MATERIALS SCIENCE

Unit-III
Ques. Write a short note on: (a) Low carbon steel, (b) Medium carbon steel, (c) High
carbon steel (d) HSLA steel, (e) Stainless steel, (f) Tool and die steel
 METAL ALLOYS cont.
Carbon steels
• carbon and alloy steels are the most commonly used metal alloys.
• structural makeup and controlled processing of these steels make them suitable
for many different functions.
• basic product shapes include plate, sheet, bar, wire, tube, castings, and forgings.
• increasing % of alloying elements in steels, imparts specific properties such as
hardenability, strength, hardness, toughness, wear resistance, etc. (different
elements are added to give different properties).
• some properties are beneficial while others are detrimental.
• also known as plain carbon steels.
• group by % of carbon content (weight basis).
• higher the carbon content greater the hardness, strength and wear resistance after
heat treatment.
• soft, tough, easily machined, welded & case hardened.
• types:
➢ Low-carbon steel (mild steels)
➢ Medium-carbon steel
➢ High-carbon steel
 METAL ALLOYS cont.
Low carbon steels
Low carbon steels: Of all the different steels, production of this category is the
highest; possess the following characteristics/features;
(1) C content: less than about 0.25 wt%.
(2) Response to heat treatment: unresponsive to heat treatments intended to form
martensite.
(3) Strengthening process: strengthening is accomplished by cold work.
(4) Microstructure: consists of ferrite and pearlite constituents.
(5) Typical properties: relatively soft and weak (YS: upto ~ 275 MPs, TS: upto ~
550 MPs), outstanding ductility and toughness (~ 25% EL); in addition, they are
machinable, weldable.
(6) Typical applications: automobile body shapes, structural shapes (I-beams,
channel and angle iron), and sheets are used in pipelines, buildings, bridges, cans
etc.
Of all the steels, this category is the least expensive to produce.
 METAL ALLOYS cont.
Low carbon steels cont.
Composition and mechanical properties of some Plain Low C Steels.

Type: UNS C, Mn, Cu, Si, TS, YS, % Typical

AISI/ Numbe wt% wt% wt% wt% MPa MPa EL, Application
SAE/ r (50m
ASTM m)
Number
1010 G10100 0.10 0.45 - - 325 180 28 Automobile,
panels, nails, wire
1020 G10200 0.20 0.45 - - 380 205 25 Pipe; structural
and sheet steel
A36 K02600 0.29 1.00 0.20 - 400 220 23 Structural
(min) (bridges and
buildings)
A516 K02700 0.31 1.00 - 0.25 485 260 21 Low temperature
grade 70 pressure vessels.
 METAL ALLOYS cont.
High strength, low alloy (HSLA) steels
High strength low alloy (HSLA) steels: Another group of low-carbon alloys;
possess the following characteristics/features;
(1) C content: less than about 0.25 wt%. In addition has alloying elements such as Cu,
V, Ni, and Mo, in combined concentrations as high as 10%.
(2) Response to heat treatment: responds favorably to heat treatment.
(3) Strengthening process: strengthening by heat treatment and also by cold work.
(4) Typical properties: relatively stronger than plain-C-steels (YS: in excess of 280
MPs, TS: in excess of 480 MPs), still good ductility and toughness (~ 20% EL); they
are formable and machinable.
(5) Typical applications: automobile body shapes, structural shapes (I-beams, channel
and angle iron), and sheets are used in pipelines, buildings, bridges, cans etc.
In normal atmosphere, the HSLA steels are more resistant to corrosion than plain-C-steels
 METAL ALLOYS cont.
High strength, low alloy (HSLA) steels
Composition and mechanical properties of some HSLA Steels.

Type: UNS C, Mn, Si, V, N, Oth TS, YS, % Typical

AISI/ Numbe wt wt% wt% wt% wt% er, MP MP EL, Application
SAE/ r % wt% a a (50
ASTM m
Number m)
A440 K12810 0.28 1.35 0.30 - - 0.20 435 290 21 Structures
Cu that are
bolted and
riveted
A633 K12002 0.22 1.35 0.30 0.08 0.020 0.03 520 380 23 Structures
Grade E Nb used at low
RT
A656 K11804 0.18 1.60 0.60 0.10 0.015 0.20 655 552 15 Truck
Grade 1 Al frames and
railway cars
 METAL ALLOYS cont.
Medium carbon steels
Medium carbon steels: Used for jobs requiring relatively higher strength;
possess the following characteristics/features;
(1) C content: Between about 0.25 wt% and 0.60 wt%.
(2) Response to heat treatment: Responsive to heat treatments like austenizing,
quenching, and then tempering to improve their mechanical properties.
(3) Strengthening process: (a) The plain-medium-C-steels have low
hardenabilities and can be successfully heat treated only in thin sections and
with very rapid quenching rates; (b) additions of Cr, Ni, Mo improve the capacity
of these alloys to be heat treated, giving rise to a variety of strength-ductile
combinations.
(4) Microstructure: consists of tempered martensite.
(5) Typical properties: These heat treated alloys are stronger than the low-C-
steels, but at a sacrifice of ductility and toughness.
(6) Typical applications: Railway wheels and tracks, gears, crank-shafts, and other
machine parts and high strength structural components calling for a combination
of high strength, wear resistance, and toughness.
These steels are most often used in tempered conditions.
 METAL ALLOYS cont.
Medium carbon steels cont.
Composition ranges of some Plain-C- and Low-Alloy-Steels.
Designations Composition range of alloying elements, wt%
AISI/SAE UNS Ni Cr Mo Others
10xx, plain C G10xx0
11xx, Free mc G11xx0 (Except 11xx and 0.08-0.33 S
12xx, Free mc G12xx0 12xx, S: ‹ 0.04 wt%) 0.10-0.35 S
(Except 12xx, P: ‹ 0.35 wt%) 0.04-0.12 P
13xx G13xx0 (Except 13xx, Mn: ‹ 1 wt%) 1.60-1.90 Mn
40xx G40xx0 0.20-0.30
41xx G41xx0 0.80-1.10 0.15-0.25
43xx G43xx0 1.65-2.00 0.40-0.90 0.20-0.30
46xx G46xx0 0.70-2.00 0.15-0.30
48xx G48xx0 3.25-3.75 0.20-0.30
51xx G51xx0 0.70-1.10
61xx G61xx0 0.50-1.10 0.10-0.15 V
86xx G86xx0 0.40-0.70 0.40-0.60 0.15-0.25
92xx G92xx0 (Except 92xx, Si: 0.15-0.35) 1.80-2.20 Si
 METAL ALLOYS cont.
Medium carbon steels cont.
Typical Application and Mechanical Property Ranges for Oil-Quenched
and Tempered Plain-C- and-Alloy-Steels.
AISI UNS Tensile Yield Ductility, Typical Application
Number Number Strength, Strength, %EL in
MPa MPa 50mm

Plain-Low-Carbon-Steels
1040 G10400 605-780 430-585 33-19 Crank shaft, bolts

1080* G10800 800-1310 480-980 24-13 Chisels, hammers

1095* G10950 760-1280 510-830 26-10 Knives, hack-saw blades

Alloy steels

4063 G40630 786-2380 710-1770 24-4 Springs, hand tools

4340 G43400 980-1960 895-1570 21-11 Bushings, aircraft tubing

6150 G61500 815-2170 745-1860 22-7 Shafts, pistons, gears

* Classified as high-C-steels
 METAL ALLOYS cont.
Medium carbon steels cont.
Typical Stress – Strain Curves for Al, Low-C and Medium-C-Steels
 METAL ALLOYS cont.
High carbon steels and tool & die steels
High carbon steels: These are the hardest, strongest, yet least ductile of the
carbon steels; possess the following characteristics/features;
(1) C content: Between about 0.0.60 wt% and 1.40 wt%.
(2) Response to heat treatment: Always used in a hardened and tempered
condition.
(5) Typical properties: These are, as such, wear resistant and capable of holding a
sharp cutting edge.
The tool and die steels: These are high carbon alloys, usually containing Cr, V,
W and Mo (form very hard and wear-resistant carbide compounds: Cr23C6, V4C3,
WC).
Typical properties: High hardness and strength, impact toughness, wear resistance at
normal and elevated temperatures (used up to 6000C), and corrosion resistance.
Typical applications: These steels are utilized as cutting tools and dies for
forming and shaping materials, as well as in knives, razors, hacksaw blades,
springs, and high-strength wire.

These are specialty steels, therefore, very expensive.

 METAL ALLOYS cont.
High carbon steels
Typical Stress – Strain Curves for Al, Low-C and Medium-C-Steels
 METAL ALLOYS cont.
Tool and die steels
Alloying Elements in Tool Steels & their Effects

Carbon (C) +Strength, +Hardenability, -Toughness

Chromium (Cr) +Strength, +Hardenability, +Corrosion Resistance - Toughness

Molybdenum (Mo) +Strength, +Hardenability, +Toughness, +Hot Hardness

Vanadium (V) +Hardenability, +Toughness, +Hot Hardness, +Wear

Tungsten (W) +Strength, +Hardenability, +Hot Hardness, -Toughness

Cobalt (Co) +Hot Hardness, +Wear, -Toughness

Manganese (Mn) +Strength, +Hardenability, +Toughness

Nickel (Ni) +Hardenability, +Toughness, +Corrosion Resistance

+ increases
- decreases
 METAL ALLOYS cont.
Tool and die steels cont.
Classification of Tool Steels

Tool Steel Class of Alloys Examples (industrial names)

Cold Work W (water W1, W2, W5
hardening)
O (oil hardening) O1, O2, O6, O7
A (air hardening) A2, A4, A6, A7, A8, A9, A10, A11
D (high C & Cr) D2, D3, D4, D5, D7
Shock S S1, S2, S4, S5, S6, S7
Resisting
Hot Work H Chromium types: H10-H19
Tungsten types: H20-H39
Molybdenum types: H40-H59
High M Molybdenum types: M1, M2, M3-1, M3-2,
Speed M4, M6, M7, M10, M33, M34, M36, M41
T Tungsten types: T1, T4, T5, T6, T8, T15
Mold P P6, P20, P21
 METAL ALLOYS cont.
Tool and die steels cont. Classification of Tool Steels cont.
Cold Work Tool Steels
• used at low temperature-sharpness
• include all W, O, A & D class of alloys
• typical applications include cold working operations such as stamping
dies, draw dies, burnishing tools, coining tools and shear blades
Shock Resisting Tool Steels
• used at low temperature-toughness & impact toughness
• include all S class alloys
• toughest tool steels
• typically applications include screw driver blades, shear blades, chisels,
knockout pins, punches, and riveting tools
Hot Work Tool Steels
• used at high temperature-toughness, high resistance to wear & cracking
• include all H class alloys
• typical applications include dies for forging, die casting, heading, piercing,
trimming, extrusion and hot-shear and punching blades
 METAL ALLOYS cont.
Tool and die steels cont.
Classification of Tool Steels cont.
High Speed Tool Steels
•used at high temperature-sharpness
•Include M1 to M52, T1 to T15 class of alloys
•can be hardened to 62-67 RC and can maintain it in service temperatures as
high as 540°C, making them very useful in high-speed machinery
•typical applications include end mills, drills, lathe tools, planar tools,
punches, reamers, routers, taps, saws, broaches, chasers and hobs
Cast Steels (Crucible Steels)
• term originally applied to crucible steel (sometimes used to describe tool
steels, which is misleading)
• fine variety of steel, originally made by smelting blister or cementation
steel & pouring molten steel into moulds
• manufacture is essentially a refining process, which is dependent on pre-
existing furnace products
• Cannot be subjected to further forging or rolling
 METAL ALLOYS cont.
Tool and die steels cont.
Designations, Compositions, and Applications of six Tool Steels.
Designations Composition, wt%

AISI no UNS no C Cr Ni, max Mo W V Typical Application

M1 T11301 0.85 3.75 0.30 8.70 1.75 1.20 Drills, saws; lathe
and planer tools
A2 T30102 1.00 5.15 0.30 1.15 - 0.35 Punches, embossing,
dies
D2 T30402 1.50 12 0.30 0.95 - 1.10 Cutlery, drawing
max dies
O1 T31501 0.95 0.50 0.30 - 0.50 0.30 Shear blades, cutting
max tools
S1 T41901 0.50 1.40 0.30 0.50 2.25 0.25 Pipe cutters, concrete
max drills
W1 T72301 1.10 0.15 0.20 0.10 0.15 0.10 Blacksmith tools,
max max max max wood-working tools
 METAL ALLOYS cont.
Stainless steels
Stainless steels (SS): As the name suggests stainless steels are highly resistant
to corrosion. There are three types stainless steels: (1) Martensitic, (2) ferritic, and
(3) austenitic. They possess the following characteristics/features;
(1) C content: Usually low carbon, since higher C lowers corrosion resistance by
reacting with Cr the main anti-corrosion alloying element; slightly higher in
martensitic stainless steel.
(2) Alloying elements: Cr is the main alloying element with a concentration of at
least 11 wt%; Cr presents an oxide layer on the surface which prevents corrosion.
Ni and Mo may also enhance corrosion resistance.
(3) Response to heat treatment: Martensitic SS is amenable to heat treatment in
such a way that the main microstructural constituent is martensite. Ferritic SS and
austenitic SS are not heat treatable.
(4) Strengthening process: Additions of alloying elements produce dramatic
alterations in Fe-C diagram. Martensitic SS is strengthened by heat treatment,
austenitic and ferritic SS are strengthened by cold work.
(5) Microstructure: Martensitic SS contains martensite, austentic SS contains γ-
austenite phase even at RT; and ferritic SS contains α-ferrite phase.
(6) Typical properties: Strong, tough, corrosion resistant (even at a T: 10000C).
Austenitic SS is the most corrosion resistant and produced in the largest
quantities. Ferritic SS and martensitic SS are magnetic, Austenitic SS is not.
A wide range of mechanical properties combined with excellent resistance to
corrosion make SS very versatile in their applicability.
 METAL ALLOYS cont.
Stainless steels cont.
Designations, Compositions, Mechanical Properties and Typical
Applications for Stainless Steels.
AISI UNS C, Cr, Mn, Ni, Othe condi TS, YS, %EL5 Typ. App.
no no wt% wt% wt% wt% wt% tion MPs MPs 0mm
Ferri tic Tanks for Agr.
409 S40900 0.08 11 1.0 0.50 0.75 Ti Annl 380 205 20 Auto exhaust
446 S44600 0.20 25 1.5 - - Annl 515 275 20 Valves (HT),
Aust enit ic
304 S30400 0.08 19 2.0 9 - Annl 515 205 40 Cryogenic vesl
316L S31603 003 17 2.0 12 2.5 Mo Annl 485 170 40 Welding con.
Mart ensi tic
410 S41000 0.15 12.5 1.0 - - Annl 485 275 20 Rifle barrels,
Q&T 825 620 12 cutlery, jet eng
440A S44002 0.70 17 1.0 - 0.75M Annl 725 415 20 Cutlery, beari-
o Q&T 1790 1650 5 ngs, surg.tools
Preci pitat ion hard ena ble
17- S17700 0.09 17 1.0 7 1.0 Al PrHar 1450 1310 1-6 Springs,
7PH dened knives, pr.vesl
 METAL ALLOYS cont.
Stainless steels cont.

The 1936 Ford stainless

steel-body car →

1960 Thunderbird with

← all stainless body.
Ques. Write a short note on: (a) Grey Cast Iron, (b) Nodular Cast Iron, (c) White Cast Iron (d)
Malleable Cast Iron.
 METAL ALLOYS cont.
Cast irons
Generally, cast irons (CI) are a class of ferrous alloys with C contents above 2.14 wt%;
in practice, however, most CIs contain C between 3.0 – 4.5 wt% and in addition, other
alloying elements.
• The phase diagram reveals that alloys with this composition range becomes completely liquid
at T between 1150-13000C which is considerably lower than steels. Thus, they are easily
melted and amenable to casting. Further, CIs are most brittle and casting is the most suitable
fabrication technique; the name cast iron is earned on this count.
 METAL ALLOYS cont.
Cast irons cont.
Cementite (Fe3C) is a metastable compound, and under some circumstances it can be
made to dissociate or decompose to form α-ferrite and graphite:
Fe3C → 3Fe (α) + C (graphite)
• The tendency to form graphite is regulated by the composition and rate of cooling;
graphite formation is promoted by (a) presence of more than 1 wt% Si, and (b) slower
cooling rate during solidification.
 METAL ALLOYS cont.
Cast irons cont.
For most cast irons, the carbon exists as graphite, and both microstructure and mechanical
behavior depend on composition and heat treatment.
The most common caste irons types are: (a) gray CI, (b) nodular CI, (c) white CI, and
(d) malleable CI.
 METAL ALLOYS cont.
Gray cast irons
Gray cast irons: Gray CI are the least expensive of all metallic materials; possess
the following characteristics/features;
(1) C content: between 2.5 and 4.0 wt%; Si content: between 1.0 and 3.0 wt%.
(2) Response to heat treatment: responsive to heat treatments depending on
composition (Si wt%) and cooling rate. Microstructure and properties formulate
accordingly.
(3) Microstructure: Graphite exists in the form of flakes (similar to corn flakes),
which are surrounded by an α-ferrite or pearlite matrix; because of these graphite
flakes, a fractured surface takes on a gray appearance, hence its name. Lowering of Si
content, or increasing the cooling rate prevents the complete dissociation of cementite to
graphite; the microstructure then consists of graphite flakes embedded in pearlite matrix.
(4) Typical properties: (a) weak and brittle (sharp and pointed tips of graphite act as
points of stress concentration) under tension; strong and ductile under compression,
(b) very effective in damping vibrational energy in comparison to steel, (c) have a high
fluidity at casting T; which permits casting pieces having intricate shapes with low
casting shrinkage, (d) high resistance to wear.
(6) Typical applications: Base structure for machines and heavy structures, diesel
engine castings, liners; cylinder heads etc.
 METAL ALLOYS cont.
Gray cast irons cont.
 METAL ALLOYS cont.
Gray cast irons cont.
Designations, Compositions, Mechanical Properties and Typical
Applications for various Gray Cast irons

Grade UNS C, Si, Mn, Matrix Tensile Typical Applications

no wt% wt% wt% structure Strengt
h. MPs
SAE F10004 3.4-3.7 2.55 0.7 Ferrite + 124 Miscellaneous soft iron
G1800 Pearlite castings in which
strength is not a primary
consideration.
SAE F10005 3.2-3.5 2.20 0.8 Ferrite + 173 Small cylinder blocks,
G2500 Pearlite cylinder heads, pistons,
clutch plates,
transmission cases.
SAE F10008 3.0-3.3 2.00 0.8 Perlite 276 Diesel engine castings,
G4000 liners, cylinders, and
pistons.
 METAL ALLOYS cont.
Doctile (or nodular) cast irons
Doctile (or, nodular) cast irons: Doctile or nodular cast irons have mechanical
properties closer to steel; possess the following characteristics/features;
(1) C content: C: 3.0-4.0 wt%. Addition of a small amount of Mg and/or Ce to gray CI
before casting gives doctile CI.
(2) Response to heat treatment: Responsive to heat treatments. Depending on
cooling rate, pearlite or ferrite microstructure forms.
(3) Microstructure: Graphite still forms, but in the form of nodules or spheres, which
are surrounded by an α-ferrite or pearlite matrix.
(4) Typical properties: Stronger than gray CI; mechanical properties are closer to
steel.
(6) Typical applications: valves, pump bodies, crank shafts, gears, and other
automotive and machine components.
 METAL ALLOYS cont.
Doctile (or nodular) cast irons
 METAL ALLOYS cont.
Doctile (nodular) cast irons cont.
Designations, Compositions, Mechanical Properties and Typical
Applications for various Doctile ( or, nodular) and Malleable Cast irons

Grade UNS C, Si, Matrix TS, YS, %EL, Typical Applications

no Mn, wt% structure MPs MPs 50mm

ASTM A536 Ductile (nodular) CI, C: 3.5-3.8 %, Si: 2.0-2.8 %, Mg: 0.05 %, Ni: ‹ 0.20 %, Mo: ‹ 0.10 %

60-40- F328 Ferrite 414 276 18 Pressure-containing parts

18 00 (valve, pump bodies)
100- F348 Pearlite 689 483 3 High-strength gears and
70-03 00 machine components
120- F362 Temp. M 827 621 2 Pinions, gears, rollers,
90-02 00 slides

Malleable CI

32510 F222 2.3-2.7,1.0- Ferrite 345 224 10 General engg service at

00 1.75, ‹0.55 normal and elevated T
45006 - 2.4-2.7, 1.25- Ferrite + 448 310 6 -do-
1.55, ‹ 0.55 Pearlite
 METAL ALLOYS cont.
White cast iron and malleable cast iron
White cast iron: White cast iron contains cementite, not graphite; possess the following
characteristics/features;
(1) C content: C: 3.0-4.0 wt%. Si is less tha 1 wt%.
(2) Response to heat treatment: Responsive to heat treatments. This CI forms at rapid
cooling rate.
(3) Microstructure: Most of the C exist as cementite instead of graphite; a fractured
surface of this alloy has a white appearance, and thus it is termed white CI. In fact the
interior which may be cooled not at a rapid rate may contain some graphite.
(4) Typical properties: Extremely hard, brittle and wear-resistant; and virtually unmachinable.
(6) Typical applications: Rollers in rolling mills,
Generally, white iron is used as an intermediary in the production of yet another cast
iron, malleable cast iron.

Malleable cast iron: Heating white iron at 800 to 9000C for a prolonged period and in a neutral
atmosphere (to prevent oxidation) decomposes cementite to graphite, which exist in the form
of clusters of rosettes surrounded by a ferrite or pearlite matrix depending on the cooling rate. The
microstructure is similar to nodular iron. The typical property includes high strength
and appreciable ductility or malleability. Typical applications include connecting rods,
transmission gears, and differential cases for the automotive industry, and also flanges, pipe
fittings, and valve parts for railroad, marine, and other heavy-duty services.
 METAL ALLOYS cont.
White cast iron and malleable cast iron cont.
Ques. Write a short note on the Aluminum (Al) alloys with their special
properties and applications in different field. Classify different Al alloys.
 METAL ALLOYS cont.
Aluminum and its alloys
• Abundantly available in nature but never found in free state (cannot be obtained
commercially from clay, where it is available in huge quality)
• Derived commercially from ore known as bauxite (hydrated aluminium oxide,
Al2O3.H2O / Al2O3.3H2O)
• Bauxite is first purified and then dissolved in fused cryolite (double fluoride of
aluminium & sodium) and then pure aluminium is separated from this solution by
electrolysis at about 910 0C
• Face centered cubic lattice with lattice constant of 4.0414 Å
• Silvery white luster having (bluish tinge for commercial grade)
• Low specific weight (2.72 g/cc), low melting point (6580C), high electrical conductivity
(34E4 /ohm cm), high thermal conductivity, high ductility (40 %), low strength (8.10 kg /
mm2), low hardness (20 BHN)
• High resistance against corrosion (due to presence of dense and strong passivating film
of aluminum oxide, which is immediately formed on its surface upon exposure to
atmosphere)
• High strength to weight ratio
• Electron positive to most other metals, e.g. iron, chromium, zinc, copper, nickel, tin,
lead etc and thus care must be taken to prevent it from coming into contact with other
metals under presence of moisture to avoid electrolytic corrosion
 METAL ALLOYS cont.
Aluminum and its alloys cont.
• Addition of iron and silicon increase strength to certain extent but reduces ductility
and corrosion resistance (iron is the most harmful impurity, as it forms FeAl3, which
reduces its ductility greatly)
• High ductility & malleability of pure aluminum helps it to be rolled into thin sheets
or die forged readily
• Strength can be increased considerably by strain hardening / cold working (large
reductions may raise the strength to 16-18 kg / mm2, but at the same time reduces
ductility sharply. It may be subjected to annealing at 330-3600C after cold working
(annealing at high temperature is not recommended as coarse grains will be formed)
• Annealed and strain hardened aluminum are used to produce tubes, wires, sheets,
strips, rods etc but has limited applications as structural materials (only be used for
lightly loaded structures)
All aluminium alloys are classified as: (a) wrought alloys and, (b) cast alloys.
(a) Wrought Aluminium Alloys
(i). Non-heat-treatable wrought aluminium alloys
(ii). Heat-treatable wrought aluminium alloys
(b) Cast Aluminium Alloys
(a) Al-Si based Alloys (Silumin alloys), (b) Al-Mg based alloys, (c) Al-Cu based alloys,
(d) Al-Si-Cu based alloys, and (e) Zinc Silumin alloys
 METAL ALLOYS cont.
Aluminum and its alloys cont.
Composition for both types is designated by a four-digit number that indicates the
principal impurities, and in some cases, the purity level. For cast alloys, a decimal point
is located between the last two digits. After these digits is a hyphen and the basic temper
designation – a letter and possibly a one- to three digit number, which indicates the
mechanical and/or heat treatment to which the alloy has been subjected. Ex: F – as fabricated,
H – strain-hardened, O – annealed, T3 – solution heat treated, cold-worked, and then
naturally aged; T6 – solution heat treatment followed by artificial aging.

(i). Non-heat-treatable wrought aluminium alloys

•Do not respond to heat treatment (cannot be strengthened by heat treatment, as excess 
phase may precipitate after annealing)
•Consists of homogeneous solid solution and may be strain hardened
•Low strength, high ductility good weldability and high resistance to corrosion
•Applications for lightly loaded components subjected to deep drawing operations,
welded parts and components exposed to corrosive environment
•Examples: Al-Mg & Al-Mn alloys
 METAL ALLOYS cont.
Aluminum and its alloys cont.
(ii). Heat-treatable wrought aluminium alloys
•Requires heat treatment to develop optimum properties
•Belongs to alloys system with limited solubility in solid state
•Heat treatment comprises of (a) heating to T at which excess phases are dissolved to
obtain homogeneous solid solution; (b) rapid cooling (quenching) to fix the structure
(supersaturated solid solution), which is unstable at RT; (c) ageing (RT precipitation),
which involves holding the alloy at RT for several days (natural ageing) or holding the
alloy for several hours / fraction of hour at elevated T of about 100-1500C (artificial
ageing), where solid solution approaches more stable state and alloy is strengthened
•Finds widespread engineering applications and available as sheet, tubes, sections,
wires & forgings
•Examples: avail (Al-Mg-Si alloy), duralumin (Al-Cu-Mg alloy) and special alloys

Recent attention has been given to alloys of Al and other low-density metals (Mg and Ti)
as engineering materials for transportation, to effect reductions in fuel consumption. An
important characteristic of these materials is specific strength (TS/Specific gravity) ratio.
A generation of new Al-Li alloys have been developed recently for use by the aircraft and
aerospace industries. These materials possess (a) relatively low densities (2.5 – 2.6 g/cc), (b)
high specific moduli (elastic modulus/specific gravity ratio), (c) excellent fatigue and low-T
toughness, (d) some of them can be precipitation hardened. Costly due to specific
manufacturing tecnique; Li is chemically reactive.
 METAL ALLOYS cont.
Aluminum and its alloys
Composition, Mechanical properties, and Typical Applications of Al-Alloys
Al UNS Composition, Condition(Te TS, YS, %EL Typical
associa Number wt% mper designa MPa MPa in 50 Application/Characteristics
tion tion) mm
No

Wrought non heat-treatable alloys Food/chemical handling &

Wrought Alloys storage equipment, heat
1100 A91100 0.12 Cu Annealed (O) 90 35 35-45 exchangers, light reflectors.
3003 A93003 0.12 Cu, 1.2 Annealed (O) 110 40 30-40 Cooking utensils, pressure
Mn, 0.1 Zn vessels and piping.
5052 A95052 2.5 Mg, 0.25 Strain 230 195 12-18 Aircraft fuel and oil lines, fuel
Cr hardened tanks, appliances, rivets, and
(H32) wire.
Wrought heat-treatable alloys
Aircraft structures, rivets,
4.4 Cu, 1.5 Heat Treated 470 325 20 truck wheels, screw machine
2024 A92024 Mg, 0.6 Mn (T4) products.
6061 A96061 1.0 Mg, 0.6 Si, Heat Treated 240 145 22-25 Trucks, canoes, rail road cars,
0.3 Cu, 0.2 Cr (T4) furniture, pipelines.

7075 A97075 5.6 Zn, 2.5 Heat Treated 570 505 11 Aircraft structural parts and
Mg, 1.6 Cu, (T6) other highly stressed
0.23 Cr applications.
 METAL ALLOYS cont.
Aluminum and its alloys cont.
Composition, Mechanical properties, and Typical Applications of Al-Alloys cont.
Al UNS Composit Condition(T TS, YS, %EL Typical
assoc Numbe ion, wt% emper MPa MPa in 50 Application/Characteristics
iatio r designa mm
n No tion)
Cast, Heat-treatable alloys
295.0 A02950 4.5 Cu, Heat treated 221 110 8.5 Flywheel and rear-axle housings,
1.1 Si (T4) bus and aircraft wheels, crank cases.

356.0 A03560 7.0 Si, 0.3 Heat treated 228 164 3.5 Aircraft pump parts, automotive
Mg (T6) transmission cases, water-cooled
Aluminum-Lithium alloys cylinder blocks

2090 - 2.7 Cu, Heat treated, 455 455 5 Aircraft structures and cryogenic
0.25 Mg, cold worked tank-age structures.
2.25 Li, (T83)
0.12 Zr
8090 - 1.3 Cu, Heat treated, 465 360 - Aircraft structures that must be
0.95 Mg, cold worked highly damage tolerant.
2.0 Li, 0.1 (T651)
Zr
Ques. Why Magnesium alloys are generally less ductile than the low carbon steels?
Write a short note on the Magnesium alloys with their properties and applications in
different field.
 METAL ALLOYS cont.
Magnesium and its alloys
• Lowest density of all the structural metals (1.7 g/cc); used where light weight is the
prime consideration like aircraft components.
• HCP crystal structure (less slip systems, less ductile), relatively soft, has a low elastic
modulus: 45 GPa (6.5 x 106 psi), low MP (6510 C).
• At RT, Mg and its alloys are difficult to deform; in fact, only a small degree of cold work
may be imposed without annealing. Consequently, most fabrication is by casting or hot
working at T between 200 and 3500 C.
• Chemically, Mg alloys are relatively unstable and especially susceptible to corrosion in marine
environments. On the other hand, corrosion or oxidation resistance is reasonably good in the
normal atmosphere; it is believed that this behavior is due to impurities rather than being an
inherent characteristic of Mg alloys.
• Fine Mg powder ignites easily when heated in air; consequently, care should be taken
while handling in this state.
• These alloys are also classified as either cast or wrought, and some of them are heat-
treatable. Al, Zn, Mg, and some of the rare earths are the major alloying elements. A
composition-temper designation scheme similar to that for Al alloys is also used.
 METAL ALLOYS cont.
Magnesium and its alloys cont.
Composition, Mechanical properties, and Typical Applications of Mg-Alloys
ASTM UNS Compositi Condition TS, YS, %EL in Typical Application
Number Number on, wt% MPa MPa 50 mm

Wrought alloys 8.5 Al, 0.5 As extruded 340 250 11 Highly stressed
Zn, 0.12 extrusion, press
AZ80A M11800 Mn forgings
HK31A M13310 3.0 Th, 0.6 Strain hardened, 255 200 9 High strength to 3150 C
Zr partially annealed
ZK60A M16600 5.5 Zn, 0.45 Artificially aged 350 285 11 Forgings of maximum
Zr strength for aircraft
Cast alloys
6.0 Al, 0.13 As cast 220 130 6 Automotive wheels
AM60A M10600 Mn
EZ33A M12330 2.7 Zn, 0.6 Artificially aged 160 110 3 Pressure-tight castings
Zr, 3.3 Rare for use to 2600 C
earth
AZ91A M11910 9.0 Al, 0.13 As cast 230 150 3 Parts for automobiles,
Mn, 0.7 Zn lawn-mowers, and
luggage
Ques. What is the role of matrix and reinforcement in a composite material? Make a
detailed classification of composites based on the reinforcement and matrix phase.
 COMPOSITES
Introduction
Metal alloys, ceramics, and polymers provide specific properties based on their structure.
Another approach based on ‘principle of combined action’ brings in a new series of material
called ‘composites’.
Composites are artificially produced multiphase materials having a desirable combination of the
best properties of the constituent phases.
Many composites contain just two phases: (a) matrix, which is continuous and surrounds
the other phase - (b) dispersed phase.

Classification of composites on the basis of matrix material

 COMPOSITES cont.
Introduction cont.
Metal alloys, ceramics, and polymers provide specific properties based on their structure. Another
approach based on ‘principle of combined action’ brings in a new series of material called
‘composites’. Composites are artificially produced multiphase materials having a desirable
combination of the best properties of the constituent phases.
Many composites contain just two phases: (a) matrix, which is continuous and surrounds the other
phase - (b) dispersed phase.
The characteristics of the dispersed phase such as:
(i) concentration, (ii) size, (iii) shape, (iv) distribution, and (v) orientation have
significant influence on the properties of the composites.

Types of reinforcement in a composite

Illustrating the phases of a composite.
 COMPOSITES cont.
Composite classification
Composites are: (a) particle-reinforced, (b) fiber-reinforced, and (c) structural composites.
Usually, the particulate phase (reinforcing phase) is harder and stiffer than the matrix, which
restrain the matrix phase movement in the vicinity of each particle. In the process, the
matrix transfers some of the applied stress to the particles which bear this fraction of the
load. Thus, the degree of reinforcement or the improvement of mechanical behavior depends on
strong bonding at the matrix-particle interface.
For dispersion strengthened composites, particles are much smaller (10 – 100 nm), strengthening
occurs in metallic or molecular scale, and is similar to that of precipitation hardening.

Classification of composites on the basis of reinforced phase

 COMPOSITES cont.
Fiber-reinforced composites
Technologically, the most important composites are those in which the dispersed phase is in
the form of a fiber. Design goals in fiber-reinforced composites (FRC) often include high
strength and/or stiffness on weight basis; these characteristics are expressed in terms of
specific strength (TS/specific gravity) and specific modulus (E/sp.gr.). FRC of very high specific
strengths and moduli are produced by using low-density fiber and matrix materials.
 COMPOSITES cont.
The matrix phase
Functions of matrix:
(1)Binds the fibers together, acts as a medium of applied stress and transmits and distributes it to the
fibers (very little fraction is sustained in the matrix) (matrix should be ductile and its elastic
modulus should be much less than the fiber).

(2)Protects the individual fibers from surface damage due to abrasion/chemical attack.

(3) Separates individual fibers from each other, prevents the propagation of brittle cracks
from fiber to fiber; i.e., the matrix phase serves as a barrier to crack propagation.
It is essential that adhesive bonding forces between fiber and matrix be high to minimize
fiber pull-out.
 COMPOSITES cont.
The matrix phase cont.
The matrix phase may be a metal, polymer, or ceramic; the first two add ductility, the last
adds fracture toughness
Ques. Make a list of applications for the following types of composites: (a) Polymer matrix
composites, (b) Metal matrix composites, (c) ceramic matrix composites.
 COMPOSITES cont.
Polymer-matrix composites
Polymer-matrix composites (PMCs) consist of polymers as the matrix, with fibers as the
reinforcement medium. These materials are used in the greatest diversity of composite
applications, as well as in the largest quantities, in light of (a) their RT properties, (b) ease of
fabrication, and (c) cost.
According to reinforcement type (i.e., glass, carbon, and aramid), the composites are classified as:
(1)Glass fiber-reinforced polymer (GFRP) composites: Fiberglass (sometimes referred as E-
glass) may be either continuous or discontinuous; produced in the largest quantity, d: 3 to
20 μm, preferred because: (a) easily drawn from the molten state, (b) readily available and easy to
fabricate, (c) relatively strong, and (d) chemical inertness. Application: automotive and marine
bodies, plastic pipes, storage containers, industrial floorings etc.
(2)Carbon fiber-reinforced polymer (CFRP) composites: Carbon is a high performance fiber
material used in advanced (non-fiberglass) PMCs. Advantages: (a) highest specific modulus of
all reinforcing materials, (b) the strength is retained at high T, (c) at RT, not affected by moisture,
solvents, acids, and bases, (d) exhibit diverse physical and mechanical characteristics, and (e)
inexpensive manufacturing processes. Applications: fishing rod, golf clubs, filament-wound rocket
motor cases, pressure vessels etc.
(3)Aramid fiber-reinforced polymer composites: possess high strength and high modulus,
chemically known as ‘poly paraphenylene terephthalamide’ (trade name ‘Kevlar’).
Applications: ballistic products, sporting good, tires, ropes, missile cases etc.
 COMPOSITES cont.
Metal-matrix composites
Metal-matrix composites (MMCs), the matrix is a ductile metal, can be used at high T.
Properties of Several Metal-Matrix Composites Reinforced with Continuous and
Aligned Fibers
Longitudinal Tensile
Fiber Matrix Fiber cont., vol% Density, g/cc Modulus, GPa Strength, MPa
Carbon 6061 Al 41 2.44 320 620
Boron 6061 Al 48 - 207 1515
SiC 6061 Al 50 2.93 230 1480
Alumina 380.0 Al 24 - 120 340
Carbon AZ31 Mg 38 1.83 300 510
Borsic Ti 45 3.68 220 1270

Metal-matrix composites are much more expensive than PMCs, and, therefore, their
(MMCs) use is somewhat restricted. The super-alloys, as well as alloys of Al, Mg, Ti, and
Cu are employed as matrix materials, and, reinforcements may be in the form of
particulates, both continuous (C, SiC, B, Al2O3)and discontinuous (chopped fibers of Al2O3
and C, and particulates of SiC and Al2O3), and, whiskers (SiC), between 10 to 60 vol%,
 COMPOSITES cont.
Ceramic-matrix composites
Ceramic-matrix composites (CMCs), a new generation of materials have been developed by
embedding particulates, fibers, or whiskers of one ceramic into the matrix of another ceramic. CMCs
have extended fracture toughness to 6 and 20 MPa√m (from 1 and 5 MPa√m). CMCs may be
fabricated using hot pressing, hot isostatic pressing, and liquid phase sintering techniques.
Room Temperature Fracture Strength and Fracture Toughness for Various
Whisker Contents in Al2O3
Whisker content, vol% Fracture strength, MPa Fracture toughness, Mpa√m
0 - 4.5
10 455 ± 55 7.1
20 655 ± 135 7.5 – 9.0
40 850 ± 130 6.0
In general, increasing fiber content improves strength and fracture toughness; in addition
these CMCs exhibit improved high temperature creep behavior and resistance to thermal
shock.
Application: SiC whisker reinforced aluminas are being used as cutting tool inserts for
machining hard metal alloys; tool lives for these materials are greater than for cemented
carbides.
Ques. What do you mean by shape memory alloys? Name some commercially available
shape memory alloys.

• Certain classes of metallic alloys have a special ability to ‘memorize’ their shape at
a high temperature, and recover large deformations imparted at a low temperature
on thermal activation.

• The recovery of strains imparted to the material at a lower temperature, as a result of

heating, is called the Shape Memory Effect (SME).

Three types of SMA are currently popular

❑ Cu Zn Al
❑ Cu Al Ni
❑ Ni Ti (1962)

• The last one is commercially available as NiTiNOL. (NOL –

Naval Ordinance Laboratory, USA