Basic Concepts

Straight and Level

This lesson should start with you asking the It is also an important lesson because it shows
student what they did in the last lesson, what the interrelation of a number of variables, such
do they remember, and determining if they as power, airspeed, pitch and yaw.
have remembered correctly. The lesson should initially cover configuring
We must be able to fly the aeroplane in a straight straight and level flight at a constant airspeed
line, on a constant heading and at a constant and then maintaining it. It is followed by regaining
altitude. Maintaining a constant altitude requires a straight and level after a disturbance and finally
constant attitude and a constant heading requires straight and level at different airspeeds and
the aeroplane to be wings level and in balance. power settings.
This is the first exercise in coordination for It is critical that the student understands that
the student, and it is very important that they straight and level is achieved by referencing
understand, and can then demonstrate, how the aeroplane’s attitude with the horizon, and
the controls they learnt about in the previous then checked by reference to the aeroplane’s
Effect of Controls lesson are used to achieve and instruments. Use a moveable ‘windscreen view’
maintain a constant heading, constant altitude, to show the correct attitude for straight and
constant airspeed, and in balance. level flight.

Figure 1 Principles of Flight

In VFR flight, flying straight and level should only
be accomplished with reference to the horizon.
Define the horizon for the student and explain
how the horizon can be identified if it is not visible,
for example with hills or weather in the way.

The Four Forces

The four forces acting on the aeroplane should
be explained.
Weight
Acts straight down through the centre of gravity.

Objectives Lift
Is produced by the wings and acts upwards
To establish and maintain straight through the centre of pressure.
and level flight, at a constant Thrust
airspeed, constant altitude, in a Is provided by the engine through the propeller.
constant direction, and in balance. Drag
Is the resistance to motion felt by all bodies within
To regain straight and level flight. the atmosphere.
Equilibrium requires a constant airspeed and
To maintain straight and level constant direction (the combination of these is
flight at selected airspeeds or velocity). A constant direction is maintained by the
power settings. wings being level and the aeroplane in balance.
2 Basic Concepts: Straight and Level

Equilibrium is achieved when lift = weight and Any further imbalance between the couples, as a
thrust = drag. result of weight or airspeed changes for example,
Describe how the arrangement of these forces are compensated for by the elevator.
forms couples. Lift acts through its centre of
pressure and is slightly behind the centre Lift
of gravity, where weight acts (small moment Lift is generated by air flowing faster over the
arm), creating a nose-down pitching couple. top surface of the wing, compared with air
The comparative size of the lift and weight forces flowing under the wing. Air is made to flow faster
to thrust and drag forces should be discussed. by shaping the top surface – called camber.
For general aviation aeroplanes the lift/drag ratio The formula for lift is:
is said to be about 10:1. Your diagram should
reflect this ratio approximately – a picture is worth L = CL ½ ρ V 2 S
a thousand words.
Where,
Figure 2 CL is the co-efficient of lift (angle of attack)
½ is a constant
ρ (rho) is the density of the air
V is the airspeed, and
S is the surface area of the wing.
The two elements the pilot can easily control are
airspeed and angle of attack, so in essence;

L = angle of attack x airspeed

Angle of attack (α) is the angle between
the relative airflow and the chordline of the
aeroplane’s wing.

Figure 3
The ideal arrangement is for the thrust line to
be well below the drag line. This provides a large
moment arm to compensate for the smaller
forces of thrust and drag, and creates a nose-up
couple that balances the nose-down couple of lift
and weight.
In the previous lesson Effect of Controls, the
student saw the pitch change when power was
increased and decreased. The arrangement of
these couples is the reason for the pitch changes. The most efficient angle of attack is
A decrease in power will pitch the nose down into approximately 4 degrees, but as no angle-of-
a descent, without pilot input, and an increase in attack indicator is fitted to light aeroplanes, the
power will pitch the nose up. airspeed is used as a guide to the aeroplane’s
angle of attack.
In practice, getting the thrust and drag lines
separated far enough to balance the lift/weight In order to keep lift constant, any change in the
couple is not possible. Therefore, the tailplane angle of attack must be matched by a change in
is set at an angle of attack that will provide a the airspeed. For example if airspeed increases,
down force on the tailplane in level flight, which less angle of attack is required to maintain a
combined with the large moment arm, balances constant lift. A decrease in airspeed will require
the forces. an increase in the angle of attack to maintain
constant lift and consequently altitude.
 Basic Concepts: Straight and Level 3

Performance
Introduce the concept of
Air Exercise
Identify the horizon, and what attitude is required
relative to the horizon, with the appropriate power
Power + Attitude = Performance setting, to establish and maintain straight and
Power is set by reference to rpm – use the level flight.
organisation’s recommended rpm setting for
training flights, in the example below we Power + Attitude = Performance
have used 2200 rpm. (2200) (four fingers) (straight and level)
The attitude will depend on the aeroplane type,
With the use of the ‘windscreen view’ show
in this example we will use four fingers below
the attitude in the correct position as well as
the horizon.
in the too low and too high positions.
In this case the performance we want is a
constant altitude, direction and airspeed – straight Establish Straight and Level
and level. Establishing straight and level flight is achieved
by using the mnemonic PAT.
Power + Attitude = Performance
(2200) (four fingers) (straight and level) P Power
Set the power for selected (normal) straight
and level performance.

Airmanship A Attitude
Discuss the lateral boundaries of the training The attitude for straight and level is made
area and the importance of managing the flight up of three elements.
to remain within them.
Revise ‘I have control – you have control.’
Elevator Set the nose attitude – for
level (eg, four fingers)

Aeroplane Management Aileron Wings are level relative to the

Stress the importance of smooth but positive horizon – for straight
control movements. Rudder In balance – for straight
Operation of the mixture control has been
explained in the previous lesson. During initial If a constant direction is not being maintained
training, as a result of regular altitude and power on the reference point (and the DI should
changes, the mixture is normally left in the full confirm this) either the wings are not level,
rich position. or the aeroplane is out of balance, or both.
Revise why carburettor heat is set to HOT at Balance is confirmed with the balance ball
power settings below (commonly the indicator. The method used to achieve balance
green arc or 1900–2000 rpm). is ‘stand on the ball’. If the ball is out to the
left, increased pressure on the left rudder
pedal is required. This is a pressure increase,
Human Factors more than a movement and ‘stand’ implies
continued pressure. Once the ball has been
Review the visual limitations discussed in the last
lesson and how blind spots effect a good lookout. centred, reducing pressure will allow it to
move out again.
There is a lot of information for the student
to absorb in the early lessons, so reassure the
student that there will be plenty of time to master
these skills.
4 Basic Concepts: Straight and Level

The aeroplane is kept in balance to not only Regaining Straight and Level
keep the aeroplane flying straight, but also 1. Check the airspeed, and the power setting –
for best efficiency by keeping the drag to set the correct power setting. If the airspeed
a minimum and achieving the best airspeed. is decreasing, increase power, if the airspeed is
If the correct level attitude has been selected increasing, decrease power.
the airspeed will be about knots. 2. Check the nose attitude – set the attitude for
If the correct power setting is maintained straight and level
the aeroplane will maintain altitude, and if 3. Check the wings are level and the ball is in the
the wings are level and balance maintained middle – level the wings, centre the ball
the aeroplane cannot turn. Therefore, the
objective to fly at a constant airspeed, 4. Reset the power after making any changes
constant altitude, constant direction, and to the attitude
in balance is achieved. 5. Check PAT (power, attitude, trim)
For small altitude adjustments of less than
T Trim 150 feet, the attitude is altered with elevator, and
Take the time to teach this thoroughly, make when the desired altitude is regained the correct
sure the student relieves all of the control level attitude is set, held and trimmed. For bigger
pressures so that their hands can come off altitude adjustments power is usually altered.
the controls and the aeroplane remains level.
Straight and Level at Different Airspeeds
Maintaining Straight and Level
and Power Settings
Maintaining straight and level is achieved by using
the mnemonic LAI. Power + Attitude = Performance
L Lookout It should be emphasised that every time power
In a scan loop ahead, look out to the left and or airspeed is altered, a change in rudder pressure
scan 20 degrees for 2 seconds from left to will be required to maintain balance. Therefore,
right, passing over the nose of the aeroplane. during those phases of flight where power or
airspeed are changing, rudder will need to be
A Attitude applied to maintain balance. In addition, when
Ensure the attitude is correct relative to the rudder is being used to centre the ball, the wings
horizon and, more importantly, constant. must be held laterally level with aileron.
List the various power, airspeed and attitude
I Instruments required to maintain straight and level flight.
Used to confirm accurate flight – not set An example is shown below.
it. From right to left the instruments are
scanned, and this brings the scan back to the Power 2200 1800 2500
left side of the aeroplane and the process Airspeed 80–90 60 knots 110 knots
starts again. knots
During the instrument scan, only those Attitude Normal High Low
instruments important to the phase of flight are
read. In this case the altimeter will probably be As can be seen, a high power setting means a
scanned on every sweep, with oil pressure and higher airspeed, requiring a lower nose attitude.
temperature scanned every 10th sweep. Conversely a low power setting means a low
airspeed, requiring a higher nose attitude.
 Basic Concepts: Straight and Level 5

Airborne Sequence You should then give the student some practise
at regaining straight and level by disturbing the
On the Ground aeroplane in roll, pitch, trim and power.
Show the student the preflight inspection again, Demonstrate the lookout technique, outside
and have them follow you through, pointing out and inside.
what they would be looking for.
Once the student is comfortable with regaining
• Make sure the student’s seat is properly straight and level, demonstrate the different
adjusted. power settings, and corresponding airspeed
• Talk the student through the engine start up. and attitudes, required for straight and level
flight. Finish by letting them practise returning
• Revise taxiing.
to straight and level flight by changing the power,
• Talk the student through the checks. adjusting the attitude and remaining in balance.
On the return to the aerodrome, point out
The Exercise the local landmarks again, and show them the
Have the student follow you through with
descending attitude, ready for the next lesson.
the takeoff, and once safely airborne hand
over control to the student, showing them the
After Flight
climb attitude and reference point you want
Debrief the student.
them to hold.
Next lesson will be Climbing and Descending,
On the way out to the training area teach
they may want to do further reading on this, and
the horizon concepts and point out the local
ask them to think about the attitudes for climbing
landmarks.
and descending they saw in this lesson.
Establish the aeroplane in straight and level.
Point out the horizon to the student – let them
note the attitude when level. Demonstrate an
attitude that is too high and an attitude that is
too low.
Configure the aeroplane, using PAT, in
straight and level flight at normal cruising power.
Once the student has recognised the attitude, and
noted that the wings are level and the aeroplane
is in balance, hand over control.
Talk the student through establishing straight and
level using PAT and maintaining straight and level
using LAI.
Make minor deviations away from straight and
level and talk them through regaining it.
Show the student the effect of a marked
imbalance. They should be able to ‘feel’ that the
aeroplane is out of balance. Then show a slight
imbalance. This is much harder for them to ‘feel’
or detect, and that is why the balance ball is used
to correct slight imbalances. Show them how to
correct for an imbalance.