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Rivers

It is a body of water flowing in a confined channel.

THE GLOBAL HYDROLOGICAL CYCLE (WATER CYCLE)

Refers to the endless interchange of water between the sea, atmosphere and land, or the indefinite
circulation of water between the ground, sea and atmosphere. It is made up of a network of storages,
transfers as well as transformations (change) of moisture between land, sea and air.

DEFINITIONS

Evapotranspiration- the process of transferring moisture from the earth to the atmosphere by
evaporation of water and
transpiration from plants or
evapotranspiration is the sum of
evaporation and transpiration. ET
is also defined as the return of
water vapour to the atmosphere by
evaporation from land and water
surfaces and by the transpiration
of vegetation.
Evaporation- is a physical process
by which water transforms from
liquid to gas (atmospheric water
vapour) and it occurs on freely
exposed surfaces like all surface
water bodies and the soil.

Transpiration- is a biological
process by which water evaporates
from the surface of the leaves
through openings called stomata.

NB- Evaporation accounts for the movement of water to the air from sources such as
the soil, canopy interception, and water bodies. Transpiration accounts for the movement of water
within a plant and the subsequent loss of water as vapour through stomata in its leaves.
Precipitation- refers to all forms of moisture (liquid, gas, solid) falling from the sky to the ground
e.g. rainfall, snow, hail, sleet, fog and mist. It is an input of the closed hydrological system.

Interception- is a process on which precipitation is prevented from directly hitting the ground by
vegetation (tree leaves and branches, including grass and shrubs). Interception also involves a
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segment of precipitation that is prevented from directly hitting the ground by forest litter lying on
forest floors.

Stem flow- is when intercepted water flows down the branches and stems of trees.

Interception loss – is when intercepted water never reaches the ground because it evaporates back
into the atmosphere.

Through fall- is when rainwater penetrates through the gaps of the vegetation canopy and falls
directly to the ground surface, or simply water that falls directly to the ground undisturbed by
vegetation.

Infiltration- is the sinking of water into the ground through the pore spaces available in the soil,
under the pull of gravity. Infiltration is responsible for recharging ground water storages. It is also
described as the initial entrance of water into the ground, i.e. from the surface subsystem to the soil
moisture zone, through soil openings or pores.

Percolation- is the further downward movement of infiltrated water from the soil moisture zone
through the zone of aeration and towards the water table (zone of permanent saturation) under the
pull of gravity. It recharges ground water storages.

Baseflow- is the lateral or horizontal movement of ground water from one ground water storage to
the other, including the effluent of ground water into surface streams. Baseflow is very slow and is
responsible for recharging perennial streams.

Overlandflow or surface runoff- is the horizontal movement of water on the ground under the pull
of gravity. It occurs either in in unconcentrated forms (overland flow) or following defined channels
(channel flow). It is responsible for recharging surface water storages.

NB- overlandflow occurs when precipitation rate exceeds infiltration capacity.

Through flow- is the lateral movement of water just below the surface in a downslope direction
under the pull of gravity. It occurs when infiltrated water encounters an impermeable rock surface
that would prohibit percolation but instead force water to flow laterally. On reaching the valley
sides through flow emerges on the surface to form springs.

Ground water- is the term used to describe all the water found beneath the ground surface
(underground water storage).

Surface storage- refers to water that is temporarily or permanently stored on the ground surface
after precipitation or snow melting. Temporary storages include water that accumulates in small
depressions, small streams, rivers and small dams. Permanent storages on the other hand include
large dams, lakes, perennial rivers, seas and oceans.
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Permeability- refers to the ability of rocks to transmit water/ allowance of water passage or
entrance. Rocks that allow water to pass through e.g. chalk are said to be permeable while those that
does not are said to be impermeable.
THE DRAINAGE BASIN
The drainage basin is an area that is drained by a river and its tributaries.
It is an open system consisting of inputs processes and outputs.
INPUTS
These are in the of precipitation [rainfall, snow etc]
TRANSFERS
Refers to the flows in the system e.g. Infiltration, Percolation, through flow
STORAGE
Refers to how water is held e.g. surface storage in the form of lakes, dams, sea, interception storage
etc.
Soil moisture storage between pore spaces and ground water storage in water tables
THE DRAINAGE BASIN
Is the area that is drained by a river and its tributaries.
River source
Where it begins to flow e.g. a spring, marsh areas or mountain foot. A river starts in high altitude
areas gets more water from tributaries and ends when it enters a lake and where it ends is called the
mouth.
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African examples of river sources and mouths

River Country Source Mouth

Pungwe Zimbabwe Nyanga mt Indian ocean
Pangani Tanzania Mt Kilimanjaro Indian ocean
Tana Kenya Kenyan highlands Indian ocean
Niger Nigeria Fouta djalon Atlantic ocean
highlands

River channel terms:

Width: distance across the surface from the bank to bank
Depth: the vertical distance from the surface to the bed
Gradient/slope: the angle between the horizon the river surface
Velocity: the speed /rate at which the water flows through the channel
Catchment area/drainage basin: area drained by the river and its tributaries. It is the area marking
boundaries between the two gradients.

RIVER VELOCITY:
Refers to the speed at which water flows in a river.
Velocity is measured by the use of floaters

Float method

Equipment and methodology

Floating object, for example an orange

Tape measure and stop watch

Record the time taken for the object to travel over a set distance.

Considerations and possible limitations

The float used must be visible, durable and not be affected by wind

Be aware of possible user error meaning that the start or finish of the object placement is not exact.
Throwing or pushing the object can affect results. Placing the object up- stream and having start and
finish lines (tape measures) can help to minimise these errors

This method only records surface velocity

Repeated measurement and taking averages can reduce the margin of error

Flow vanes or meters

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Equipment and methodology

A flow meter or vane

Tape measure across river (used for cross-section)

Record sheets

Different models work differently and should come with instructions. All flow meters record the
number of revolutions as water passes over the mechanism. Velocity should be recorded over a
period of time, one minute for example, and repeated to obtain averages. Take recordings at
different widths (horizontal) and depths (vertical) across the channel.
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Figure five: Using a flow meter to record the velocity of the river

Considerations and possible limitations

The operator can affect readings. Stand beside or down- stream of the flowmeter

Very fast or slow water can affect the accuracy of readings, take multiple readings and average
results

Using the data within an investigation

Can be used in isolation or combined with other data, for

example:

River discharge can be calculated using cross-sectional area and average velocity as follows:

Discharge = cross-sectional area (m2) x velocity (m/s) =m3 / s.

THE STORM HYDROGRAPH

Storm hydrographs are graphs that show how a drainage basin responds to an episode of rainfall. Or a graph
which shows variation in river discharge following an episode of rain plotted against time (RJ Small). See
diagram below:

THE MAIN FEATURES OF THE

STORM HYDROGRAPH

Approach segment- refers to the river

flow before the storm (antecedent flow)

Rising limb: The rising limb of

hydrograph reflects a prolonged increase
in discharge from a catchment area,
typically in response to a rainfall event.

Recession (or falling) limb: The recession

limb extends from the peak flow rate
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onward. The recession limb represents the withdrawal of water from the storage built up in the basin during
the earlier phases of the hydrograph.

Peak rainfall – the point on a flood hydrograph when rainfall is at its greatest.

Lag time: the time interval from the peak rainfall excess to peak discharge or period of time between the
peak rainfall and peak discharge.

Discharge: the rate of flow (volume per unit time) passing a specific location in a river or other channel

Peak discharge – the point on a flood hydrograph when river discharge is at its greatest.

Bankfull discharge – the maximum discharge that a particular river channel is capable of carrying without
flooding.

River in flood – when the capacity of a river is exceeded and water flows over its banks or beyond bankfull
discharge.

Base flow – represents the normal day to day discharge of the river and is the consequence of groundwater
seeping into the river channel.

Physical Factors affecting Storm Hydrographs

There are a range of physical factors that affect the shape of a storm hydrograph. These include:

Size of the drainage basin- Large drainage basins catch more precipitation so have a higher peak discharge
and longer lag time compared to smaller basins. Smaller basins generally have shorter lag times because
precipitation does not have as far to travel.

Shape of the drainage basin- Drainage basins that are more circular in shape lead to shorter lag time, fairly
steep rising limb and a high peak discharge because water has a shorter distance to travel to reach a river (all
points in the drainage basin are equidistant from the river so all the precipitation reaches the river at the same
time). For a circular drainage basin, the river’s hydrograph can often be described as “flashy.” Elongated
basins have the opposite.

Relief/topography- Drainage basins with steep slopes tend to have shorter lag times and a flashier hydrograph
than basins with gentle gradients. This is because water flows more quickly on the steep slopes down to the
river. Basins with steep slopes will have a high peak discharge because the water can travel faster downhill.

Drainage density- Basins that have many streams (high drainage density) drain more quickly so have a
shorter lag time and a fairly steep falling limb.

Antecedent moisture- If the drainage basin is already saturated then surface runoff increases due to the
reduction in infiltration. Rainwater enters the river quicker, reducing lag times, as surface runoff is faster
than base flow or through flow.

Rock/soil type- if the rock type within the river basin is impermeable surface runoff will be higher, through
flow and infiltration will also be reduced meaning a reduction in lag time and an increase in peak discharge.

Vegetation cover- Vegetation intercepts precipitation and slows the movement of water into river channels.
This increases lag time. Water is also lost due to evaporation and transpiration from the vegetation. This
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reduces the peak discharge of a river. Loss of vegetation therefore reduces lag time and increase peak
discharge. Rainwater [heavy] falling on bare surfaces seal the pore spaces thus increasing the amount of
discharge.

Amount and type of precipitation- The amount precipitation can have an effect on the storm hydrograph.
Heavy storms result in more water entering the drainage basin which results in a higher discharge. The type
of precipitation can also have an impact. The lag time is likely to be greater if the precipitation is snow rather
than rain. This is because snow takes time to melt before the water enters the river channel. When there is
rapid melting of snow the peak discharge could be high. See also rainfall intensity.

Human factors affecting the shape of the storm hydrographs

Urbanisation- Humans will normally cover soil in impermeable materials like tarmac or concrete which will
increase surface run off and reduce the amount of water being stored, increasing the peak discharge and
reducing the lag time.

As water doesn’t infiltrate easily in urban areas humans often

build storm drains that run directly into a river, reducing the
lag time and increasing the river’s peak discharge.

Artificial drainage systems- Drainage systems that have been

created by humans lead to a short lag time and high peak
discharge as water cannot evaporate or infiltrate into the soil.

Overgrazing, deforestation and veld fires (devegetation) -

these activities by humans create bare surfaces. This increase
river discharge and shorten lag time leading to the formation of a flashier hydrograph.

See also cultivation, afforestation and reforestation- these activities actually increase infiltration rates by
creating a porous soil environment and intercepting rain. Altogether, these activities reduce discharge and
also delay peak discharge (long lag time). However the recession limb of areas with forests, crops and
cultivated areas tend to be gentle since water takes time in rivers whose surrounding soil is saturated.

Gradient: gentle gradient results in low velocity while steep gradients are associated with high
velocity.
Volume of water: the higher the volume the higher the velocity.
Nature of flow:
Laminar flow: results when water flows in layers parallel to the bed and the bed of the river will be
smooth.
Turbulent flow: water flows in a circular like manner. Thus decreasing the energy due to friction by
and banks.
Helicoidal: is a cork screw movement of water
A River does 3 main things:
1. Erodes materials
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2. Transports materials
3. Deposits materials
A. River erosion
A river erodes by four main processes:
i. Solution/ corrosion
ii. Attrition
iii. Abrasion/corrasion
iv. Hydraulic action

Solution /corrosion
This is the chemical action of water on soluble or partly soluble rocks.
Water dissolves some rock materials and carries them downstream in the solution.

I. Attrition
The load itself is broken down because the rock fragments are in constant collision with
each other.
As the load moves downstream the load becomes progressively smaller.
II. Corrasion
This is the wearing away of the banks and bed of the river channel by the load.
The load is used to as a grinding tool against the banks and beds of the river.
Corrasion is in two distinct ways.
The side way erosion which widens the river channel.
III. Vertical corrosion.
This is the downward erosion which deepens the river channel.
River erosion operates in 3 ways:
1. Headward erosion-a river increases its length through cutting back to its source.
2. Vertical erosion-this is the process by which the deepens its channel.
3. Lateral erosion-this wearing away of the sides of a river channel mainly along the outside
banks of meanders bends.
FEATURES PRODUCED BY EROSION:
Common features of erosion include pot holes, interlocking, spurs, meanders, and waterfalls.
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LANDFORMS OF RIVER EROSION

WATERFALLS
Waterfalls are found in the upper course of a river. They usually occur where a band of hard rock lies above soft rock.
As the river passes over the hard rock, the soft rock below is eroded (worn away) more quickly than the hard rock
leaving the hard rock elevated above the stream bed below.

The 'step' in the river bed continues to develop as the river flows over the hard rock step (Cap Rock) as a vertical drop.
The drop gets steeper as the river erodes the soft rock beneath by processes such as abrasion and hydraulic action. A
plunge pool forms at the base of the waterfall. This erosion gradually undercuts the hard rock until the cap rock is
unsupported such that it will eventually collapses. A steep sided valley known as a gorge is left behind and as the
process continues the waterfall gradually retreats upstream. Waterfalls are also formed as
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a result of uplifting that results in negative base level changes for example the Victoria Falls on the Zambezi+ River in
Zimbabwe.

POTHOLES
Potholes are cylindrical holes drilled into the rocky bed of a river by turbulent high-velocity water loaded with pebbles.
The pebbles become trapped in slight hollows and vertical eddies in the water are strong enough to allow the
sediment to grind a hole into the rock by abrasion (corrasion). Attrition rounds and smoothens the pebbles caught in
the hole and helps to reduce the size of the bed load.

Potholes can vary in width from a few centimetres to several metres. They are generally found in the upper or early-
middle course of a river. This is where the valley lies well above base level, giving more potential for downcutting, and
where the river bed is more likely to be rocky in nature.

RAPIDS
Rapids develop where alternate bands of hard and soft rocks form part
and parcel of the river bed. The soft rock is attacked more quickly by
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erosion and it is lowered in the process. Bands of hard rocks are left elevated above the lowered soft rocks and these
will form rapids

GORGES
Gorges occur on a river flowing along a fault line or line of weakness. Vertical erosion deepens the softer rock leaving
resistant rocks outstanding thus creating a narrow deep channel or a gorge. Here mechanical hydraulic action is largely
responsible for the formation of the gorge. Gorges are also formed due to the retreat of waterfalls as already
highlighted above. A very good example of such gorges is the Naigara Gorge found near Naigara Falls.

V-SHAPED VALLEYS
These are deep narrow channels formed on the upper course of the river by vertical erosion. They develop here
because water has more erosive potential. See diagrams above. Rejuvenation also results in the formation of V-shaped
valleys.

INTERLOCKING SPURS

A river tended to go round the rocks that are resistant and this causes it to be winding. Erosion will be more
on the concave

Interlocking spurs
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COMBINED EFFECTS OF EROSION AND DEPOSITION

MEANDERS
Meandering occurs in the middle course of the river. They usually develop on gentle gradients where the velocity and
competence of the river is lower. As a result the river usually avoid obstacles and follow a weaker path thus creating a
meander. Both erosion and deposition are active on a meander leading to the formation of river cliffs and slip off
slopes.

Water flows fastest on the outer bend of the river where there is less friction. This causes greater erosion which
deepens the channel creating a pool near the
outer bank of the river.

Lateral erosion is also active here and it results in

the undercutting of the river bank and
the formation of a steep sided river cliff. In
contrast, on the inner bend water flows at lower
velocities hence deposition occurs resulting in
a shallower channel. Over time a deposited
sediments builds up on the inner bend; resulting
in the formation of a slip-off slope. The water in a
meander flows in a corkscrew like movement as it
moves from the inside of the bend towards the
outside of the bend. This is called Helicoidal flow.

Remember - a meander is asymmetrical in cross-

section (see diagram above). It is deeper on the
outer bend (due to greater erosion) and shallower
on the inside bend (an area of deposition).
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OXBOW LAKES
Ox bow lakes are formed on meandering channels as a result of erosion and deposition. As the outer banks of a
meander continue to be eroded through processes such as hydraulic action the neck of the meander becomes narrow
and narrower.

Eventually due to the narrowing of the neck, the two outer bends meet and the river cuts through the neck of the
meander usually during a flood event when the energy in the river is at its highest.

The water now takes its shortest route rather than flowing around the bend. Deposition gradually seals off the old
meander bend forming a new straighter river channel.

Due to deposition the old meander bend is left isolated from the main channel as an ox-bow lake. Over time this
feature may fill up with sediment and may gradually dry up (except for periods of heavy rain). Ox bow lakes can later
be turned into rich agricultural units used for the growth of crops. They tend to be very fertile due to alluvial
deposition.
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RIVER DEPOSITION

When a river has insufficient energy to carry its entire load it deposits the material.

Conditions necessary for deposition

i. When velocity of a river decreases

ii. Flooding: when a river is flooded some water overflows on to the valley floor on either side of the
channel. So deposition takes place on the flood plain(gentle sloping plain)
iii. When gradient decreases i.e. when it enters a plain or when a large river enters an arid region
where evaporation is high or where a large river enters lake or sea.

ALLUVIAL FANS ARE DEPOSITIONAL FEATURES FORMED AT THE BASE OF THE MT FRONT AS EPHEMERAL
STREAMS ALDEN WITH SEDIMENTS EXIT FROM UPLAND LEAVING NARROW CONFINED GORGES

THERE IS DRASTIC LOSS OF ENERGY AS STREAM EXSIT FROM UPLANDS AND ENTER PLAINS THEREBY
CAUSING SEDIMENTS DEPOSITION WHICH CREATES CONE SHAPED LIKE ALLUVIAL FANS.

BRAIDED CHANNELS
Braiding occurs when the river is forced to split into several channels separated by islands. It is a feature of rivers that
are supplied with large loads of sand and gravel. It is most likely to occur when a river has variable discharges for
example seasonally humid environments.

They also develop from the middle to lower course where

stream competence is lower leading to the deposition of
sediments. Deposited sediments accumulate inside the channel
forcing the river to split into several channels as shown on the
diagram.

In summary braiding occurs in environments in which there are

rapidly fluctuating discharges:

1. Semi-arid areas of low relief that receive rivers from

mountainous area and in seasonally humid environments where
rainfall is received in summer, causing fluctuations in river
discharge.

2. Glacial streams with variable annual discharge. In spring, melt water causes river discharge and competence to
increase, therefore the river can transport more particles. As the temperature drops and the river level falls, the load
is deposited as islands of deposition in the channel.

FLOODPLAINS
Floodplains are created as a result of both erosion and deposition, although the accumulation of river deposits
suggests that they are predominately depositional
features.

They are relatively flat areas of land either side of the

river and they are composed of alluvium (river deposited
silts and clays). Over time, a floodplain can become
wider and the depth of sediment accretions increases.
The width of the floodplain is determined by the amount
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of meander migration and lateral erosion that has taken place. Interlocking spurs are also removed by lateral erosion
in the middle course, leaving behind river bluffs. The depth of the alluvial deposits depends partly on the amount
of flooding in the past, so floodplain creation is linked to extreme events. Flood plains become stabilised by vegetation
over time. They can also be used for agricultural purposes due to the presence of alluvial deposits.

LEVEES
In its middle and lower courses, a river is at risk of flooding during times of high discharge. If it floods, the velocity of
the waterfalls as it overflows the banks. This results in deposition, because the competence of the river is suddenly
reduced. It is usual for the coarsest material to be deposited first, forming small raised banks (levees) along the sides
of the channel. Subsequent floods increase the size of these banks. Levees can be raised artificially by people in order
to prevent flooding of rivers.

RIVER TRANSPORTATION

When a river flows it carries with it the eroded materials known as the load.
The river load can be divided into four classes:
Materials in solution
Suspended materials
Saltation load
Traction load
a) MATERIALS IN SOLUTION
They are dissolved minerals in solution forms. Small particles

b) SUSPENDED MATERIAL.
The material is suspended and floats in water.
The material is not dissolved.
c) Saltation load: is the bouncing of smaller pieces of materials over the river bed.
d) Traction load: courser material like pebbles sand boulders are rolled down along the
riverbed downstream.
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THE LONG PROFILE OF THE RIVER

THIS IS THE LINE DRAWN FOLLOWING THE COARSE OF THE RIVER FROM THE
RIVER source to the mouth.
It is concave slope.
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The course of the river may be divided into 3 sections:

Upper course /youthful stage
Middle course /mature stage
Lower course/old stage
Youthful stage characteristics
1. Gradient is 5m per km
2. Downward or vertical erosion is common
3. River flows fast with more downward cutting erosion
4. Valley is steep sided ,narrow and deep
5. Features are: waterfalls, rapids, interlocking, spurs, river capture, and pot holes.
6. Upper section of a river.
7. Middle coarse
Main function of the river in this section is lateral or sideways erosion.
The river develops meanders which are great loops or bends along parts of its course
The interlocking spurs are cutback
Has U shaped valleys?

Lower course
Gradient is 0.2m per km
Deposition takes place
River is large and slow flowing with more pronounced meanders
Features are ox-bow lakes, levees, deltas and floodplains
Longest water volumes

Features or the upper course

Main features are deep and narrow, v shaped, valleys, steep gradient, potholes, interlocking, spurs
and waterfalls and rapids.
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Waterfalls

Common in the upper course of the river

Develop when a resistant rock is overlying a less resistant rock
The rock may be horizontal or may dip gently up the river

Plunge pools
Plunge pools usually develop at the bed of a water fall.
Water will be falling with force and erosion will remove the soil and minerals at the base there by
creating a pool.

Rapids
Develops when a resistant rock overlying a less resistant rock deeps gentle down the river
A rapid is less steep than a waterfall

Interlocking spurs
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A river tended to go round the rocks that are resistant and this causes it to be winding. Erosion will
be more on the concave

Potholes
These develop on the river bed which is rough .The swirling pebbles carve circular on the bed.

Gorge
A steep sided valley may develop if a river flows along an area of weakness such as a fault.
A gorge can develop in a region made up of alternate rocks which are horizontally bedded e.g. river
deepens the valley to form Baatoka gorge at Victoria Falls.
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V shaped valleys
The river erodes vertically into resistant rocks causing its valley to become gorge like.
Common features of the middle course of a river
Common features at this stage of the river are meanders, bluffs, slip off slopes.
Bluffs: formed when interlocking spurs are cut back by lateral erosion this leads to valet widening
Advantages:
HEP generation
Tourists attractions (e.g.) Victoria falls
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Meanders: Flowing water fails to follow a straight line

Rivers may wind as water flows around obstacles .Common features of the upper course.
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These are depositional features and they include features like ox-bow lakes, levees, flood plains,
deltas, braiding
OX-BOW LAKES are formed when a meander becomes much pronounced and curved. As Erosion
continue on the concave bends, deposition on the curves /bends the neck of the meander is often
eroded away until the river breaks through and can flow straight again by passing the meander.
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BRAIDED CHANNELS: Formed by the choking of the main channel by the deposition of a
considerable amounts of the river load.
The channel splits into several smaller channels which flow around fresh ‘islands’ of deposited
material before rejoining.

LEVEES As the river floods, sediment is dropped over all the flooded areas but most falls along
the river channel itself.
Levees form when a river is in flood and flows over its banks .Deposition takes place on the banks
forming raised banks.
Repeated flooding causes the banks to be raised and these are called levees .When the river is not
flood deposition takes place on its bed.
Flood plain forms when the river is flooded and excess water spills over the river banks forming a
wide plain rich in alluvium deposits

DEFFERED JUNCTION WHEN THE RIVER IS NOT IN FLOOD DEPOSITION TAKES

PLACE ON YHE RIVER BED. This HAS EFFECTS OF RISING THE RIVER BED.THE RIVER
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WILL BE FLOWING ABOVE THE GENERAL LEVEL OF ITS FLOOD PLAIN MAKING IT
DIFFICULT FOR TRIBUTARIES TO JOIN IT.MATERIAL IS DEPOSITED ON THE MOUTH
OF THE RIVER.

RIVER DEPOSITION
When a river has insufficient energy to carry its entire load it deposits the material.
Conditions necessary for deposition
iv. When velocity of a river decreases
v. Flooding: when a river is flooded some water overflows on to the valley floor on either side
of the channel. So deposition takes place on the flood plain(gentle sloping plain)
vi. When gradient decreases i.e. when it enters a plain or when a large river enters an arid
region where evaporation is high or where a large river enters lake or sea.
ALLUVIAL FANS ARE DEPOSITIONAL FEATURES FORMED AT THE BASE OF THE MT
FRONT AS EPHEMERAL STREAMS ALDEN WITH SEDIMENTS EXIT FROM UPLAND
LEAVING NARROW CONFINED GORGES
THERE IS DRASTIC LOSS OF ENERGY AS STREAM EXSIT FROM UPLANDS AND ENTER
PLAINS THEREBY CAUSING SEDIMENTS DEPOSITION WHICH CREATES CONE
SHAPED LIKE ALLUVIAL FANS.
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Deltas
Deltas are depositional landforms found at the mouth of a river where the river meets a body of water with a
lower velocity than the river (e.g. a lake or the sea). For a delta to develop, the body of water needs to be
relatively quiet with a low tidal range so that deposited sediment isn’t washed away and has time to
accumulate.

When a river meets a stationary body of water, its velocity falls causing any material being transported by the
river to be deposited. Deltas are made up of three sediment beds that have been sorted by the size of the
sediment.

Deltas can take on many different shapes. The three primary shapes of delta are cuspate, arcuate and bird’s
foot.

Arcuate deltas (e.g. The Nile Delta, Egypt) are shaped like a triangle (which is where the term delta comes
from, the Greek letter delta Δ) and form when a river meets a sea with alternating current directions that
shape the delta so that it looks like a triangle.

HAZARDS AASOCIATED WITH RIVERS

Flooding
Flooding occurs when a river’s discharge exceeds its channel’s volume causing the river to overflow onto the
area surrounding the channel known as the floodplain. The increase in discharge can be triggered by several
events. The most common cause of flooding is prolonged rainfall. If it rains for a long time, the ground will
become saturated and the soil will no longer be able to store water leading to increased surface runoff.
Rainwater will enter the river much faster than it would if the ground wasn’t saturated leading to higher
discharge levels and floods.

As well as prolonged rainfall, brief periods of heavy rain can also lead to floods. If there’s a sudden “burst”
of heavy rain, the rainwater won’t be able to infiltrate fast enough and the water will instead enter the river
via surface runoff. This leads to a sudden and large increase in the river’s discharge which can result in
a flash flood.

Although many floods are triggered directly by precipitation just a few hours after it falls some floods can be
triggered by precipitation that fell many months ago. Precipitation that falls as snow can remain as snow on
the ground until it melts. This mightn’t be until the end of winter, so potentially several months. When the
snow does melt, large volumes of meltwater will enter the river increasing its discharge and triggering
floods. These floods are often annual, occurring every year when snow melts in the spring. In Bangladesh,
for example, melting snow in the Himalayas triggers annual floods in the summer.

Flash floods can also be triggered by slightly more catastrophic events. Erupting volcanoes can trigger very
large flash floods called jökulhlaups when glaciers are partially or even fully melted by an erupting volcano
or some other form of geothermal activity. The meltwater can enter rivers and greatly increase the river’s
discharge leading to a flood. The eruption of Eyjafjallajökull1 in 2010 triggered jökulhlaups as the volcano
had been capped by a glacier that melted when it erupted2.
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Factors Affecting Flood Frequency

Physical Factors

 The size and shape of a river’s drainage basin dictates how much precipitation the river can receive
and how quickly it will arrive (the lag time). A large drainage basin means that the river’s catchment
area is large so it will collect a lot of water, increasing discharge. If the basin is circular in shape, the
precipitation will enter the river at roughly the same time because all points in the basin are
equidistant from one another. This will produce a high peak discharge and can lead to flash floods.
 The permeability of the soil and rock in a drainage basin is a big factor in flooding. If the basin’s soil
is impermeable, maybe because it has been saturated by previous rainfall or has been baked by
prolonged heating, then any precipitation that falls won’t infiltrate and will instead run straight into
the river, increasing the river’s discharge and triggering floods. Similarly, if the rocks in the area are
non-porous or impermeable (such as granite or clay) then water won’t be able to infiltrate into the
rocks and will, again, run straight off into the river increasing its discharge.
 The vegetation cover in a basin will affect flooding. If a basin has very dense vegetation cover, the
vegetation will intercept precipitation and store it, reducing the volume of water entering a river.
Conversely, if a basin is sparsely vegetated then there will be no interception and so more water will
enter a river. Vegetation helps bind soil too. With no vegetation, the soil is highly susceptible to
mass wasting which can cause large volumes of soil to enter a river and reduce the river’s capacity.
 The relief and steepness of the basin affects how quickly water enters a river and so how likely a
river is to flood. If the river’s valley has steep sides, water will quickly enter a river increasing the
river’s discharge.
 The number of tributaries flowing into a river affects the likelihood of floods. If a river has a lot of
tributaries, the river’s discharge will be much higher because lots of water will be entering it from its
tributaries. After heavy precipitation, the discharge will rise even more and floods are likely,
especially at confluences (where a tributary meets the river) as this is where discharge is highest.

Human Factors

 If a river’s drainage basin or floodplain has been heavily urbanised, a river becomes much more
prone to flooding. Urbanisation (generally) involves the laying down of tarmac and concrete,
impermeable substances that will increase surface runoff into the river and therefore increase the
river’s discharge.
 Urbanisation often involves deforestation. This (obviously) reduces vegetation cover, reducing
infiltration and increasing surface runoff into a river.
 To stop roads and streets from flooding, humans will often build storm drains that collect rainwater
and channel it into a river or stream. Stupid/cheap humans will often send this water to the local river
or stream so, although roads and streets won’t be flooded by rainwater the entire town will be as the
rainwater enters the river much faster than it would without the storm drains.

Climate change is a physical factor that could, potentially, be a human factor. Changes in the climate mean
that certain areas are going to experience more frequent and more intense storms that can lead to large floods.
Whether this is a human factor is debatable as, while climate change is definitely happening, whether it’s the
result of human activity is still uncertain. We’re probably not helping but keep in mind that the planet’s
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climate would be changing regardless of humanity’s existence because at this moment in time, we’re still in
the tail end of an ice age.

The Effects of Flooding

Flooding can have numerous social, economic and environmental effects that can vary depending on the
demographics of a population and the economic development of an area.

Social Effects

The biggest, most obvious effect is death. Floods, especially flash floods, will kill people. Flood water can
travel surprisingly quickly and weighs3 a lot, so people can easily get swept away by floods. Large chunks of
debris and objects like cars can easily get picked up by floodwater and can easily kill a person should they
get hit by the debris. In a LEDC, you’re generally going to get much more deaths than you would in a
MEDC. In a MEDC, people and governments are better prepared for floods. Rescue services can be
dispatched to a flood quickly in a MEDC whereas in a LEDC, rescue teams mightn’t arrive until several
hours after the flood started.

During a flood, sewage pipes are often broken and raw sewage leaks into the floodwater. This has two
effects. First, it contaminates not just floodwater but drinking water too which leads to a spread of
waterborne diseases such as cholera especially in LEDCs where emergency drinking water mightn’t be
available. Second, the sewage gets into people’s homes which is just horrible, disgusting and incredibly
difficult to clean.

In LEDCs, famines can follow floods which can lead to even more deaths. Floods will commonly inundate
farmland because farmland normally develops on floodplains. If the floodwater is polluted by sewage, it will
contaminate the farmland and make any food grown on it dangerous to eat. Furthermore, cattle are often
killed by floods which can lead to people starving because they either don’t have a source of food or don’t
have a source of income to buy food with.

Economic Effects

The big economic effect of a flood is property damage. Water can cause a lot of damage to property and
when it picks up large chunks of debris such as cars, it can act like a wrecking ball, taking out chunks of
buildings when cars crash into them. Very large and powerful floods can even dislodge buildings from their
foundations and move them. In a MEDC, property damage is often extensive as people have lots of
expensive possessions. This isn’t the case in LEDCs but that’s only because people don’t have a lot to lose in
the first place. This means that the overall cost of a flood is generally substantially higher in a MEDC than in
a LEDC.

Floods can cause extensive damage to infrastructure such as power lines, roads, water pipes etc. Bridges
frequently collapse during a flood as they aren’t designed to withstand the high discharge of the river. The
Northside Bridge in Workington, Cumbria collapsed when there were large floods in 2009. Repairing bridges
and other types of infrastructure is very costly. Not only this, it can lead to a decline in the local economy as
businesses are unable to operate without power or road connections. Unemployment can even increase if
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businesses are unable to fully recover from a flood. The economic impact of infrastructure damage and
unemployment is larger in MEDCs since these countries have modern and expensive infrastructure in place.
In LEDCs, this infrastructure is lacking, so there isn’t much economic damage. In fact, in a LEDC, floods
can lead to positive economic effects in the long term. An influx of funding to a less developed area from
charities and NGOs after a flood can result in new infrastructure being constructed that is substantially better
than the previously existing infrastructure. This, in turn, creates new economic opportunities in an area by,
for example, creating new trade routes.

Another economic benefit comes from when a river floods and deposits sediment across the floodplain. This
improves the fertility of the floodplain and can improve agricultural yield in an area (assuming the
floodwater wasn’t polluted).

Environmental Effects

Floodwater that is contaminated with sewage will pollute rivers and land when it drains back into the river.
Similarly, if the river floods onto farmland, the water can be polluted by pesticides and other chemicals
sprayed onto the farmland that, when drained back into the river, can pollute it and kill off wildlife that
inhabits the river. If the floodwater isn’t polluted though, flooding can create wetlands that can help
introduce new habitats for many species of animals.

The Recurrence Interval

The recurrence interval is a way of measuring the frequency of a flood of a specific size occurring. The
accuracy of the recurrence interval is dependent on the amount of historical data available about previous
floods. The recurrence interval tells you how many years you’d expect to have between a flood of a certain
size. In general, a large flood has a large recurrence interval so it isn’t very frequent. A small flood will have
a smaller and more frequent recurrence interval. The recurrence interval can be calculated using the
following formula4:

T=n+1m

T is the recurrence interval, n is the number of years on record and m is the ranking of the flood relative to all
the other floods on record for a specific river.

For example, a flood with a discharge of 200m3s-1 occurred at some point in the river’s past. Out of a data set
spanning 199 years5, this flood was the 2nd largest in terms of discharge. Using the formula, this means that a
flood of this size is expected to occur once every 100 years (199+12). We’d describe it as a 1 in 100 year
flood.

Of course, this doesn’t mean that a flood of this size won’t occur for another 100 years. It just means that
statistically it won’t. More than anything, the recurrence interval is a nice way of describing a complicated
topic using simple Maths. At the end of the day though, the recurrence interval raises more questions than it
answers because after a big flood all the newspapers say that it was a 1 in 300 hundred year flood and
everybody feels safe that a big flood won’t affect them for another 300 years and then the river goes and
floods again the next year and everybody’s all “But it wasn’t supposed to flood for another 300 years” and
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then somebody explains that that’s just an average and really the river can flood at anytime. People don’t like
that sort of unpredictability though, so they’ll just blame the scientists/statisticians and say they got it wrong.

The point I’m trying to get at is that the recurrence interval isn’t the most useful thing in the world because
it’s just an average and averages can (and often do) have anomalies. There’s nothing to stop a river having a
1 in 1000 year flood and then doing the same the next day. The other problem with the recurrence interval is
that it’s based on past data. Rivers are dynamic beasts, they change and when they change, so does how they
flood. While the recurrence interval’s accuracy increases as you add more data, the reliability decreases
because the river’s flooding patterns will have changed over time.

Flooding in a MEDC - 2004 Boscastle Floods

On the 16th of August, 2004, the small town of Boscastle was almost completely destroyed in the space of
just two hours when a 1 in 400 year flash flood occurred at around 3pm and inundated most of the town.

Location

Boscastle is located in southwest England less than a kilometre from the coastline. The River Valency flows
directly through the town and meets the River Jordan at a confluence in the town. The river valleys are steep
and composed of shale, an impermeable rock.

The approximate location of Boscastle in the UK.

The topography of the Boscastle area and the courses of the River Valency and the River Jordan.

Causes

 A combination of the remnants of Hurricane Alex and convectional rainfall triggered by the intense
heating of the ground by the summer heat led to heavy rainfall over the south of England. In two
hours over 60mm of rain fell in Boscastle and by the end of the flood, nearly 200mm had fallen.
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 The rain fell over Bodmin Moor, an area composed of impermeable shale that is has sparse
vegetation cover. This increased surface runoff due to a lack of both infiltration and interception,
increasing the volume of water entering the River Valency and its tributaries.
 The River Valency’s valley has a high relief and steep sides so surface runoff was increased.
 The ground had been saturated by previous rainfall, reducing infiltration and increasing surface
runoff.
 The River’s floodplain had been urbanised reducing infiltration and increasing surface runoff.
 The River Valency had a confluence with the River Jordan directly in Boscastle leading to huge
volumes of water flowing through the town when both river’s discharge increased.
 As the River Valency flowed through Boscastle, its channel had been walled off preventing it from
adjusting to the increased discharge and limiting its efficiency, ultimately causing it flood.

Effects

Economic

 Insurance claims came in between £15,000 and £30,000 per property. There was the potential for
insurance prices to rise as a result of the flood but this was unlikely because of the rarity of a flood of
this scale.
 Businesses were badly damaged with property destroyed or filled with silt, sewage and debris.
 One of the main sources of income in Boscastle was tourism. After the events of the flood, people
were less willing to travel to Boscastle because of the (low) risk of another flood occurring.
 76 cars were washed out to sea because of the low lying nature of the town’s car park.
 The “lower bridge” was badly damaged when debris blocked it and water pooled behind it. When the
temporary dam finally gave, a 3m wave was released that caused even more damage to buildings
downstream of the bridge.

Social

 Nobody was killed thanks to the rescue efforts but some people suffered from broken bones &
hypothermia.
 Houses were flooded and silt, sewage & debris was deposited inside of them.
 Water & power supplies were taken out during the flood.

Environmental

 Raw sewage was washed out to sea and into the River Valency.
 75 cars & 6 buildings were washed out to sea.

Short Term Responses

 A flood warning was issued for parts of Cornwall at 3:30pm but Boscastle wasn’t specifically
warned.
 Just a few hours after the river flooded, a search and rescue operation was underway which lasted
until 2:30am the next day. Over 150 people were saved by search and rescue operations.
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 11 Days after the flood people were allowed to return to their homes to salvage their belongings.
Living in their homes wasn’t really viable at this stage.
 Prince Charles visited the town 2 days after the flood and donated a large sum of money to the town.
 A few days after the flood, geologists flew over the area to assess the risk of landslides triggered by
the heavy rain.
 North Cornwall Council provided accommodation for 11 tourists who were unable to return home
after the flood. The night after the disaster, 100 people used the Camelford leisure centre as a refuge.

Long Term Responses

 Reconstruction didn’t begin until 2005 as the council waited on a report from hydrologists to
determine the recurrence interval of the flood.
 By early 2005, power and water was back up.
 The council invested money into improving Boscastle’s flood defences and the Environmental
Agency also built new flood defences. In 2006, the channel was widened and deepened to increase
its capacity and ability to handle sudden increases in discharge. In 2007, these defences were put to
the test and a much smaller, more controlled flood occurred.
 The remains of the “lower bridge” that triggered a 3m wave were demolished and replaced with a
larger bridge that would be more difficult to block with debris.
 The effects of the flood caused people in Boscastle to take their environmental footprint far more
seriously because they were led to believe that climate change exacerbated by human activity was
responsible for the “freak weather” that caused the river to flood. When buildings were
reconstructed, they were done so in an environmentally friendly manner with insulation, double
glazing etc. being installed in the new buildings. The town won 5 awards for its eco-friendliness.

Flooding in a LICs - 2008 Bihar Floods [India]

During the months of August and September in 2008 there was a long period of heavy rainfall along the
foothills of the Himalayas. The rainfall ultimately led to widespread floods in Bihar, an Indian state, that
made millions homeless and claimed the lives of hundreds of people.

Location

Bihar is located in the north east of India, to the south of the Himalayas bordering Nepal. It is one of the
poorest states in India where the caste class system, despite its lack of legality, is still in widespread use. In
Bihar, 42% of the population lives below the poverty line. Through Bihar flows the Kosi River, a tributary to
the Ganges.

Causes

Monsoon season in India occurs in the late summer months and is caused by the seasonal reversal of winds in
the area. The monsoon brought heavy rainfall to the foothills of the Himalayas and dramatically increased the
discharge of the Kosi. The river was forced to flow into a channel that it hadn’t flown through in over 100
years. In doing so, it flooded a large portion of Bihar.
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The flooding was worsened by the deforestation that had taken place in the Kosi River’s drainage basin. The
lack of vegetation cover meant that rain water wasn’t intercepted and easily flowed into the river via surface
runoff.

The Kosi River had flood defences that were supposed to handle approximately 30,000m3 of water per
second7 but were breached at a fraction of that capacity suggesting that the defences were defective or poorly
maintained.

A map of Bihar showing the major rivers flowing through the state. The Kosi River is highlighted in bright
blue.

Effects

Social

 The flood killed 500-2000 people. Figures vary because government figures don’t include missing
people while figures from aid agencies do.
 3 million people were made homeless and sent to refugee camps.
 A shortage of clean drinking water and the warm climate meant that water born and vector diseases
were easily spread.
 Shortages of food and emergency grain quickly developed. 70% of Bihar’s population are farmers,
many of which are subsistence farmers. When 100,000 Ha of land was flooded, most of their food
was destroyed.
 There were allegations of discrimination when it came to evacuating people. It was claimed that the
rich were evacuated first and given the most emergency food while some members of the
“untouchables” (the lowest class in the caste system and Hindu society) weren’t evacuated at all.

Economic

 70% of Bihar’s population are farmers and 100,000 Ha of land was inundated by floodwater,
destroying wheat and rice that could be traded.
 Roads were destroyed, costing money to repair and disrupting trade.
 The disaster ended up costing nearly $542 million according to some reports.

Environmental

 The flood will have washed sewage and pollutants into the Kosi River, polluting it and killing off
some wildlife.

Short Term Responses

 The Indian government created a £115m relief package to be sent to Bihar.

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 The government released 125,000 tonnes of emergency grain that was to be distributed in Bihar.
Allegations that the grain wasn’t evenly distributed arose though, with members of the lower class of
Indian society being left with minimal amounts of grain while the upper classes received most of the
grain.
 400,000 people were evacuated to relief camps.
 1,500 soldiers were sent to help rescue citizens and disperse aid. Helicopters were also provided but
were limited in their effectiveness due to the continued heavy rain.
 Aid agencies were dispatched to Bihar and were especially important in ensuring that the lower
classes of society were given aid. Aid agencies provided rescue efforts, food, clean water supplies
and shelter.

Long Term Responses

 The World Bank gave significant funds to help Bihar recover and rebuild after the disaster. It also
helped in creating plans to help improve the quality of living to standards above those seen before
the disaster.
 An “Owner Driven Housing Reconstruction” scheme was created, funded by the World Bank, to
give money to homeowners to rebuild their homes using bamboo, bricks, corrugated iron & concrete.
Each household was given $1,200 for the reconstruction with $50 going towards a toilet and $110
towards solar powered lighting. The scheme also gave $110 to households that did not own their own
land so that they could go out and buy some.
 New bridges and roads were constructed to a higher standard than those that had previously been
constructed. When the plan to reconstruct infrastructure was laid out, it was expected that 90 bridges
and 290km of road would be reconstructed, benefiting 2 million people.
 New flood defences were constructed and people were educated on how to maintain them. It was
estimated to cost $500 million to build new embankments, strengthen existing embankments,
improve flood management and improve flood prediction technologies.

Flood Management

Rivers, especially big ones, can cause a lot of mayhem. When they flood, they destroy livelihoods, cause
economic damage and kill people. It’s no surprise then that humans, being the clever creatures that we are,
try and stop rivers from flooding using whatever resources we have. Unfortunately, rivers, like most things in
nature, are powerful & unpredictable. Stopping rivers from flooding full stop isn’t possible but we can do a
lot to mitigate and manage the risks that arise from flooding.

Flood management strategies generally involve multiple engineering projects that can fall under one of two
categories. Hard engineering projects are ones that involve the construction of artificial structures that,
through a combination of science, technology and a bit of brute force, prevent a river from flooding. Soft
engineering projects are the opposite. These projects use natural resources and local people’s knowledge of
the river to reduce the risk posed by a flood.

Each type of project has its advantages and disadvantages. Hard engineering projects are generally very
successful and have a large impact on the river. This is one of their downfalls though as the effects of a hard
engineering project can disrupt ecological systems in the drainage basin. Hard engineering techniques
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generally involve the containment of large volumes of water so if they were to fail for some reason, the
impacts could be many times worse than if the river had been allowed to flood naturally. There’s also the
high cost, technological requirements & maintenance of hard engineering projects that makes them
unfeasible in countries without significant economic resources.

Soft engineering projects focus more on reducing the impacts of a flood rather than preventing one. The
biggest advantage of soft engineering is cost. Soft engineering projects are significantly cheaper than hard
engineering projects making them more suitable for less developed countries. They also have lower
education & technology requirements so they can be implemented by local people in remote parts of poor
countries.

Soft engineering projects are more sustainable than their hard engineering counterparts. Soft engineering
projects are low maintenance and low cost unlike hard engineering projects. In addition, they don’t disturb
the natural processes and ecological systems in a river basin instead choosing to integrate with them and in
some cases improve them.

Hard Engineering Techniques

Dams

Dams are the classic hard engineering solution to flooding problems. A dam is a giant wall built across a
river’s channel to impede its flow. Water builds up behind the dam and forms a reservoir which can then be
steadily drained at a controlled rate over time. This helps keep discharge downstream of the dam low even
during prolonged heavy rainfall.

Besides being highly effective at reducing the risk of flooding, dams can also be used to generate
hydroelectric power that can bring economic benefits to an area by attracting manufacturing factories or
being exported to other countries. The reservoir that develops behind a dam can be used as a drinking source
or for leisure activities.

Despite these benefits, dams have some damn big (so sorry) problems. Dams are among the most expensive
of all hard engineering techniques and require access to lots of raw materials like concrete and steel. They
also have a huge impact on the local environment. The area behind a dam has to be flooded which destroys
habitats and forces people out of their homes. Dams disrupt the processes that take place within a river too
by, for example, preventing sediment from being transported downstream. This can result in landforms
like deltas being destroyed which can in turn result in the destruction of more habitats. When sediment gets
trapped behind a dam, it can change the chemical composition of the water behind the dam which can kill
aquatic animals living upstream.

Dams pose a huge risk too. They store thousands of litres of water behind them so if they were to fail, they’d
cause widespread death and damage downstream as all the water is released at once.

(Artificial) Levées
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Artificial levées are, well, artificial versions of their natural counterparts. They act as embankments,
essentially extending the channel’s height and increasing its bankful discharge. Unlike natural levées,
artificial levées are significantly larger and are generally constructed out of a material like concrete that is
resistant to erosion. The main advantage of an artificial levée is that it allows the floodplain to be built on.
This is their downfall though as they encourage the development of the floodplain which can increase the
risk of flooding. Furthermore, if they did fail, like the embankments along the Mississippi did in 19271, the
damage from the flood would be far worse than if the embankments didn’t exist.

Wing Dykes

Wing dykes are slats that are placed in a river’s channel at ~90˚ to the banks. Generally they’ll be placed in
pairs on either side of the channel with a gap between them that allows boats to pass through them. Behind
dykes, sediment builds up and the channel is narrowed, forcing water to flow faster. This helps reduce the
risk of flooding by getting water away from an area at risk of flooding as quickly as possible, preventing a
build up of water. They also aid navigation greatly. While wing dykes reduce the risk of flooding in one area,
downstream of a river they can increase the risk of flooding making them only useful in sparsely populated
areas.

Channel Straightening

This technique kind of speaks for itself. By blocking off meanders and constructing alternate, straighter
routes across meanders, the river starts to flow faster. Like with wing dykes, this moves water through the
river faster preventing it from pooling and so reducing the risk of a flood. A straightened channel is faster to
navigate too, a nice benefit of channel straightening.

Like with wing dykes, this technique has several problems. Downstream of a straightened section of a
channel, flooding becomes more likely. In addition, erosion is stronger downstream because the river has a
lot more kinetic energy.

Diversion Spillways

Diversion spillways are artificial channels that a river can flow into when its discharge rises. These channels
move water around an area at risk of flooding and send it either back into the river (but further downstream)
or into another river. Spillways generally have floodgates on them that can be used to control the volume of
water in the spillway.

Spillways pose a threat to areas near the confluence between the spillway and whichever river it flows into as
the discharge here will be increased and so too will the risk of flooding. In addition, the path that spillways
take can take water around areas not usually used to flooding. If the spillway was to fail for some reason, this
could cause widespread damage.

Soft Engineering Techniques

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Floodplain Zoning

Floodplain zoning involves placing restrictions on land usage in the areas surrounding a river. Essentially,
construction is unlimited outside of the floodplain but the floodplain itself is limited to the construction of
public outdoor facilities like playing fields and parks. This has several effects in reducing the risk and impact
of flooding. Obviously if no one is allowed to build on a floodplain then the damage caused by the river
flooding will be greatly reduced because there isn’t much to damage. In addition, floodplain zoning ensures
that land on the floodplain isn’t urbanised so infiltration can occur and surface run off is reduced. This
reduces the likelihood of a river flooding.

The problem with floodplain zoning is that it limits development to certain areas. In addition, if a floodplain
has already been developed on, there isn’t anything that can be done to un-develop it without forcing people
off of the floodplain.

Afforestation

Afforestation involves the planting of trees in a drainage basin to increase interception and storage while
reducing surface run off. This reduces a river’s discharge and so makes it less likely to flood. Afforestation
also prevents mass wasting which reduces the amount of soil entering the river and keeps the river’s capacity
high. When combined with floodplain zoning, afforestation can be very effective at reducing the risk of
flooding.

Afforestation has the benefit of creating new habitats for animals and improving water quality by filtering
pollutants out of rainwater. The issue with afforestation is that it requires quite a lot of space to be effective
and could prove unpopular among famers on the floodplain as they won’t be too happy with trees sapping
nutrients from the soil. This issue can be combated somewhat by creating riparian buffers, thin vegetated
strips of land that run adjacent to a river’s channel.

Wetland Restoration

Wetland restoration involves creating conditions that are favourable for the development of wetlands
(marshes or swamps). Wetlands are able to store large volumes of water which helps to reduce the discharge
in a river. Wetlands don’t reduce flooding where they are located but rather downstream of the river. They
have the added benefit of creating new habitats for animals and greatly increasing biodiversity. They reduce
the area of land available for farming though which makes them unpopular among farmers.

River Restoration

River restoration involves restoring a river that has undergone hard engineering back to its original course.
This can involve un-straightening a channel, removing artificial levees, diversion spillways & wing dykes.
This may seem silly as it is going to reintroduce flooding back in the area where these structures were located
but, if this land is no longer valuable, river restoration can help reduce the risk of flooding downstream.