...
A conductors.
B resistors.
C insulators.
D semiconductors.
1.2.5 Errors due to unknown factors are called ...
A random errors.
B gross errors.
C systematic errors.
D instrumental errors.
1.2.6 Gross errors are also referred to as ...
A random errors.
B human errors.
C instrumental errors.
D environmental errors.
1.2.7 The method used to stabilise the gain in a transistor amplifier is called ...
A amplification.
B voltage regulation.
C rectification.
D negative feedback.
1.2.8 ONE method used to suppress transients is to make use of only ...
A Inductors.
B resistors.
C transistors.
D zener diodes.
1.2.9 Which ONE of the following statements describes an operational amplifier
which is used as an integrator?
A The rate at which the output voltage changes is related to the
instantaneous value of the input voltage
B The output voltage is related to the rate at which the instantaneous value
of the input voltage changes
C Its output waveform is 180" out of phase with the input voltage
D Its output waveform is 0° out of phase with the input voltage
1.2.10 In the active region ...
A both the collector-base and emitter-base junctions are reverse biased.
B the collector-base is reverse-biased and the emitter-base is forward-
biased.
C both the collector-base and emitter-base are forward biased.
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D the collector-base is forward-biased and the emitter-base is reverse- (10)
biased. (10 x 1)
[20]
QUESTION 2
2.1 Consider FIGURE 3 on the DIAGRAM SHEET (attached) and determine the
following, with the aid of Klrchhoffs Laws:
2.1.1 The equation for loop 1 (LUKPQRSL). Set up the equation by starting at point (2)
L and proceed In the direction of loop 1 (thick arrow)
2.1.2 The equation for loop 2 (LUTSL). Set up the equation by starting at point L (2)
and proceed in the direction of loop 2 (thick arrow)
2.1.3 The magnitude of the currents I, and I, by making use of the equations in (4)
QUESTION 2.1.1 and QUESTION 2.1.2
2.2 In SCR control, we make use of commutation. (2)
2.2.1 Name TWO commutation methods. (2)
2.2.2 Briefly explain each method In QUESTION 2.2.1. (2)
2.3 An SCR can be controlled by making use of four different methods. The
following statements are descriptions or definitions of these methods.
Name the method that best describes each of the following statements:
2.3.1 This method of control is used when the SCR performs simple switching (1)
2.3.2 This method of control is a combination of phase and cycle control (1)
2.3.3 This method of control is achieved by controlling the time at which the gate (1)
of the SCR is triggered
2.3.4 This method of control is achieved by switching the control device on for a (1)
number of full cycles and then switching the control device off for a number
of full cycles
[16]
QUESTION 3
3.1 A coil of resistance 5 Ω and inductance of 0,05 H is connected in series with
a capacitor of 800 ߤF across a 220 V/50 Hz alternating voltage.
Calculate the following:
3.1.1 The inductive reactance of the inductor (1)
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3.1.2 The capacitive reactance of the capacitor (1)
3.1.3 The impedance of the circuit (2)
3.1.4 The total current (1)
3.1.5 The voltage drop across the coil (2)
3.2 Draw the impedance phasor diagram that represents the circuit in QUESTION (3)
3.1 above.
3.3 Draw a labelled symbol of an SCR. (2)
3.4 Two methods are used to switch an SCR on, namely the gate turn on and the
breakover voltage turn on methods. Briefly explain the following:
3.4.1 The gate-turn-on method (2)
3.4.2 The breakover voltage-turn-on method (2)
[16]
QUESTION 4
4.1 A class A common emitter amplifier has its Q-point set at Ico = 2,5 mA; IBQ =
250 ߤA and VCEQ = 10 V. Use these values to calculate the approximate values
of the following:
4.1.1 VCC (1)
4.1.2 IC (1)
4.1.3 RC (1)
4.2 Use the values calculated in QUESTION 4.1 above to draw the approximate (3)
load line. Label the characteristic curve appropriately.
4.3 Use an NPN transistor and draw the circuit diagram of a parallel voltage (5)
regulator.
4.4 State FIVE advantages of a field-effect transistor. (5)
[16]
QUESTION 5
5.1 Describe how a potentiometer can be used as a transducer by providing the
following:
5.1.1 A labelled sketch of the construction (3)
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5.1.2 The basic principle of operation (2)
5.1.3 Give TVVO examples of where it is used (2)
5.2 Give THREE points that should be considered before a transducer is selected (3)
for a particular application.
5.3 State THREE characteristics and THREE advantages of operational (6)
amplifiers.
[16]
QUESTION 6
6.1 Draw a labelled block diagram of a frequency counter. (Use arrows to indicate (7)
data flow.)
6.2 Explain the purpose of a cathode ray tube as used in an oscilloscope. (2)
6.3 Describe a light-emitting diode (LED) by giving the following;
6.3.1 A labelled circuit symbol
6.3.2 A labelled characteristic curve
6.3.3 A circuit diagram to show how it is used in an optocoupler with a
photodiode
[20]
TOTAL: 100
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INDUSTRIAL ELECTRONICS
FORMULA SHEET
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Marking Guidelines
AUGUST 2011
NATIONAL CERTIFICATE
INDUSTRIAL ELECTRONICS N3
(8080613)
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QUESTION 1
1.1.1 F
1.1.2 T
1.1.3 T
1.1.4 T
1.1.5 F
1.1.6 T
1.1.7 T
1.1.8 T
1.1.9 T
1.1.10 T (10)
1.2.1 A
1.2.2 B
1.2.3 C
1.2.4 A
1.2.5 A
1.2.6 B
1.2.7 D
1.2.8 D
1.2.9 A
1.2.10 B (10)
[20]
QUESTION 2
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2.1.1
(2)
2.1.2
(2)
2.1.3
(4)
2.2.1 Forced commutation
Line commutation (2)
2.2.2 Forced commutation is a method used in which a current is “forced' to flow
in a direction opposite to the forward conducting currert is used in DC circuits
Line commutation is accomplished whenever the alternating current signal
crosses zero from positive to negative, the anode becomes negative with
respect to the cathode and the SCR will turn off is used in AC circuits
(2)
2.3.1 Static control. (1)
2.3.2 Cyclotronlc control. (1)
2.3.3 Phase control (1)
2.3.4 Cycle control. (1)
[16]
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QUESTION 3
3.1.1
(1)
3.1.2
(1)
3.1.3
(2)
3.1.4
(1)
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3.1.5
(2)
3.2
(3)
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3.3
(2)
3.4.1 The SCR is normally turned on by injecting a pulse of current into the gate
terminal. This would cause current to flow from the anode to the cathode.
Once the SCR is turned on, the gate loses control over the device. Further
gate pulses will not affect the conduction of the device. The SCR will continue
to conduct (even with no gate current) for as long as the current flowing
through it remains above the holding current. (2)
3.4.2 In the absence of any gate current, a small leakage current flows. If the voltage
applied to the anode is now increased to such an extent that the SCR's
breakover voltage is reached, avalanche breakdown occurs and regenerative
feedback occurs and the SCR turns on. (2)
[16]
QUESTION 4
4.1.1
(1)
4.1.2
(1)
4.1.3
(1)
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4.2
(3)
4.3
(5)
4.4 Relatively unaffected by radiation
No offset voltage when used as a switch
Very high input resistance
Considerable thermal stability
Less noisy than bipolar transistors
Small gain-bandwidth (5)
[16]
QUESTION 5
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5.1.1
(3)
5.1.2 By positioning the slider with an external source, the resistance varies in a (2)
potentiometer.
5.1.3 Barometers, humidity monitors, angular displacement meters. (2)
5.2 physical quantity to be measured. (3)
accuracy required.
converting principle which is most suitable.
5.3 CHARACTERISTICS ADVANTAGES (6)
High input impedance Small size
Low output impedance Cheap
High voltage gain Low power consumption
Wide bandwidth Highly stable
Its parameters are matched and track Highly reliable
well with temperature changes
Can handle ac and DC
ANY THREE ANY THREE
[16]
QUESTION 6
6.1
(7)
6.2 The cathode ray tube (CRT) produces a sharply focused beam of electrons
and accelerates it to a very high velocity to strike the fluorescent screen with
enoughenergy to light up in a small spot. (2)
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6.3.1
(2)
6.3.2
(3)
6.3.3
[20]
TOTAL: 100
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