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General outline
• Importance
• Types of Metal & Alloys
• Ferrous Alloys
– Steels
Structure – Property • Plain Carbon Steels
• Alloy steels
Correlationship in Metals – Cast irons

• Non-ferrous Alloys
– Copper & Copper alloys
– Aluminum & Aluminum alloys
– Titanium Alloys

Importance Types of Metals & alloys

• Knowledge of structure & properties of metals and
1) Ferrous
alloys is helpful in selection of suitable material for
a given application. • Iron (Fe) is a principal constituent
2) Non-ferrous
• Decision makers must be aware with structure, • Iron (Fe) is not a principal constituent
properties and applications of different types of
metals & alloys.

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Ferrous Alloys Classification of Ferrous alloys

• Reasons of importance of Ferrous materials:
(1) Abundance of Iron-containing compounds within
the earth’s crust;
(2) Relatively economical extraction, refining, alloying,
and fabrication techniques of ferrous metals & alloys.
(3) Extremely versatility - may be tailored to have a
wide range of mechanical and physical properties.

• The principal disadvantage - susceptibility to

corrosion.

Steels Low Carbon Steels

• Fe – C alloys • General:-
• Thousands of grades of steels are available: – Produced in the greatest
– different compositions and/or quantities among all types of
– heat treatments. steels.
• The mechanical properties depends on the content of carbon – Carbon content < 0.25 wt% C
– (normally < 1.0 wt% , at the most 1.5 % and theoretical limit is up – Not heat-treatable
to 2.0 %) (unresponsive to heat
• Plain carbon steels treatments intended to form
martensite)
– contain only residual concentrations of impurities other than
carbon and a little manganese. – Strengthening is possible by cold
working.
• Alloy steels
– more alloying elements are intentionally added in specific
concentrations. • Microstructure:-
– Consist of ferrite and Pearlite
constituents

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High Strength Low Alloy (HSLA) Steel

Plain Low Carbon Steels
• General:-
• Properties: – Contain other alloying elements such as copper, vanadium, nickel,
– Relatively soft and weak but have outstanding ductility and and molybdenum in combined concentrations up to 10 wt%.
toughness) – Possess higher strengths than the plain low-carbon steels.
– Machinable out of all steels – Heat treatable
– Weldable out of all steels, • Properties:-
– The least expensive to produce. – Stronger than plain carbon steels
– Typical Yield strength - 275 MPa, Tensile strength – 415 to (Tensile strengths in excess of 480 MPa)
550 MPa and a ductility of 25 % EL. – Ductile, Formable & Machinable
• Typical applications: – More resistant to corrosion than the plain carbon steels
– Automobile body components, • Applications:-
– Structural shapes (I-beams, channel and angle iron), and – where structural strength is critical
– Sheets that are used in pipelines, – For example - bridges, towers, support columns in high-rise
buildings, and pressure vessels
– Buildings, bridges, and tin cans.

Medium – Carbon Steels Plain High Carbon Steels

• Carbon content - 0.25 to 0.60 wt% C.
• Microstructure: - Room temperature structure as annealed: Ferrite + Pearlite • Carbon contents - 0.60 to 1.4 wt%,
• Most often utilized in the tempered condition having microstructures of tempered • Microstructure:-
martensite. – Stable phases at room temperature
• Pearlite and Cementite
• Properties:-
•
Plain medium-carbon steels • Properties:-
― Have low hardenabilities – The hardest, strongest, and the least ductile
― Successfully heat treated only in very thin sections with very rapid quenching rates. of the carbon steels due higher proportion
• Alloy medium-carbon steels of Cementite.
― Additions of chromium, nickel, and molybdenum improves heat treatability – Used in a hardened and tempered condition
― Variety of strength–ductility combinations.
― Heat treatable by austenitizing, quenching, and then tempering to improve their • Applications of plain high carbon alloy steels:-
mechanical properties.
– Especially wear resistant and capable of
― These heat-treated alloys are stronger than the low-carbon steels, but at a sacrifice holding a sharp cutting edge.
of ductility and toughness.
• Applications:- Railway wheels and tracks, Gears, Crankshafts, Other machine parts, High-
strength structural components calling for a combination of high strength, wear
resistance, and toughness.

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High Carbon Alloy Steel Stainless Steel

• High carbon alloy steels: - • Highly resistant to corrosion (rusting) in a variety of
– The tool and die steels are high-carbon alloys, usually
containing chromium, vanadium, tungsten, and environments including the ambient.
molybdenum.
• Major alloying element: Chromium (at least 11 wt%
• Microstructure:- Cr)
– Annealed contains Pearlite + Cementire + Carbides of
alloying elements • Corrosion resistance is enhanced by Ni and Mo
– Used in hardened & tempered condition
additions.
– Alloying elements combine with carbon to form very Microstructure of 18-4-1 HSS • Divided into three classes
hard and wear-resistant carbide compounds (e.g., steel (18 % W, 4 % V & 1 %
Cr23C6 , V4C3 and WC). Cr) prepared by powder – Martensitic,
metallurgy - Hardened and
• Properties:- tempered; bright particles – Ferritic,
– High hardness and good wear-resistance. are of carbide of Cr, W & V – Austenitic.
• Applications:- • Versatile applications - enhanced mechanical
– Cutting tools and dies for properties + excellent resistance to corrosion.
• forming and shaping materials, as well as in knives
• razors, hacksaw blades, springs, and high-strength wire.

Martensitic Stainless steel Austenitic stainless steels

• Austenitic stainless steels
• Martensitic stainless steels – The austenite phase field is
extended to room
– Heat-treatable ----- temperature.
martensite is the prime – Not heat-treatable
microconstituent. – Hardened & strengthened by
– Magentic in nature cold working
– The most corrosion resistant
Micrograph of Martensitic SS – because of high chromium
Micrograph of Austenitic Stainless Steel
0.25 % C content & Nickel additions
– Produced in the largest
quantities
– Non-magnetic in nature

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Ferritic stainless steels Applications of Stainless Steel

• Items used at elevated temperatures
– Composed of the ferrite (BCC) phase.
– Not heat-treatable • Items used in severe environments because they
– Hardened & strengthened by cold resist oxidation and maintain their mechanical
working • Gas turbines
– magnetic • High-temperature
• Steam boilers
• Heat-treating furnaces
• Aircraft
• Missiles
• Nuclear power generating units

Iron Wrought Iron

Wrought Wrought iron is pure iron crystals with thin layers of

Cast Iron
Iron siliceous slag resulting in graininess similar to wood.
Grey Iron
It has a very low carbon (0.04 to 0.08%) content and
has fibrous inclusions known as slag up to 2% by
weight.
White Iron

Nodular
iron

Malleable
iron

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Chemical Composition Structure

0.02% - 0.03% Carbon
0.02% - 0.10% Silicon Iron
0.008% - 0.2% Sulphur
0.05% - 0.25% Phosphorus
0.0% - 0.02% Manganese
0.05% - 1.50% Slag

Wrought Iron Structure Silicate Slag

Properties
• Wrought iron is never cast. All shaping is accomplished by
hammering, pressing, forging, etc
• Wrought iron is known for its high ductility and for the ease
with which it can be forged and welded.
• The ultimate strength of wrought iron can be increased
considerably by cold working.
• Wrought iron possesses a high resistance towards corrosion.
• Wrought iron possesses rapid recovery from overstrain and
shock loading
• Because of nature of the slag distribution, tensile strength and
ductility are greater in the longitudinal direction than the
transverse direction.

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Cast Irons
Applications • A class of ferrous alloys with carbon contents above
2.14 %
• Building construction: Underground service lines and metallic • In practice carbon content range: 3 to 4.5 % C ( may
poles. have other alloying elements)
• Public works: Bridge railings, blast plates, drainage line, sludge • Good castability: Fe-C alloys having low liquid us
tanks and lines
temperature (~ 1150 °C -1200 °C; Notably lower than
• Industrial: Condenser tubes, unfired heat exchangers, acid
steels).
and alkali process lines, etc.
• Rail road and marine: diesel exhaust and air brake piping, • Being very brittle casting is the most convenient
ballast and brine protection plates, tanker heating coils, etc shaping (manufactuirng) technique.
• Other: Gas collection hoods, coal handling equipment, cooling • Cementite (Fe 3C) is a metastable compound
tower and spray pond piping.

Iron Graphite Diagram Graphitization

(True equilibrium Fe-C diagram) Cementite (Fe3C) may get decomposed to form ferrite and
graphite (under certain circumstanc), according to the reaction
•Virtually identical
on the iron-rich side
to Fe-Fe3C phase
diagram • This tendency to form graphite is known as graphitization
• Graphitization is regulated by
•Eutectic point: 1147 – the composition (Si and Mn conntent)
°C and 0.65 wt% C. – rate of cooling
• Silicon > 1 wt% favours graphitization.
•Eutectoid point:
1153 °C and 4.2 wt % • Slower cooling rates during solidification favours graphitization.
C. • For most cast irons, the carbon exists as graphite
• Both microstructure and mechanical behavior depend on
composition and heat treatment.

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Cast Iron Types of cast iron

Cast iron, an alloy of iron that contains 3 to
4.5 percent carbon, along with varying amounts Based on the alloying elements added, the variation in the
solidification of the cast iron and heat treatment used, the
of silicon and manganese and traces of impurities microstructure of the cast iron can vary. Depending upon the
such as sulfur and phosphorus. application and the preferred mechanical properties, iron
It is made by reducing iron ore in a blast castings can be classified into the following.
furnace. The liquid iron is cast, or poured and • Grey Cast Iron
hardened, into crude ingots called pigs, and the • White Cast Iron
pigs are subsequently remelted along with scrap • Malleable Cast iron
and alloying elements in cupola furnaces and • Nodular Cast Iron
recast into molds for producing a variety of
products.

Basic types of Cast Iron

Grey Cast Iron
Grey is the most versatile and widely used cast
iron. The presence of carbon leads to formation
of graphite flakes that does not allow cracks to
pass through, when the material breaks. The
graphite flakes make the grey cast iron exhibit
low shock resistance. They also lack elasticity and
have low tensile strength.
The graphite microstructure of the cast iron has a
matrix that consists of ferrite, pearlite or a
combination of two.

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Chemical composition
Structure
2.5% - 3.8% Carbon The graphite takes on the shape of a three-dimensional flake.
1.1% - 2.8% Silicon In two dimensions, as a polished surface will appear under a
0.4% - 1% Manganese microscope, the graphite flakes appear as fine lines. The
graphite has no appreciable strength, so they can be treated
0.15% Phosphorus
as voids. The tips of the flakes act as preexisting notches;
0.1% Sulphur therefore, it is brittle. The presence of graphite flakes makes
the Grey Iron easily machinable as they tend to crack easily
Graphite flakes occupy about 10% of the metal volume across the graphite flakes.
Length of flakes may very from 0.05mm to 0.1mm.

Graphite Flake

3D view of graphite flake

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Properties Applications
• It can readily cast into a desired shape. • Machine tool structures
• Grey cast iron possesses high fluidity and hence it can be cast • Gas or water pipes for underground purposes.
into complex shapes and thin sections. • Manhole covers, tunnel segment
• Grey iron possesses lowest melting point of the ferrous alloys. • Cylinder blocks, piston rings and heads for I.C. Engines.
• Grey iron possesses good machinability and high resistance to • Frames for electric motors
wear. • Ingot moulds, Sanitary wares
• Grey iron possesses high vibration damping capacity and • Rolling mill and general machinery parts
compressive strength.
• Household appliances.

White Cast Iron

If iron of proper composition is cooled rapidly, Chemical Composition
the free carbon will go in the combined form and
give rise to white iron-casting. 1.8% - 3.6% Carbon
With a lower silicon content (graphitizing agent) 0.5% - 2.0% Silicon
and faster cooling rate, the carbon in white cast 0.2% - 0.8% Manganese
iron precipitates out of the melt as 0.18% Phosphorus
the metastable phase cementite, Fe3C, rather
than graphite.
0.1% Sulphur
Some amount of Chromium

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Structure

White Area: Carbide

Black Area: Pearlite

Properties Application
Due to high brittleness, white iron is used less compared to
• White cast iron has almost all its carbon, chemically bonded other irons and steels.
with the iron as iron carbide, Fe3C. Iron Carbide is a very hard
and brittle constituent.
• White Cast Irons contain Chromium to prevent formation of • White iron is used to produce malleable iron.
Graphite upon solidification and to ensure stability of the • White iron is used for manufacturing those component parts
carbide phase. which require a hard and abrasion resistant surface
• White iron possesses excellent abrasive wear resistance.

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Nodular Cast Iron

(Ductile Cast Iron) Chemical Composition
Small amount of magnesium is added to the
molten iron, which alters the graphite structure
3.2% - 4.2% Carbon
that is formed. The magnesium reacts with 1.1% - 3.5% Silicon
oxygen and sulphur in the molten iron leading to 0.3% - 0.8% Manganese
graphite. 0.08% Phosphorus
the spheroidizing elements when added to 0.2% Sulphur
eliminate Sulphur and Oxygen from melt which Some amount of Magnesium
changes the solidification characteristic and
possibly account for the nodulization.

Structure
Graphite appears as rounded particles, or nodular or
spheroids in nodular cast iron.

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Properties Applications
• Ductile cast iron possesses very good machinability, excellent • Paper Industries Machinary
cast ability and wear resistance. • Internal Combustion engines, valves and fittings.
• Graphite nodules cause the Iron to be both strong and ductile • Power transmission equipment
(more so than gray Cast Iron). The smaller and more
numerous the nodules the higher the tensile properties of the • Farm implements and tractors
material. This material has better thermal transfer • Earth moving machinery
characteristics and fewer tendencies for porosity. • Steel mill rolls and mill equipment
• Pipes, pumps and compressors

Malleable Cast Iron

Chemical Composition
Malleable cast iron is basically white iron that
undergoes heat treatment to convert the carbide
into graphite. The resultant cast iron has 2% - 3% Carbon
properties that vary from both grey and white 0.6% - 1.3% Silicon
cast iron.
0.2% - 0.6% Manganese
Malleable cast iron can be identified easily by the
blunt boundaries.
0.15% Phosphorus
0.1% Sulphur

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Structure

In case of malleable cast iron, the graphite structure is formed

into irregularly shaped spheroidal particles rather than flakes
that are usually present in gray cast iron.
A ferritic malleable C.I. has ferrite matrix & pearlitic C.I. has
pearlite matrix

Properties Applications

• An alloy malleable CI contains Chromium and nickel and • Automotive industry, gear case, universal joint yoke, rear axle
possesses high strength and corrosion resistance. banjo housing, crankshaft
• Malleable iron has high young’s modulus and low coefficient • Rail road, Agricultural implements
of thermal expansion. • Electrical line hardware, conveyor chain links
• Malleable iron possesses good wear resistance and vibration • Hand tools, pipe fittings, washers, brackets, fence fittings,
damping capacity. mining hardware and machine parts.

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Compacted Graphite Iron Compacted Graphite Iron – (2)

(Vermicular CI) • Mechanical & other Properties:-
• Composition: • Depends on graphite particle shape & the matrix
– Si content: 1.7 % & 3.0 wt % phase/microconstituent.
– C content: 3.1 to 4.0 wt %
• As degree of nodularity of the graphite particles increases the
• Microstructure:
strength and ductility both increases.
– The graphite worm-like (or vermicular) shape; • Ferritic matrix: lower strengths and higher ductilities as
– The microstructure is intermediate between compared to that of pearlitic matrix.
that of gray iron and ductile (nodular) iron • TS and Y S are comparable to that of ductile and malleable irons,
– Some of the graphite (<20 %) may be as but greater than those observed for the higher strength gray
nodules. irons .
Depending on heat
• Sharp edges (characteristic of graphite treatment, the matrix • % Elongation – ductility - intermediate between gray and ductile
flakes) should be avoided; The presence of phase will be pearlite irons
sharp edges leads to a reduction in fracture and/or ferrite. • Modulus of elasticity : 140 and 165 GPa
and fatigue resistance of the material. Amount s of Mg & Ce must • Higher thermal conductivity
be controlled to get a • Better resistance to thermal shock
• Magnesium and/or cerium is also added, but microstructure that
concentrations are low than that for ductile consists of the worm-like • Lower oxidation at elevated temperatures
iron. graphite particles

Compacted Graphite Iron – (3) Non-ferrous Alloys

• Limitation of Ferrous Alloys:-
• Applications (1) relatively high density,
– diesel engine blocks,
(2) comparatively low electrical conductivity,
– exhaust manifolds,
– gearbox housings,
(3) inherent susceptibility to corrosion
– brake discs for high-
speed trains, and • This leads to use of non-ferrous alloys for more
– flywheels suitable property combinations. .

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Non-ferrous Alloys - Classification Non-ferrous Alloys – Classification (2)

• (A) Classification based on base metals: Non ferrous • (B) Classification based on major manufacturing
alloy systems are classified either according to the base process:
metal or according to some specific characteristic that – Cast alloys
a group of alloys share – Wrought Alloys
– Copper ,
– Magnesium,
• (C) Classification based on heat treatability:
– Titanium alloys,
– Heat treatable (possible to strengthen by precipitation
– Refractory metals, hardening)
– Superalloys, – Non heat-treatable
– The noble metals,
– Miscellaneous alloys (nickel, lead, tin, zirconium and zinc as
base metals)

Copper & Copper Alloys Brass

• Pure copper • An alloy made of copper and zinc;
– Soft and very ductile.
– Difficult to machine. • A range of brasses with varying properties depending
– Can be cold worked. on the proportions of zinc and copper.
– Highly resistant to corrosion (in ambient atmosphere, seawater and
some industrial chemicals)
– The mechanical and corrosion-resistance properties of may be
improved by alloying.

• Most copper alloys cannot be hardened or strengthened by heat- • Colour of brass

treating procedures.
– varies from red to yellow
• Cold working and/or solid-solution alloying is the way of
– depends on the amount of zinc present;
strengthening. – the more zinc the lighter is the colour.

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Types of Brass Alpha (α) Brass

• Alpha (α) Brasses:
• Commonly known as Cartridge
– contain less than 37% zinc Brass (deep drawing cups and
– named for formation of a artillery use)
homogenous (alpha) crystal
structure.
• Zn < 35 wt%
• Alpha-Beta (α-β)Brasses: • Single Phase Alloy
– contain between 37-45% zinc
– made-up of both the alpha as • FCC Crystal Structure
well as a beta phase similar to Cold Rolled Cartridge brass
that of pure zinc. • Relatively Soft, Ductile and easily (70%Cu-30%Zn)
cold worked and annealed. Annealing twins
• Beta (β) Brasses:
– contain greater than 45% zinc • Etching agent is alcholic
– rarely used than alpha or alpha-
beta brasses. ferrichloride
Cu Zn PHASE DIAGRAM
• Etching time: 10 to 12 sec
Some of the common brasses: Yellow, Naval, Cartridge brass, Muntz metal and Gilding
metal.

FCC lattice of Alpha Brass Alpha-Beta (α-β)Brass

• Higher zinc content (37 to 45 %)
• Copper atoms are present on the face centres. • The Beta (β) phase has an ordered
BCC crystal structure
• Zinc atoms are at the edges.
• The Beta (β) phase is harder and
stronger than the alpha (α) phase.
• These alloys can be hot worked.
• Etching agent- Alcoholic ferric
chloride
• Etching time – 10 to 15 sec
Hot rolled Muntz metal (60-40 α-β
brass) (75X)

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Applications of Brasses – (1)

BCC lattice of Beta Brass
• Nuts, bolts, threaded parts
• Copper is present at the edges
• Zinc is at the body centre. • Electrical terminals

• Valve bodies

• Cartridges for firearms

• Pipe/water fittings

Applications of Brasses – (2) Applications of Brasses – (3)

• Musical instruments • Brass alloys include electronic packaging, and
coins.
• Jewellry and ornaments

• Heat exchanger and condenser

automotive radiators
• Germicidal and antimicrobial applications
– Items, such as bed rails, over-the-bed tray tables, chair arms, nurse's call
• Rope clamps and yacht fittings buttons, IV poles, etc. were retrofitted with antimicrobial copper alloys in
certain patient rooms (i.e., the “coppered” rooms) in the intensive care
unit (ICU).

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Bronze Beryllium Copper

• Contains Beryllium in amount 1.0 wt % to 2.5 wt %.
• Alloys of copper, tin, aluminum, silicon and nickel.
• Stronger than the brasses, • The most common heat-treatable copper alloy
• Comparable degree of corrosion resistance. .
• Possess a remarkable combination of properties:
• Used for applications where in addition to corrosion – Tensile strengths as high as 1400 MPa
resistance , good tensile properties are required. – Excellent electrical and corrosion properties,
– Wear resistance
• Phosphor Bronze – (5 % Sn, 0.2 % P) --- – may be cast, hot worked, or cold worked.
– Bellows, clutch disks, bronze, cold-workded diaphragm, fuse – High strengths are attained by precipitation-hardening.
• Tin bronze (10 % Sn, 2 % Zn)
• Costly because of the beryllium additions
– Bearings, bushings, piston rings, steam fittings, gears
• Aluminum bronze – ( 4 % Fe, 11% Al) • Applications:
– Bearings, gears, bronze worms, bushings, valve seats and guards, – jet aircraft landing gear bearings and bushings,
pickling hooks – springs, and
– surgical and dental instruments.

Titanium alloys Magnesium alloys

• Titanium alloys have good strength • Magnesium is 38% lighter than Aluminium
and are lighter in weight as compared and 78% lighter than steel.
to steels.
• They are used in airplane engines, • Used in automotive industry for making of
aeroframes. transmission case, seat and door frame,
• They are also used for military cylinder head cover, steering wheel.
purposes (missile, rocket, tank)
• Also used in engines and chassis of
supercars.

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Aluminum and its alloys

Aluminum and its alloys • Principal alloying elements - Cu, Mg, Si, Mn and Zn.
• Low density (2.7 g/cm3) as compared to that for stee
• Non heat-treatable Al alloys:
• High electrical and thermal conductivities – consist of a single phase, for which an increase in strength is achieved
• Higher resistance to corrosion in common environments – ambient by solid-solution strengthening.
• High ductility - good formability (ductility retained even at low temp. due to FCC • Heat treatable Al alloys:
crystal structure) – Strengthening due to precipitation hardening as a result of alloying.
• Major limitation – low melting temperature (restricts the maximum temperature
of application)
– Sometimes precipitation hardening is due to the precipitation of two
elements other than aluminum to form an intermetallic compound
• Improvement in strength: By cold work and by alloying (Both of these decrease
resistance to corrosion).
such as MgZn2.
• Also classified as either cast or wrought.
• Composition for both types is designated by a four-digit number
that indicates the principal impurities, and in some cases the purity
level.
• For cast alloys: a decimal point is located between the last two
digits. After these digits is a hyphen and the basic temper
designation is mentioned.

Aluminum and its alloys (2)

Al–Li alloys
• Temper designation —
– Used for aircraft and aerospace industries.
– is combination of a letter and possibly a one- to three-digit number
– indicates the mechanical and/or heat treatment to which the alloy has – Relatively low densities (between about 2.5 and 2.6 g/cm3),
been subjected.
– F indicates as-fabricated
– High specific moduli (elastic modulus /specific gravity ratios),
– H strain hardened – Excellent fatigue and low-temperature toughness properties.
– O annealed
– some of them may be precipitation hardened.
– T3 solution heat treated, cold worked, and then naturally aged (age
hardened). – costly to manufacture than the conventional aluminum alloys
– T6 solution heat treated and artificial aged.

• Common applications of Al alloys :

– aircraft structural parts,
– beverage cans,
– bus bodies, and
– automotive parts (engine blocks,
– pistons, and manifolds).

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Solution Treatment
Precipitation Hardenable Al alloys • Heating above
solvus temp., and
Precipitation Hardening then soaking until
heat-treatment Steps: formation of
homogeneous
solid solution (α).
1. Solution Treatment
2. Quenching • θ precipitates are
dissolved in this
3. Ageing
step;

• Segregation
present in original
alloy is reduced.

Quenching Ageing (Precipitation Hardening)

• In this step, supersaturated solution
• Rapid cooling of Solid (α) αss is heated below solvus temp. to
forms a supersaturated solid produce a finely dispersed
solution αss ( contains excess precipitates.
copper and is not
• Diffusion of Atoms is limited to short
equilibrium structure.) distance at this aging temp. because
the supersaturated α is not stable.
• Lack of sufficient time for • Diffusion of Cu atoms leads to
diffusion of atoms for nucleation & growth of precipitates.
precipitation of θ.
• The objective of this process is the
formation of a finely dispersed
• Done most frequently by precipitates in the alloys.
quenching of parts by
immersion in cold water or • The alloy is strengthened by
restricting dislocation movement
high velocity spraying with during deformation
water.

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Natural & Artificial Precipitation Hardening Refractory Metals

• If hardening is achieved • Extremely high melting temperatures [niobium (Nb),
either at room temperature molybdenum (Mo), tungsten (W) and tantalum (Ta)].
which is called Natural
ageing (Natural Precipitation •
hardening) • Melting temperatures range:
• – 2468 °C for niobium (Nb)
• If hardening is achieved Aluminium – 5 % silicon alloy casting (50X)
– 3410 °C for tungsten (W) - the highest for all types of
through heat treatment than The microstructure consists of alpha metals.
it is known as Artificial plus coarse eutectic. The eutectic in
turn is composed of a mixture of
ageing (Artificial additional alpha plus metallic silicon.
Precipitation hardening) • Higher melting temperature, higher elastic moduli,
– Temperature range: 115-200° higher strengths & hardness is attributed to strong
C and time from 5-48 hours.
interatomic bonding.

Refractory Metals: Applications The Super Alloys

• Tantalum (Ta) and molybdenum (Mo) are alloyed with • Superlative combinations of properties.
stainless steel to improve its corrosion resistance. • Mostly are used for applications which must withstand exposure
to severely oxidizing environments and high temperatures for
reasonable time periods.
• Molybdenum alloys: for making extrusion dies and
structural parts in space vehicles. • Classified according to the predominant metal in the alloy
– may be cobalt, nickel or iron.
• Tungsten alloys: incandescent light filaments, x-ray – Other alloying elements include the refractory metals (Nb, Mo,W,
tubes and welding electrodes. Ta) chromium and titanium.

• Applications: -
• Tantalum: applications requiring corrosion-resistant – in aircraft turbine components
material (Ta is immune to chemical attack by virtually – nuclear reactors
all environments at temperatures below 150 °C. – petrochemical equipment.

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The Noble Metals The Noble Metals - Applications

• Also known as precious metals
– Extensively used in Jewelery (Gold, Silver & Platinum )
• A group of eight elements (silver, gold, platinum,
– Dental restoration materials (Alloys of both Silver and
palladium, rhodium, ruthenium,
Gold)
Iridium and osmium) – Integrated circuit (IC) electrical contacts (Gold and Silver)
• Have common physical characteristics – Chemical laboratory equipment (Platinum)
• Expensive (precious) – A catalyst ( Platinum - especially in the manufacture of
gasoline),
• Superior in properties – soft, ductile and oxidation
resistant – As an element of thermocouples to measure elevated
temperatures (Platinum)
• Silver and gold may be strengthened by solid-solution
alloying with copper
– sterling silver is a silver–copper alloy containing approximately
7.5 wt% Cu

Miscellaneous Nonferrous Alloys: Nickel Alloys

References
• Highly resistant to corrosion in many environments
(especially basic (alkaline)). • Encyclopedia:
http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/98324/cast-iron
• Nickel is often coated or plated on some metals that are • Wikipedia
susceptible to corrosion as a protective measure. • Materials science and Engineering An Introduction – William
• Monel D. Callister & David G. Rethwisch
– a nickel based alloy containing approximately 65 wt% Ni and • http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carbon_steel
28 wt% Cu (the balance is iron), • http://pwatlas.mt.umist.ac.uk/internetmicroscope/micrograp
hs/microstructures/high-carbon-steel.html
– has very high strength and is extremely corrosion resistant;
• http://www.thefabricator.com/article/metalsmaterials/just-
– Used in pumps, valves and other components that are in plain-carbon-steel---what-is-itr
contact with some acid and petroleum solutions.
• https://uk.answers.yahoo.com/question/index?qid=20061103
• Nickel 025548AAZbD5w
– the principal alloying elements in stainless steels
– one of the major constituents in the superalloys.

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