FACILITATING HUMAN LEARNING

VIEWS ABOUT LEARNING

Learning- viewed as an experiential process resulting in a relatively permanent change in behavior that cannot be
explained by temporary states, maturation, or innate response tendencies (Lefrancois, 2000). Learning has also been
defined as a reorganization of the cognitive structures, a change in the behavior due to practice.
In the Final Report of the Flinders University Institute of International Education high-level seminar on the UNESCO
Report Education: The Treasure Within, Jacques Lucien Jean Delors believed that “Learning is the heartbeat of
society”.
Learning is a relatively permanent change in one’s behavior as a result of his interaction in the environment.
Nearly, all definitions of learning point to three equally important concepts: change, behavior, and experience.
Change. Learning involves change in knowledge or behavior. Psychologists agree that learning involves change
within the individual organism. For example, if a rat is lost in a maze, it produces an array of attempts to look for its
way out. For several times, it does the same thing until it finally gets its way out. Here, we see that nothing about the
maze has changed for it remains the same. Everything else in the rat’s situation has remained unchanged except the
rat.
Behavior. In the previous example about the rat in a maze, we can say that learning is acquisition of knowledge. But,
to some extent, do we know that knowledge has been acquired? The mere fact that the rat makes an array of attempts
to get its way out demonstrates that it has learned.
Previous experience. Learning results from previous experience. Therefore, learning involves experience. Many
changes that we observe especially among children are the results of growth or maturation of the skeletal, muscle,
and nervous systems.
How Does Learning Occur?
• Learners learn only what they are ready to learn.
• Learners construct their own understanding.
Ways to Promote Learning
There is no single best idea or recipe to promote learning in the classroom. Teachers are eclectic; they tend
to utilize a mix of strategies that can promote meaningful learning. Mayer (2002) provides some ways of teaching
for meaningful learning by:
• Giving productive feedbacks. Useful and immediate feedback to the learners can help them practice their
cognitive tasks.
• Providing concreteness, activity, and familiarity. Teachers should make the lessons concrete, activity-
based, familiar, and simple-to-complex-based.
• Explaining examples. Teachers need to explain the step-by-step procedures in academic tasks.
• Guiding cognitive processing during learning. Teachers are on task to monitor or supervise the learners
while learning occurs.
• Fostering learning strategies. Teachers should provide instruction for learning a new material.
• Fostering problem-solving strategies. Teachers should provide the necessary instructions and ways in
order to solve problems.
• Creating cognitive apprenticeship. Teachers should encourage the learners to actively participate in group
tasks.
• Priming students’ motivation to learn. Teachers should build on students’ desire to learn.
Learner-centered Psychological Principles
Below are 14 psychological principles that deal with the learners and the learning process. These
psychological principles paint a picture of the learner as actively seeking knowledge by (Slavin, 2006):
1) Reinterpreting information and experience from themselves
2) Being self-motivated by the quest for knowledge (rather than being motivated by grades or other rewards)
3) Working with others to socially construct meaning
4) Being aware of their own learning strategies and capable of applying them to new problems or circumstances
Cognitive and Metacognitive Factors
Principle 1. Nature of the learning process. The learning of complex subject matter is most effective when it is an
intentional process of constructing meaning from information and experience.
Principle 2. Goals of the learning process. The successful learner, over time and with support and instructional
guidance, can create meaningful, coherent representations of knowledge.
Principle 3. Construction of knowledge. The successful learner can link new information with existing knowledge
in meaningful ways.
Principle 4. Strategic thinking. The successful learner can create and use a repertoire of thinking and reasoning
strategies to achieve complex learning goals.
Principle 5. Thinking about thinking. Higher-order thinking strategies for selecting and monitoring mental
operations facilitate creative and critical thinking.
Principle 6. Context of learning. Learning is influenced by environmental factors including culture, technology,
and instructional practices.
Motivational and Affective Factors
Principle 7. Motivational and emotional influences on learning. What and how much is learned is influenced by
the learners’ motivation. Motivation to learn, in turn, is influenced by individual states, beliefs, interests, goals, and
habits of thinking.
Principle 8. Intrinsic motivation to learn. The learners’ creativity, higher-order thinking, and natural curiosity all
contribute to motivation to learn. Intrinsic motivation is stimulated by tasks of optimal novelty and difficulty,
relevant to personal interests, and providing for personal choice and control.
Principle 9. Effects of motivation on effort. Acquisition of complex knowledge and skills requires extended
learner effort and guided practice. Without learners’ motivation to learn, the willingness to exert this effort is
unlikely without coercion.
Developmental and Social Factors
Principle 10. Developmental influences on learning. As individuals develop, there are different opportunities
and constraints for learning. Learning is most effective when differential development within and across physical,
intellectual, emotional, and social domains is taken into account.
Principle 11. Social influences on learning. Learning is influenced by social interactions, interpersonal relations,
and communication with others.
Individual Difference Factors
Principle 12. Individual differences in learning. Learners have different strategies, approaches, and capabilities
for learning that are a function of prior experience and heredity.
Principle 13. Learning and diversity. Learning is most effective when differences of learners’ linguistic, cultural,
and social backgrounds are taken into account.
Principle 14. Standards and assessment. Setting appropriately high and challenging standards and assessing the
learners as well as their learning progress-including diagnostic, process, and outcome assessment- are integral part
of the learning process.
(Sternberg, 2002).
LEARNING METAPHORS
Metaphor-is a cognitive tool that enables us to see one thing in terms of another (Egan, 2005). Even in our everyday
life circumstances, we see various structures of metaphoric situations. When there is a newborn child in the family,
we may develop a metaphor. We may say: A newborn baby is a hope; the child is a miracle; the child is a source of
joy.
Metaphors give meanings to new experiences or events in a symbolic manner. Metaphor is a transfer of meaning
from one object to another on the basis of perceived similarities. It means that if things are perceived to be similar,
then we tend to transfer their meanings to objects. Metaphors are assumptions about learning; they are cognitive
systematizations of our experiences that facilitate our thoughts about learning.
The Five Metaphors by P. Robert-Jan Simons
Learning by… Key words
Imitation Role models, best practices, real-life pressure, implicit learning
Participation Dialogs with others, collaboration, discourse, trust, enculturation.
Communities of practice
Acquisition Objective facts, transmission, knowledge from experts, theories
Experimentation Safe environment, practicing, skills, attitudes, simulations, explicit
learning, role-playing
Discovery Meaning, deep understanding, inspiration, self-regulation, knowledge
creation.

The Metaphors from Three Learning Theories

Learning Theory Metaphors of Learning Implications for ID
Behavioral theory Learning as response • Individual progress
acquisition • Content sequencing
• Analysis of learning task
• Assessment keyed to behavior
Cognitive theory Learning as • Structure activity
knowledge acquisition • Support expert development
• Learning strategies
• Organizers
• Assessment keyed to performance on
activity
Constructivist theory Learning as • Share control with students
knowledge • Emergent understandings
construction • Authentic activity
• Peers and adults assist learner
• Assessment includes self-reflection and
learner’s responsibility

Cognitive Approaches to Learning

Latent Learning

Latent learning occurs without any obvious conditioning or reinforcement of a behavior, illustrating a cognitive
component to learning.

Key Points
• Prior to the theory of latent learning, behaviorists believed that learning could only occur through
conditioning —associating a stimulus with a specific response. Latent learning showed that there was a
cognitive component of learning that was not related to conditioning.
• Edward C. Tolman first proposed the theory of latent learning in 1930, when his experiments with rats showed
that learning was taking place even without the immediate presence of a reward.
• Latent learning has also been shown in humans: for example, children can learn by watching the actions of
their parents but only demonstrate this learning at a later date, when the learned material is needed.

Key Terms
• latent learning: A form of acquiring knowledge or skill that is not immediately expressed in an overt
response; it occurs without obvious reinforcement, to be applied later.
• reinforcement: The process whereby a behavior with desirable consequences is rewarded and comes to be
repeated.

Latent Learning in Humans

While most early studies of latent learning were done with rats, later studies began to involve children. One such
experiment required children to explore a series of objects to find a key. After finding the key, the children were
asked to find “non-key” objects. The children found these objects faster if they had previously been exposed to them
in the first part of the experiment. Their ability to learn this way increased as they became older (Stevenson, 1954).

Children may also learn by watching the actions of their parents but only demonstrate it at a later date, when the
learned material is needed. For example, suppose that Ravi’s dad drives him to school every day. In this way, Ravi
learns the route from his house to his school, but he’s never driven there himself, so he has not had a chance to
demonstrate that he’s learned the way. One morning Ravi’s dad has to leave early for a meeting, so he can’t drive
Ravi to school. Instead, Ravi follows the same route on his bike that his dad would have taken in the car. This
demonstrates latent learning: Ravi had learned the route to school but had no need to demonstrate this knowledge
earlier.

In another example, perhaps you’ve walked around a neighborhood regularly and noticed—but never used—a
particular shortcut. One day you receive a text telling you there is free pizza at a restaurant in the neighborhood, but
only for the next 15 minutes. You use the shortcut that you’d noticed because you want to get there quickly. While
you had developed a cognitive map of the area through latent learning, you’d never demonstrated a behavior that
indicated you had done so until you were required to.

Bandura and Observational Learning

Key Points
• Observational learning, or modeling, is a type of learning most associated with the work and social learning
theory of psychologist Albert Bandura.
• Observational learning is thought to be particularly important during childhood. It allows for learning without
any direct change to behavior; because of this, it has been used as an argument against strict behaviorism.
• Observational learning can produce new behaviors, and either increase or decrease the frequency with which
a previously learned behavior is demonstrated. This type of learning can also encourage previously forbidden
behaviors.
• Albert Bandura first demonstrated observational learning in his now-famous Bobo-doll experiment (1961).
After seeing adults hit a doll, children were shown to have learned the aggressive behavior.
• In order for observational learning to occur, the observer must pay attention to an action, remember the
observed behavior, be able to replicate the behavior, and be motivated to produce the behavior.
• If a model is rewarded for his or her actions, an observer is more likely to replicate the behavior. The more an
observer likes or respects the model, the more likely they are to replicate their behavior.

Key Terms
• social learning: A cognitive process that takes place in a social context and can occur purely through
observation or direct instruction.
 • vicarious reinforcement: Occurs when a person imitates the behavior of someone who has been reinforced
for that behavior.
• Albert Bandura: (1925–present) A psychologist and learning theorist who first proposed social learning
theory and can be credited for first noting observational learning.
• observational learning: Learning that occurs as a function of seeing, retaining, and, in the case of imitation
learning, replicating novel behavior executed by other people.
• vicarious punishment: Occurs when a person avoids the behavior of someone who has been punished for
that behavior.

Bobo-doll experiment (Bandura): The Bobo-doll experiment was conducted by Albert Bandura in 1961 and
studied patterns of behavior associated with aggression. Bandura hoped that the experiment would prove that
aggression can be explained, at least in part, by social learning theory. The theory of social learning states that
behavior such as aggression is learned through observing and imitating others.

Four Conditions for Observational Learning

According to Bandura’s social learning theory, four conditions, or steps, must be met in order for observational or
social learning to occur:

Attention

• Observers cannot learn unless they pay attention to what is happening around them. This process is
influenced by characteristics of the model, as well as how much the observer likes or identifies with the
model. It is also influenced by characteristics of the observer, such as the observer’s expectations or level of
emotional arousal.

Retention or Memory

• Observers have to not only recognize the observed behavior, but also remember it. This process depends on
the observer’s ability to code or structure the information so that it is easily remembered.

Initiation or Reproduction

• Observers must be physically and intellectually capable of producing the act. In many cases the observer
possesses the necessary responses, but sometimes reproducing the observed actions may involve skills the
observer has not yet acquired. You will not be able to become a champion juggler, for example, just by
watching someone else do it.

Motivation

• An observer must be motivated to reproduce the actions they have seen. You need to want to copy the
behavior, and whether or not you are motivated depends on what happened to the model. If you saw that the
model was reinforced for her behavior, you will be more motivated to copy her; this is known as vicarious
reinforcement. On the other hand, if you observed the model being punished, you would be less motivated
to copy her; this is called vicarious punishment. In addition, the more an observer likes or respects the model,
the more likely they are to replicate the model’s behavior. Motivation can also come from external
reinforcement, such as rewards promised by an experimenter.

Kohler and Insight Learning

Insight learning occurs when a new behavior is learned through cognitive processes rather than through interactions
with the outside world.

Key Points
• Insight learning does not involve gradual shaping or trial and error. Instead, internal organizational processes
occur that cause new behavior.
• Wolfgang Kohler’s most famous study on insight learning (1925) involved Sultan the chimpanzee, who, Kohler
argued, used insight to learn a creative way of attaining fruit that was out of reach.
• Contrary to strict theories of behaviorism, insight learning suggests that we learn not only by conditioning,
but also by cognitive processes that cannot be directly observed.
• In humans, insight learning occurs whenever the solution to a problem suddenly appears, even if previously
no progress was being made.
 • Insight should not be confused with heuristics. An insight is realizing a new behavior to solve a problem, while
a heuristic is a mental shortcut to help process a large amount of information.

Key Terms
• heuristic: An experience-based technique for problem solving, learning, and discovery that yields a solution
that is not guaranteed to be optimal.
• insight: Acute observation and deduction; penetration; discernment; perception.

Insight versus Heuristics

Insight should not be confused with heuristics. A heuristic is a mental shortcut that allows us to filter out
overwhelming information and stimuli in order to make a judgement or decision. Heuristics help us to reduce the
cognitive burden of the decision-making process by examining a smaller percentage of the information. While both
insight and heuristics can be used for problem solving and information processing, a heuristic is a simplistic rule of
thumb; it is habitual automatic thinking that frees us from complete and systematic processing of information.

Insight is not a mental shortcut, but instead is a way to arrive at a novel idea through cognitive means. Rather than
being habitual or automatic, insight involves coming up with a new idea that does not result from past experience to
solve a problem. While heuristics are gradually shaped by experience, insight is not. Instead, internal processes lead
to new behavior.

Biological Basis of Learning

Habituation, Sensitization, and Potentiation

Potentiation, habituation, and sensitization are three ways in which stimuli in the environment produce changes in
the nervous system.

Key Points
• “Potentiation” refers to a strengthening of a nerve synapse. Long-term potentiation is based on the principle
that “cells that fire together, wire together,” and is widely considered one of the major cellular mechanisms
that underlies learning and memory.
• Habituation occurs when we learn not to respond to a stimulus that is presented repeatedly without change,
punishment, or reward.
• Sensitization occurs when a reaction to a stimulus causes an increased reaction to a second stimulus. It is
essentially an exaggerated startle response and is often seen in trauma survivors.
• During habituation, fewer neurotransmitters are released at the synapse. In sensitization, however, there are
more pre-synaptic neurotransmitters, and the neuron itself is more excitable.

Key Terms
• axon: A nerve fiber that is a long slender projection of a nerve cell, and which conducts nerve impulses away
from the body of the cell to a synapse.
• synapse: The junction between the terminal of a neuron and either another neuron or a muscle or gland cell,
over which nerve impulses pass.
• neurotransmitter: Any substance, such as acetylcholine or dopamine, responsible for sending nerve signals
across a synapse between two neurons.
• dendrite: A slender projection of a nerve cell that conducts nerve impulses from a synapse to the body of the
cell.
• stimuli: In psychology, any energy patterns (e.g., light or sound) that are registered by the senses.

Learning occurs when stimuli in the environment produce changes in the nervous system. Three ways in which this
occurs include long-term potentiation, habituation, and sensitization.

TYPES OF KNOWLEDGE
• Episodic Knowledge refers to our biographical memory reflecting not only what happened, but also where
and when it happened.
• Semantic Knowledge, in contrast to episodic knowledge, deals with memories and information that are not
tied to our personal biographies. Semantic knowledge refers to generalizations, concepts, facts, and their
associations. What we eat this morning for our breakfast is a form of episodic knowledge, but information
that we should eat like a king in the morning and like a pauper in the evening is an example of semantic
knowledge. Additionally, much of what the schools should provide is semantic knowledge.
Types of Semantic Knowledge
 • Declarative knowledge deals with the statement of truth; it also deals with what we know about the
world. This type of knowledge accounts for knowing what.
• Procedural knowledge is the knowledge about how things are to be done. Procedural knowledge is
concerned with knowing how. In other words, declarative knowledge accounts for the act of “being”
while procedural knowledge. Declarative knowledge alone is not enough to provide understanding
because procedural knowledge is also important.
• Conditional knowledge conditional knowledge accounts for knowing when. We should know the
appropriate time and condition in which certain information is to be used.
The Legitimate Power of Knowledge
Knowledge is so powerful for it can make and unmake us even our strongest relationships. To be considered
legitimate, knowledge has to undergo basic processes such as:
• Rational. Knowledge is rational if it is based on correct premise. That is, if we have correct premise, then it
is logical.
• Empirical. Knowledge is empirical if it can be verified. For something to be empirical, it has to be measurable
and reliable. It must be noted, however, not all measurements are empirical. Our knowledge is meaningless
unless given correct interpretations.
• Pragmatic. When we say pragmatic, we refer to practical results. Our knowledge should be practical to make
such knowledge usable. Succinctly, specific knowledge can be applied or used in real-life situations. If not,
then such does not possess the legitimate power for it lacks usability and practicality. Its legitimacy equates
with utility and feasibility or practical applications.
Organization of Semantic Knowledge
Any learning content is organized along a continuum ranging from specific to general (Savage & Armstrong,
2004). It means that any learning content is composed of a huge number of relevant information called facts,
concepts, categories, and generalizations.
Facts are things that are known to be true. Facts are very specific bits of information that relate to a specific event,
person, object, or situation. Facts never stand alone. They are always interpreted and have ascribed meaning
(Beaudoin & Taylor, 2004). However, facts are important building blocks of a higher level of knowledge. Facts are
differentiated from the following:
Data are things gathered through the process of research. For example, numbers 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, and so on are
data. These are not information because they are meaningless; they become meaningful only when they are
interpreted.
Information is a definite knowledge. The information “superhighway” of the internet is incredibly rich source
of information on virtually all aspects and disciplines. However, information is not always knowledge.
Ideas may be suggestions, impressions, or opinion. For example, if there is a meeting to thresh out problems
of vandalism, we ask foe everybody’s opinion.
Wisdom is gained through experience. It is a wise decision formed from great knowledge and experience.
Concepts are labels given to categories of information or things that have common characteristics (Savage &
Armstrong, 2004). Concepts are very important because they allow our minds to categorize and organize large
amount of information in an accurate manner.
Properties are common characteristics shared by all the examples of a concept.
Signs name a certain concept; they are the words or phrases in spoken or written forms.
Referents are typical examples of those concepts or the concepts or the concrete objects that the symbols
represent (Griffin, 2009).
Categories are used as tools to better understand the world around us.
According to Sternberg (2006), there are types of categories.
Natural categories are natural groupings that occur in a natural setting. For example, the universe, the stars,
and the other members of the solar system are natural categories. Also, the butterflies, birds, flowers, trees, and
rivers are examples of natural categories.
Artifact categories are man-made categories. Examples are books, schools, curricula, gadgets, machines, or
equipment.
Nominal categories are arbitrary. They are labels assigned to a situation or thing that is pre-specified. If
natural and artifact categories have stable meanings, it is assumed that the meanings attached to nominal categories
change. For illustration, the concept neighbor has a nominal category. It means that its meaning is unstable. A
neighbor may be a friend or an enemy who lives nearby, or one who lives next door. A neighbor may also be a fellow
being.
Generalizations are statements that contain the if-then or predicative characteristics (Savage & Armstrong, 2006).
These show relationships among concepts.
PRIOR KNOWLEDGE
Prior Knowledge is a mental structure that describes our knowledge and experiences gained during the course of
our life and how old experiences are used to understand new ones.
Schemata are cognitive structures that help us make sense of the world around us. These are discrete because they
are independent of one another. It means that one mental structure does not depend on another structure. Schemata
are called mental organizers because of the following reasons:
• They enable us to interpret details of abstract information.
• They are not abstract rules, but derived from repeated experiences brought about by our actions and
decisions.
 • They can represent knowledge of all sorts from procedural knowledge of cooking, to understanding of what
to expect during the teacher’s lectures to the knowledge.
• They represent the elements of our experiences. Such elements are abstracted from events or experiences
that happened to us.
• Schemata provide the needed information in learning a new lesson.
Schema theories support the idea that new information is constructed to fit information currently existing in the
mind.
Organizational schema I one of the many approaches to understand how our memory works.
Prior knowledge has something to do with students’ approach to learning which may be deep or superficial.
Deep learning occurs when students digest and are nourished by their learning and able to make sense of it.
Learner autonomy is one of the new paradigms for learning. It is concerned with the nature rather than the
substance of learning and which differs from mere schooling. Additionally, deep learning entails the use of
metacognition that encapsulates our ability to recognize, organize, and develop the learning process and such leads
to what we know as ownership of learning.
Superficial learning is knowing facts without their use in acquiring other forms of knowledge for it is only focused
on signs and symbols.
Activating Prior Knowledge
To activate prior knowledge means to use positive transfer in new learning contexts. For example, we may
want students to transfer addition skills in multiplication skills. In the same way, we must want them to transfer
multiplication skills in everyday life activities such as determining the total number of gifts they want to buy at the
department stores.
The following strategies may help activate our prior knowledge:
• Advance Organizers. There are cases when some students can easily find relatedness among abstract
concepts and ideas that is facilitated by their prior knowledge. An advance organizer is a strategy that
describes a new material to be learned. It is not the same with review of what transpired during the previous
discussion or what will be discussed for tomorrow or the next lesson. Rather, it is an overall idea of what the
material contains which is presented in a simple and comprehensible way.
• Conceptual and Pedagogical Models. To make the instructional materials meaningful, we can utilize the
pedagogical and conceptual models. Conceptual models are any of the mental systems we invented to make
some lessons understandable. Students should first develop their mental models before any instruction takes
place.
➢ OVAR Strategy accounts for the condition in which students OBSERVE their behaviors and methods
of thinking, VERIFY the ways they approach a problem, ANALYZE the ways in which they reason out,
and REFLECT on what they have tried to understand as well as on its meaning to their actual life
situations.
➢ OEPT Strategy is useful. It is where students can OBSERVE their own actions and decisions, EXPLAIN
or justify their own thoughts and actions, PREDICT what will happen next, and TUTOR other students.
• Chunking. This is another way through which students can activate their prior knowledge. It is the process
of breaking a whole into small and workable components.
• Outlining. In outlining, students can relate several forms of information to main ideas. It gives the readers a
bird’s eye view of what will be discussed in the material. At a glimpse, students have the idea of the key topics
as well as the subordinating topics of a chapter and how they are related to other topics.
• Highlighting. Another way to help students learn better is through highlighting in which students can easily
locate the most important points in the lesson. Also, students have the chance to select what to highlight in
order to connect new information to the old ones. However, the use of highlighting should not be overused.
There are times when some students tend to underline or highlight almost everything in the text. Students
should learn how to be selective.
• Questioning. If we provide students with organizing information, we need to give them guide questions
before we expose them to certain task. We can structure these questions by considering the various types of
questions and the information we want them to learn. So, we provide them with a pattern in questioning
strategy. There must be advance organizer questions. At this point, we emphasize the following patterns
which are capsulized in the acronym DSEGE
➢ Describe a particular person, place, object, event, or phenomenon
➢ Specify the time element or time sequence pattern
➢ Emphasize a causal relationship or a process
➢ Generalize ideas, principles, & concepts with examples
➢ Emphasize a concept
TRANSFER OF LEARNING
Transfer is a process of extending knowledge acquired in one context to other contexts (Byrnes, 2001).
-was introduced by Thorndike and Woodworth (1901). They explored how individuals would transfer
learning in one context to another context that shared similar characteristics. Their theory implied that transfer of
learning depends on the learning task and the transfer being identical, also known as ‘identical elements’. There is a
close relationship between transfer of learning and problem solving, since transfer of learning generally occurs when
previous knowledge is applied to solve a problem in a new situation.
Byrnes (2001) gives the following reasons why transfer does not work:
• Some bits of knowledge are embedded in single contexts.
 • Lack of conditional knowledge
• Lack of conceptual knowledge
• Inaccurate conceptions of the mind
• Lack of metacognition
Ways to Promote Transfer
There are several ways to promote learning:
• Similarity. Transfer can be generated by the similarity of a given learning situation.
• Association. Two feelings, events, or actions are held together if they have established their relationships or
associations.
• Degree of original learning. It means that everything we do falls within the range or degree of performance.
A certain activity may be categorized as easy, average, or difficult. In the same manner, our performance of a
desired behavior may be classified as poor, good, or best. Certain actions, events, or decisions reveal the
degree of accomplishment as well as performance is manifested in specific action.
• Critical attributes. Attributes are qualities or things that are caused by certain circumstances. Critical
attributes are qualities that make the objects different from the rest.
Ways to Teach Critical Attributes
1. Identify the attribute that describes something as what it is.
2. Provide simple and specific examples.
3. Move on to the complicated examples in a gradual manner.
4. Allow students to generate examples of their own.
5. Help students realize that there is a limit to various attributes.
Types of Transfer
Type Characteristics
Near Overlap between situations, original and transfer contexts are similar
Far Little overlap between situations, original and transfer settings are
dissimilar
Positive What is learned in one context enhances learning in a different setting
Negative What is learned in one context hinders learning in a different setting
Vertical Knowledge of a previous topic is essential to acquire new knowledge
Horizontal Knowledge of a previous topic is not essential to acquire new knowledge
Literal Intact knowledge transfers to new task
Figural Use some aspect of general knowledge to think or learn about a problem
Low Road Transfer of well-established skills in almost automatic fashion
High Road Transfer involves abstraction so conscious formulations of connections
between contexts
High Road / Forward Abstracting situations from a learning context to a potential transfer
Reaching context.
High Road / Backward Abstracting in the transfer context features of a previous situation where
Reaching new skills and knowledge were learned.

ANALOGICAL PROCESSES
Analogue is a referent or equivalent cognitive information in the brain that can easily be mapped or accessed when
needed.
Analogical reasoning is a pervasive and powerful process of solving problem in which we use different tools available
in the environment. We can use a piece of stick, scrap materials, or anything that is available just to solve problems.
Additionally, we use specific tools that help us get what we want or arrive at a solution to our problem. The following
are specific categories of tools:
• Symbolic representations are widely useful in solving problems. Examples of this are maps, models, and
pictures. Children should be taught how to identify and locate the miniature model of the original life-size
object around them.
• Self-created tools are novel symbolic tools used for solving problems. If we are asked to draw objects that
would best describe us, we choose the ones that we like best or those that resemble our personality. In this
way, we use self-created tools.
• Measuring tools are very common in our subjects in school. For instance, in Mathematics, when we are
asked to measure height, we use a ruler or a tape measure. In measuring temperature, we use a thermometer.
These tools are concrete materials used to expand our ability to think.
WHAT IS A THEORY?
Theory refers to a set of circumstances, rules, propositions or principles that are analyzed in their relation to one
another and used to explain certain phenomena.
Circumstances refers to conditions that affect what happens or how somebody reacts to a particular situation.
Circumstances are the conditions that may affect somebody’s life and that are beyond his or her control.
Rules applies to one’s conduct or one that which explains the prevailing condition or quality.
Proposition refers to the basic assumption required in a system of thought. It is a principle that governs one’s
actions, perceptions or thoughts.
Functions of a Theory
1. A learning theory helps us to discover novel ideas and approaches in teaching students how to learn.
2. A learning theory helps us organize our findings from many disparate observations and investigations into a
framework that explains certain phenomena.
3. A learning theory helps us show relationships between and among variables. For instance, motivation is a
variable.
BEHAVIOR THEORY
John Watson is recognized as the father of Behaviorism.
“give me a dozen healthy infants, well informed, and my own specified world to bring them up in and I’ll guarantee
to take anyone at random and train him to become any type of specialist I might select—doctor, lawyer, artist,
merchant-chief; and yes, even beggar-man and thief, regardless of his talents, penchants, tendencies, abilities,
vocations, and race of his ancestors.”
Association Theory. First developed by a Russian psychologist, Ivan Petrovich Pavlov.
As a result of serendipity, Pavlov observed that some dogs salivated before they were fed. Pavlov developed
the Classical Conditioning Theory to explain such phenomenon. Through this Pavlov called saliva a psychic
secretion. He then thought the production of saliva in such an instance as a conditioned reflex.
Classical Conditioning Theory
The four important elements in this theory:
• Unconditioned stimulus (UCS) - automatically elicits a reflexive response.
• Unconditioned response (UCR) - is an action that is elicited naturally.
• Conditioned stimulus (CS) - is an ineffective stimulus that, when paired with an unconditioned stimulus, is
able to evoke or elicit a conditioned response.
• Conditioned response (CR) – is a response to a new second stimulus as a result of association with a prior
stimulus.
The Principles of Contiguity
Aristotle provided an explanation for learning. He said that we tend to remember things together. We learn to
remember things when they are (Woolfolk, 2007):
1. Similar;
2. In contrast; and
3. Contiguous.
Edwin Ray Guthrie proposed, “All learning is a consequence of association between a particular stimulus and a
response.” Guthrie argued that stimuli and responses affect specific sensory-motor patterns. It means that what
people learned are movements, not behaviors. In this theory, rewards or punishments have no place in learning
because they occur after the association between stimulus and response has been made.
Reinforcement Theory. Is based on the succeeding consequences. It is focused on the association of events that
stimulate behavior.
Edward Lee Thorndike formulated the basic law of operant learning, the law of effect. Thorndike’s importance
for twentieth century psychology is his methodological and theoretical approach to animal learning and his
formulation of a stimulus-response (S-R) psychology that he called “connectionism.” Thorndike strove to understand
the learning process through studying animals, and developed applications in education.
Reinforcement is commonly viewed as a “reward.” A reinforcer is a consequence used to strengthen the
performance of a desired behavior. For example, we want Alice to perform better in recitations. We know that she
knows the answer every time we ask questions, but she does not want to recite in class. After a series of
encouragement and by way of giving recitation chips that serve as reinforcers, finally Alice participates.

THE DIFFERENCE BETWEEN POSITIVE AND NEGATIVE REINFORCEMENT

In behavioral psychology, a reinforcement is the introduction of a favorable condition that will make a desired
behavior more likely to happen, continue or strengthen in the future.
Because the favorable condition acts as a reward, reinforcement is a reward-based conditioning.
As technical parlance, positive refers to adding a factor while negative refers to removing a factor. But positive and
negative do not represent the quality of the factor being added or removed. That factor can be pleasant or unpleasant.
For instance, positive can be adding something unpleasant resulting in unpleasant feelings, while negative can be
removing something unpleasant resulting in pleasant feelings.
So, remember that positive and negative refer to adding and removing something, not to the quality of the
added/removed factor or the resulted feelings.
Positive Reinforcement
Positive reinforcement is adding a pleasant stimulus to enhance a behavior.
Positive Reinforcement Example Pleasant Stimulus Desired Behavior
A mother gives her daughter a toy for toy do homework
doing homework.
A father praises his son for practicing soccer. praise practice soccer
Negative Reinforcement
Negative reinforcement is removing an aversive stimulus to enhance a behavior.
Negative Reinforcement Examples Aversive Stimulus Desired Behavior
To stop his mother’s nagging, nagging do chores
Alex does his chores.
To remove the bad smell from her body, bad smell take a shower
Erin takes a shower.
POSITIVE PUNISHMENT VS. NEGATIVE PUNISHMENT
While the goal of reinforcement is to reinforce a desired behavior, the goal of punishment is to make an undesired
behavior less likely to happen, continue or strengthen in the future.
As with reinforcement, the technical meanings of positive and negative punishment refer to adding or removing a
factor to obtain the results. They do not refer to the quality or impact of the punishment.
Positive Punishment
Positive punishment is adding an aversive stimulus to deter a behavior.
Positive Punishment Examples Aversive Stimulus Undesired Behavior
Mom gives Mag a time-out for lying. time-out lying
Jon was assigned extra homework because extra homework be late for school
he was late to school.
Negative Punishment
Negative punishment is removing a pleasant stimulus to deter a behavior.
Negative Punishment Examples Pleasant Stimulus Undesired Behavior
Mary’s TV time was cut by 20 minutes because TV time did not listen
she did not listen to her Mom.
Jack was grounded for talking back. go out talk back
Reinforcement vs Punishment
Add / Remove Stimulus Behavior
Positive Reinforcement add pleasant enhance desired
Negative Reinforcement remove aversive enhance desired
Positive Punishment add aversive deter undesired
Negative Punishment remove pleasant deter undesired
Reinforcement aims to increase a behavior while punishment to decrease a behavior.
Often times, decreasing an undesired behavior can be achieved by increasing another desired behavior.
For example, both punishing for being late for school and rewarding for being on time can incentivize a child to be
on time.
Because of the negative side effects of punishment, parents should try to discipline by using reinforcement instead
if possible.
THORNDIKE’S CONNECTIONISM THEORY
Thorndike formulated a number of laws that govern important aspects of behavior. They are as follows:
• The Law of Effect. States that “if a response is followed by a satisfying state of affairs, it tends to be repeated.”
On the other hand, when a “response is followed by an annoying state of affairs, it tends not to be repeated.”
• The Law of Exercise. Maintains the idea that the connection between a stimulus and a response is
strengthened by being exercise frequently; recently, and vigorously.
• The Law of Readiness. Emphasizes the role of motivation.
Operant Conditioning is attributed to Burrhus Frederic Skinner, an American psychologist. B>F Skinner
adapted Thorndike’s law of effect. For Skinner, consequences are referred to as reinforcers and punishers. It means
that a reinforcer is anything which increases the probability that the desired behavior will be performed. On the
other hand, the punisher is something that decreases the behavior it follows.
Important Components
• Operant Response is any action performed by a person within the environment.
• Respondent some forms of behavior are reflexively elicited by certain stimuli.
• Stimulus Consequence it is brought about by the emitted response. A consequence is anything that
increases or decreases the probability of the operant to repeat or to stop the behavior.
• Discriminative Stimulus it indicates whether a certain response will be reinforced or punished.
Shaping of Behavior. an animal on a cage may take a very long time to figure out that pressing a lever will produce
food. To accomplish such behavior, successive approximations of the behavior are rewarded until the animal learns
the association between the lever and the food reward. To begin shaping, the animal may be rewarded for simply
turning in the direction of the lever, then for moving toward the lever, for brushing against the lever, and finally for
pressing the lever.
Behavioral chaining comes about when a series of steps are needed to be learned. The animal would master each
step in sequence until the entire sequence is learned. This can be applied to a child being taught to tie a shoelace. The
child can be given reinforcement (rewards) until the entire process of tying the shoelace is learned.
Reinforcement Schedules. Once the desired behavioral response is accomplished, reinforcement does not have to
be 100%; in fact, it can be maintained more successfully through what Skinner referred to as partial reinforcement
schedules. Partial reinforcement schedules and ratio schedules.
Fixed Interval Schedules. The target response is reinforced after a fixed amount of time has passed since
the last reinforcement. Example, the bird in a cage is given food (reinforcer) every 10 minutes, regardless of how
many times it presses the bar.
Variable Interval Schedules. This is similar to fixed interval schedules but the amount of time that must
pass between reinforcement varies. Example, the bird may receive food (reinforcer) different intervals, not every
ten minutes.
Fixed Ratio Schedules. A fixed number of correct responses must occur before reinforcement may recur.
Example, the bird will be given food(reinforcer) every time it presses the bar 5 times.
Variable Ratio Schedules. The number of correct repetitions of the correct response for reinforcement
varies. Example, the bird is given food (reinforcer) after it presses the bar 3 times, then after 10 times, then after 4
times. So the bird will not be able to predict how many times it needs to press the bar before it gets food again.
 Variable interval and especially, variable ratio schedules produce steadier and more persistent rates of
response because the learners cannot predict when the reinforcement will come although they know that they will
eventually succeed.
Table 8
Comparison between Classical and Operant Conditioning
Classical Conditioning Operant Conditioning
1. Conditioned stimulus is linked with the Response is linked with reinforcement
unconditioned stimulus to produce
unconditioned response.
2. Stimulus-oriented Response-oriented
3. Learning is through stimulus Learning is through response modification
Substitution
4. Response is elicited Response is emitted
5. Reinforcement comes before the act. Reinforcement comes after the act.
6. Response is involuntary. Response is voluntary.
7. Association between stimulus and Association is between SR and operates on the
response is on the basis of law of basis of law of effect.
contiguity.
8. Developed by Russian (Pavlov) Developed by American (Skinner) experiments.
experiment.
9. Controlled by the Autonomic Nervous Controlled by the Central Nervous System (CNS)
System (ANS)

NEO BEHAVIORISM: TOLMAN AND BANDURA

Purposive behaviorism has also been referred to as Sign Learning Theory and is often seen as the link between
behaviorism and cognitive theory.
Tolman believed that learning is a cognitive process. Learning involves forming beliefs and obtaining
knowledge about the environment and then revealing that knowledge through purposeful and goal-directed
behavior.
Edward Tolman’s Key Concepts
• Learning is always purposive and goal-directed
• Cognitive maps in rats – in his experiment, one group of rats was placed at random starting location in a
maze but the food was always in the same location. Another group of rats had the food placed in different
locations which always required exactly the same pattern of turns from their starting location. The group
that had the food in the same location performed much better than the other group, supposedly
demonstrating that they had learned the location rather than a specific sequence of turns. This is tendency
to “learn location” signified that rats somehow formed cognitive maps that help them perform well on the
maze. He also found out that organisms will select the shortest or easiest path to achieve a goal.
• Latent Learning is a kind of learning that remains or stays with the individual until needed. According to
Tolman it can exist even without reinforcement.
• The concept of intervening variable.
• Reinforcement not essential for learning. Tolman concluded that reinforcement is not essential for
learning, although it provides an incentive for performance. Rats develop a cognitive map, even in the
absence of reinforcement.
Albert Bandura’s Social Learning Theory
Social learning theory focuses on the learning that occurs within a social context. It considers that people
learn from one another, including such concepts as observational learning, imitation and modeling. The ten-year old
boy Sergio Pelico watch Saddam’s execution on TV and then must have imitated it.
Conditions necessary for effective modeling to occur
1. Attention – the person must first pay attention to the model.
2. Retention – the observer must be able to remember the behavior that has been observed. One way of
increasing this is using the technique of rehearsal.
3. Motor reproduction – the third condition is the ability to replicate the behavior that the model has just
demonstrated. This means that the observer has to be able to replicate the action, which could be a problem
with a learner who is not ready developmentally to replicate the action. For example, little children have
difficulty doing complex physical motion.
4. Motivation – the final necessary ingredient for modeling to occur is motivation. Learners must want to
demonstrate what they have learned. Remember that since these four conditions vary among individuals,
different people will reproduce the same behavior differently.
COGNITIVE THEORY
Cognitive Theory is influenced by Gestalt Movement and later by Swiss psychologist, Jean Piaget and
Russian psychologist, Lev Vygotsky. American cognitive theorists such as Tolman, Bruner, and Information
Processing theorist have integrated European influences yet have maintained their own distinction in cognitive
theory.
Gestalt Psychology
Gestalt Theory was developed by three psychologists: Wolfgang Kohler, Max Wertheimer, and Kurt Koffka.
According to Gestaltists, behavior cannot be understood in terms of its molecular parts because “the whole is greater
than the sum of its parts.”
The word gestalt is of German origin which means “pattern,” “shape,” or “form.” The Gestaltists eschew
analyses of constituent parts. They hold the belief that the whole exhibits properties that cannot be understood by
analyzing it into its component parts.” For example, if we listen to music, we ordinarily hear not the isolated parts
such as notes or beats, but we hear the tune or the melody as a whole.
Gestalt theory has generated five laws that govern perception. They are as follows:
• Law of Good Continuation states that we link individual elements together so they form a continuous
pattern that make sense. Individuals have the tendency to continue whenever the elements of the pattern
establish an implied direction. People tend to draw a good continuous line.
• Law of Closure holds the idea that incomplete figures tend to be perceived complete.
• Law of Similarity states that similar things appear to be grouped together.
• Law of Proximity states that things that are near to each other appear to be grouped together.
• Law of Good Pragnanz the stimulus will be organized into as good a figure as possible. Based on our
experiences with perception, we “expect” certain patterns and therefore perceive that pattern.
• Law of Figure/Ground. We tend to pay attention and perceive things in the foreground first. A figure will
be perceived a separate from its ground.
Cognitive Development
Jean Piaget popularized the cognitive development. Jean Piaget was born on August 9, 1896 and died on
September 16, 1980. Best known for his research on children’s cognitive development, Piaget studied the intellectual
development of his own three children. Jean Piaget provided support for the idea that children think more differently
than adults. His research identified several important milestones in the mental development of children. According
to him, the changes in behavior that occur during development are the results of changes in one’s ability to reason
about the world around him or her.
All normal individuals follow the same patterns of development. The reason for this is obvious. According to
Piaget, all biological systems share specific characteristics and functions that are performed throughout the lifespan.
Piaget call these functional invariants which constrain and encourage all types of development.
He identified these as organization and adaptation.
• Organization
Important Terms:
➢ Genetic Epistemology refers to the formation of meaning of knowledge. It means that the human
mind goes from a lower level of knowledge to a higher level.
➢ Equilibration refers to the condition in which various organisms have to be in harmony with each
other. It is responsible for reducing cognitive conflicts in order to create a balanced cognitive state.
Equilibration operates on three different levels: within a particular scheme, within a particular
domain, and across all domains.
➢ Scheme refers to the knowledge structure responsible for our ability to reason and adapt to the
environment.
• Adaptation is an attempt at creating an accurate view of the world around us. It means adjustment to the
demands of the environment, which occurs in two basic and complementary processes: Assimilation and
Accommodation
➢ Assimilation is the process of fitting new information into existing schemes.
➢ Accommodation is a process of modifying our schemes in order to interact with the world around
us.
Stages of Cognitive Development
1. Sensorimotor stage. (Birth to two years) During this stage, children begin to make sense of the world by
using their sensory impressions and motor actions. Their ways of reasoning and solving problems include
motor movements rather than manipulation of ideas. This is why we see children touching, rolling, seeing,
hearing, tasting, and pushing things around them. Cognitive advances occur during the sensorimotor stage.
Children begin to learn something about the world with the use of their basic reflexive schemes. As a result,
these schemes provide a solid basis for more sophisticated cognitive development.
According to Piaget, there are six sub-levels of sensorimotor stage which mark the development of essential
abilities and understanding of the world. They are as follows:
• Reflex scheme level. It occurs from birth to one month. This level marks the development of reflexes.
• Primary circular level. It occurs from one month to four months. This stage is characterized by development
of habits.
• Secondary circular level. It occurs from to eight months. This indicates the development of coordination
between vision and prehension (grasping and perception with the use of the senses).
• Coordination of secondary course round modest circular level. It starts from eight to twelve months. This stage
marks the development of object permanence.
• Tertiary circular reaction level. It occurs from twelve to eighteen months. This stage indicates the
development of the child’s curiosity.
• Symbolic representation. It starts from eighteen to twenty-four months. It is characterized by mental
combinations.
 Children also develop fundamental knowledge about the four properties of the external world. These properties
include:
Knowledge of objects is reflected in the child’s understanding that objects are permanent. Object permanence
states that the objects still exist even if they are out of sight. For example, Andrei will keep on searching for his
mother even if she is out of sight. In other words, object permanence is manifested in Andrei’s search for objects
which he has previously seen, but which are not present in view.
Knowledge of causation is reflected in the child’s ability to understand perceived causes. For instance, if Andrei
rolls a ball and his mother rolls it back, he smiles at the way the ball rolls back and forth. In this way, Andrei will
continue to do so as he observes the movement that gives him pleasure and satisfaction.
Knowledge of space is manifested in the child’s ability to probe the inside containers. With the use of his hands,
Andrei is bound to follow the detours by going around and over large objects.
Knowledge of time is evident in various activities. For example, the search for objects but which are not present
in view indicates some rudiments of the temporal order of events in a specific at the same sight for a longer duration,
the reason here is obvious. The child grasps the order of events in both space and time.
2. Preoperational stage. (two to seven years) During this stage, the child’s language increasingly becomes an
important tool in dealing with the environment. For easy reference, this period can be divided into:
1. Preconceptual level starts from two to four years. This level marks the development of egocentrism and
animism.
2. Intuitive level occurs from four to seven years. This is characterized by the development of initial schemes.
3. Concrete Operational stage. (seven to eleven years)
At this stage, the child possesses operative schemes that necessitate him to think in logical terms. In problem
solving situations, Andrei is able to separate the perceived characteristics such as number, mass volume, or
density. That is, Andrei develops logical thinking which is manifested in his ability to approach complex
problem solving tasks. There are two skills involved in this situation that lead to systematic and logical
problem solving: classification and seriation.
Classification is the child’s ability to group a set of objects and then to group around a common
category of attributes. If Andrei is tasked to group different candies, he can focus on one attribute such as
color. Since he acquires the ability to reverse actions, he can go back to a starting point and do the same act
of grouping using another attribute such as shape or size. In this way, Andrei begins to develop the ability to
arrange objects according to categories and later arrange them into hierarchies.
The other skill is called seriation. In this skill, the child develops the ability to order objects according
to height, length, or width. For example, Andrei also develops the ability to do well in his academic subjects
because he is able to cope with concrete operational thinking. However, Andrei’s logical thinking is restricted
to previous experiences. It means that hi has not yet gained the ability to use abstract hypothetical situations
for thinking. This is actually the major concern in the next cognitive development stage.
The most notable characteristic of concrete operations is the idea of horizontal decalage. It deals
with tempo difference in levels of performance that stage of development (Sternberg & Williams, 2002).
Additionally, it refers to the child’s tendency to solve some kinds of concrete operational problems earlier
than others. The word decalage is of French origin which means “shift” (Bee & Boyd, 2007). The child’s
thinking is said to be horizontal because it involves applying the same kind of thinking to new types of
problems. By way of illustration, Andrei knows that 7+3=10. If he also grasps the idea that 6+4=10, then he
may have to think that 7+3=6+4. His understanding of such mathematical relationship demonstrates the
principle of horizontal decalage. Conversely, vertical decalage points to the idea that the shift happens from
one kind of thinking to another (Bee & Boyd). It happens when Andrei moves from preoperational stage to
concrete operational stage or from concrete to formal operational stage.
4. Formal Operational stage. (eleven years and older) The development of abstract thinking and reasoning is
the benchmark of formal operational stage. When Andrei has acquired the ability to use his imagination that
leads to reflective and critical thinking, we can say that he possesses a unified logical system with which he
explores abstract relations. In this stage, Andrei attempts to solve problems and arrives at a solution. Also,
Andrei examines his thinking that leads to a workable solution. Moreover, Andrei develops the ability to set
up and test hypotheses, think propositionally, and take into account all possible combinations of certain
problems. Furthermore, Andrei develops logical thinking especially in problem solving. The following
characterize Andrei’s logical system of thinking in classification, seriation, number, and space.
• Composition. When the child knows that any two units can be combined to produce a new unit.
• Reversibility. When the child combines two units, he knows exactly that these two units can be separated
again.
• Associativity. The child learns that the same results may be obtained by combining units in different ways.
• Identity. In the process of combination, the child knows that combining an element with its invers or opposite
function invalidates it.
• Tautology. The child believes that when classification or relation is repeated, it is not changed.
• Iteration. The child understands that a number combined with itself gives a new number.
Information Processing Theory
Another important theory is the information-processing approach. There are two theoretical ideas
considered fundamental to cognitive psychology and the information processing framework. The first concept is
“chunking” and the capacity of short-term memory. A chunk is any meaningful unit of information. It is any digit,
word, chess positions, or students’ faces. The idea is that the short-term memory could only hold 5-9 chunks of
information (seven plus or minus two). The second concept is about the test-operate-test-exit (TOTE). The TOTE
should replace the stimulus response as the fundamental unit of behavior. In this concept, certain goal is tested to
determine if it has been achieved. If not, an operation is repeated for several times until the goal is achieved. This
TOTE concept has laid the foundation
“Types” of Knowledge
• General vs. Specific: this involves whether the knowledge is useful in many tasks, or only in one.
• Declarative – this refers to factual knowledge. They relate to the nature of how things are. They may be in
the form of a word or an image. Examples are your name, address, a nursery rhyme, the definition of IPT, or
even the face of your crush.
• Procedural – this includes knowledge on how to do things. Examples include making a lesson plan, baking
a cake, or getting the least common denominator.
• Episodic – this includes memories of life events, like your high school graduation.
• Conditional – this is about “knowing when and why” to apply declarative or procedural strategies.
Stages in IPT
• Encoding – information is sensed, perceived and attended to.
• Storage – the information is stored for either a brief or extended period of time, depending upon the process
following encoding.
• Retrieval – the information is brought back at the appropriate time and reactivated for use on a current task,
the true measure of effective memory.
The Short-term Memory Systems (STM) functions in two important ways: 1) it organizes information by
integrating new information with the existing information. And 2) it temporarily stores information for the learners’
use (Kame’enui, Carnine, Dixon, Simmons, & Goyne, 2002).
The STM Techniques
These are strategies that develop or strengthen the short-term memory system. These are the following:
• Repetition. Noting in the short-term memory lasts for very long without constant repetition. In other words,
to remember the information and make it long lasting, we need to repeat it several times until it becomes
part of our long-term memory system.
• Chunking. It is a method of regrouping items so that we have fewer items to remember. Most of us can
remember and rehearse up to seven items or bits of information. Once our STM is “full,” no additional data
can get in without affecting some of the original contents of the STM.
• Identifying logical patterns. Numbers presented at regular intervals or in a particular sequence can help
us remember the information. Identifying the recurring patterns makes the information easy to recall.
The Long-term Memory System (LTM) is a warehouse of knowledge. It is also known as data bank that stores
information. LTM is the repository of stored information; a permanent storage of information. It is likened to a floppy
disk, hard disk, or USB that stores huge amount of information.
The LTM Techniques
Brownell (2002), also identifies certain LTM techniques.
• Association. Simple associations help us remember information. It can be associated with context, medium,
or features. As we go through the process of recalling information, we search for contextual factors that will
help us associate with an event or a person.
• Categorization. Information can be organized according to categories. For example, for greater recall of
grocery items, we tend to establish categories. Sometimes, we cluster the information according to place,
nature of the occasion, nature of the job, and others.
• Mediation. During the encoding process, we must make meaningful units of information. In this technique,
we form a meaningful word association. For instance, to remember Christopher, we mediate or use word
association such as “Chris, stop her.”
• Imagery. It makes use of our sensory modalities in which we transform ideas into vivid images. For example,
we can create a mental picture produced by our memory or conjured up by certain stimuli. We can also use
metaphors and similes in order to paint pictures upon our minds.
• Mnemonics. We sometimes combine initial letters to form a word that is easier to recall. There are types of
mnemonics: word, phrase, or sentence mnemonics.
Barriers to Effective Memory (Brownell, 2002)
• Repression and distortion. We sometimes distort or give inaccurate information that contradicts our
beliefs. Probably, one reason is our selective attention when we focus on things we choose to hear or things
we want to perceive. Virtually, positive and pleasant images remain vivid while unpleasant experiences as\re
often repressed or blocked.
• Retroactive inhibition. When two bits of information we are trying to store are confusing, there is a
backward interference of new learning on what has been stored already in the memory system.
• Primacy and recency effects. Primacy means the capacity of the brain to remember the best information
that is learned recently. The information that is integrated first in our memory system has the likelihood to
be remembered easily. A very good example for this is a persuasive speaker who uses the primary and
recency principle. Usually, an effective speaker designs a very good presentation, uses techniques to catch
the attention of the audience, and emphasizes the most important points at the beginning and at the end of a
speech.
 The process of retrieval is aided by response generators and effectors. Response generators are those that
organize the response sequence and guide the effectors to produce the needed response, which may be in the forms
of physical activities.
To help students retrieve and remember information, the following strategies are offered:
• Whole and part learning. The whole and part learning accounts for introducing the material as a whole
unit. For instance, learning the poems by Shakespeare necessities that we consider the entire poem and not
the stanza by stanza. On the other hand, part learning makes use of the material that is broken into smaller
chunks or sections and then allows us to put them together at the end. For example, learning to memorize
the poem calls for memorizing each stanza and then reciting all the stanzas once the entire poem is
memorized.
• Repetition and drills. We often use relevant materials for practice, repetition, and drills. Such help, students
retain information if they have the interest in it and if it is related to their prior knowledge.
• Overlearning and automaticity. Once the material or information is repeated with a purpose, it can lead to
automaticity. Consider students who have memorized the multiplication table. When they recite each table.
At first, everything is rote memorization where everything seems amorphous. However, when it has become
useful through repeated drills and exercise, students make such recall automatic.
• Distributed practice. We need to learn things little by little and those that come in chunks. In simple terms,
practice can be into relatively long and uninterrupted periods called massed practice. On the other hand, it
can be spread over time which is known as distributed practice.
The Seven Sins of Memory (Daniel 1999, as cited by Leahey & Harris, 2001)
• Transcience. This sin refers to the gradual forgetting of information over time. Old memories are less vivid
than recent ones. For instance, our current knowledge about our friends and acquaintances are more vivid
and easier to recall than those of the incidents in our childhood days.
• Absent-mindedness. The second sin deals with our failure to fully attend to the actual encoding process
that causes us to forget. For instance, when we witness a car accident, we fail to focus on the car and its color.
• Blocking. The third sin accounts for our memory that is presented cut inaccessible, probably due to an
inadequate or misleading cue. For instance, we fail to recall the students’ names which we know already.
• Misattribution. The fourth sin maintains the idea that the memory is present but it is attributed to the
incorrect source. For instance, we remember we heard that Father Lambert will be our guest speaker for the
seminar next week, but we forget who told us.
• Suggestibility. The fifth sin of memory pertains to the incorrect information that is unknowingly
incorporated into the memory representation. Such information might be introduced by a leading question
during discussion or imparting of a false belief about an event in our life. When we remember that Dan is
Dem because Dem is introduced to us before as Dan is an example of suggestibility.
• Bias. The sixth sin is about the formation of bias. When memory is distorted by our prior knowledge that
becomes mingled with specific memory, there is bias already. By way of illustration, we have the belief that
if certain ethnic characteristics in a negative way.
• Persistence. The last sin accounts for the memory that is highly intrusive or obsessive. For example, victims
of trauma often relieve the memories in unwelcome flashbacks of events or frightening incidents.
Forgetting – is the inability to retrieve or access information when needed.
• Decay –information I not attended to, and eventually ‘fades’ away. Very prevalent in Working Memory.
• Interference – new or old information ‘blocks’ access to the information in question.
Methods for increasing Retrieval of Information
• Rehearsal – this is repeating information verbatim, either mentally or aloud.
• Meaningful Learning – this I making connections between new information and prior knowledge.
• Organization – it is making connections among various pieces of information. Info that is organized
efficiently should be recalled.
• Elaboration – this is adding additional ideas to new information based on what one already knows. It is
connecting new info with old to gain meaning.
• Visual Imagery – this means forming a “picture” of the information.
• Generation – things we ‘produce’ are easier to remember than things we ‘hear’.
• Context – remembering the situation helps recover information.
• Personalization – it is making the information relevant to the individual.
Other Memory Methods
• Serial Position Effect (recency and primacy) – You will remember the beginning and end of a ‘list’ more
readily.
• Part learning – Break up the ‘list’ or “chunk” information to increase memorization.
• Distributed Practice – Break up learning sessions, rather than cramming all the info in at once (Massed
Practice).
• Mnemonic Aids – these are memory techniques that learners may employ to help them retain and retrieve
information more effectively. This includes the loci technique, acronyms, sentence construction, peg-word
and association techniques, among others.
Sternberg’s Successful Intelligence Theory and WICS Model
Robert J. Sternberg did extensive work in the field of intelligence. As a youngster, he had difficulty with
intelligence tests. He did not perform well on such tests. This might have fueled his interest in the field that led him
to come up with the Triarchic Theory of Intelligence in the 1980’s. Over the years, his theory evolved from the
more complicated, componential Triarchic Theory to the simpler, successful intelligence Theory. More recently, in
collaboration with other prominent psychologists, he proposed the WICS (Wisdom, Intelligence, creativity,
Synthesized) Model.
SOCIAL-COGNITIVE THEORY
Social-Cognitive Theory is a combination of behavioral and cognitive perspectives into a personality that stresses
the interaction of thinking human with the social environment that provides learning experiences. Social-cognitive
perspective is focused on both internal and external factors that led to the idea of reciprocal determinism-the
person, the person’s behavior, and the environment.
Observational Learning means watching the behavior of others (models). By imitating other people, we
SOCIAL CONSTRUCTIVISM
Lev Semeonovich Vygotsky was a Russian Jew and psychologist who was born in 1896, the same year as
Piaget. Since Piaget was primarily concerned to explain the development of intelligence and reasoning in humans
from its biological roots, Vygotsky focused on the explanation on how culture affects the course of one’s
development. For several years, Vygotsky’s works were forbidden for political reasons in the Soviet Union. He died
of tuberculosis at the age of 38 before he could fully develop his theory. However, his argument has received much
attention and interest.
For Vygotsky, cognitive development is a social process. He maintained that cognitive development is shaped
by the sociocultural contexts in which it occurs. Also, he argued that cognitive development grows from our own
interactions with the other members of our culture. Each culture enables us to acquire tools of thought such as
language. Culture is transmitted from one generation to the next with the use of language-both oral and written.
Scaffolding termed by Jerome Bruner is the process which describes the process of learning a new behavior by
which a more competent person (a teacher, a parent, or a more skilled classmate) leads the child to a step-by-step
procedure in learning a new task.
Zone of Proximal Development refers to the range of tasks that are slightly too difficult for a child to do alone but
can be accomplished successfully with some guidance from an adult or more experienced child. Vygotsky was so
interested in the social factors in children’s development.
Components of Constructivism
• Discovery learning- is an approach to learning that accounts for our active involvement. It is for this vantage
point that Jerome Bruner associates discovery learning to guided learning in which students are supervised
according to the type of help they need.
• Inquiry learning- is associated with John Dewey’s scientific principle of learning.
• Cooperative learning- encourages total cooperation and participation. We should encourage students to
promote the spirit of unity, interdependence, and collegiality because each member is given an active role
play.
• Individualized learning- is designed to meet the individual needs of students. For instance, those who have
special needs or those who are gifted are grouped together in order to provide their specific instructions.
This method is employed with a variation of time, modes, activities, and even materials.
• Learning with technology- is also known as computer-aided instruction. The advent of modern
technology offers an array of opportunities to practice our intellectual skills in research or develop our social
skills. Visually engaging technological gadgets that are appealing and interactive play a major role in today’s
communication and learning. The use of technology for instruction assists us in the discharge of our duties
in the classroom.
SITUATED LEARNING THEORY
Jean Lave is a social anthropologist and noted social learning theorist who works mostly on ethnography
and social theory. Her focus in those areas is primarily on learners, learning, and educational institutions. Her studies
of apprenticeships have gained popularity as significant contributions to educational psychology. Dr. Lave is perhaps
best well known for co-development of the concept of Communities of Practice as well as her contributions to
Situated Learning or Situated Cognition theory. Situated learning is a general theory of knowledge acquisition
that focuses itself on problem-solving skills. Jean Lave argued that learning, as it normally occurs, is a function of the
activity, context, and culture in which it is situated.
CONDITIONS OF LEARNING
Robert Mills Gagne, an American educator has developed a hierarchical theory that some types of learning
are prerequisites to other types. Gagne work had a profound influence on American education and on military and
industrial training. He was an American educational psychologist, best known for his “Conditions of Learning.” He
also went on to develop a series of instructional studies that helped classify what is now considered to be “good
instruction.” Likewise, he applied concepts of instructional theory to the design of computer-based training and
multimedia-based learning. Lyman J. Briggs on the other hand, was born in 1874 and died 1963, an early twentieth
century physicist at the US Department of Agriculture. The “events instruction” conception may be more directly
attributed to L.J. Briggs. However, both Gagne and Briggs noted that instructional function design should be
composed of the following:
1. Setting a goal in terms of performance desired
2. Direct attention
3. Present instructional content
4. Elicit response
5. Provide feedback
 6. Direct the next effort
7. Help the learner evaluate his/her performance.
Five Types of Learning (Also identified by Gagne)
• Intellectual Skills- is also known as procedural knowledge. This refers to the learners’ use of symbols to
interact in the environment. Intellectual skills enable them to explain why and how things happen and help
them predict possible outcomes and consequences as results of their interactions.
Four subcategories: Discrimination, concepts, rules, and principles
• Verbal Information Skills- accounts for learning names, labels, and facts.
Names and Labels are words used to identify people, places, objects, incidents, events, occurrence,
ideas, thoughts, symbols, and so on.
• Cognitive Strategies- help us understand in order to develop a unique solution to problems. These are
essential mental activities to formulate plans, devices, and techniques through which a certain problem will
be solved. Knowledge of all concepts which are combined to form relationships is essential to cognitive
processes.
• Motor Skills- are concerned with the coordination of muscular movement which includes walking, running,
jumping, writing, dancing, strolling, jogging, or stretching. Children acquire skills through observation. They
watch other people perform and then do the activity on their own. They usually refine their movements
through trial and error. Complex motor skills such as driving a bicycle, skating, or swimming require a great
deal of instruction and practice.
• Attitudes – are our predispositions toward a person, an object, event, and other stimuli in the environment.
These manifest our attractions or aversions. Predispositions emanate from our will; attitudes can then be
regarded as conglomerations of some mental conditions that govern our behavior and conduct.
The following influence our attitudes: Affective, cognitive, and behavioral influence
Cognitive dissonance- is a borrowed term from music. In music, two inharmonious tones produce
dissonance. In attitude formation, cognitive dissonance means that combinations of two inharmonious
thoughts result in dissonance. So, we must reduce such dissonance by changing one or the other cognition.
The theory of cognitive dissonance therefore explains that if two cognitive thoughts are inconsistent,
unpleasant tension might occur.
David Ausubel’s Meaningful Verbal Learning/ Subsumption Theory
Subsumption: a process by which new material is related to relevant ideas in the existing cognitive structure.
Meaningful learning can take place through four processes:
• Derivative subsumption. This describes the situation in which the new information you learn is an example
of a concept that you have already learned.
• Correlative subsumption. Examine this example. Now, let’s say you see a new kind of bird that has a really
big body and long strong legs. It doesn’t fly but it can run fast. In order to accommodate this new information,
you have to change or expand your concept of bird to include the possibility of being big and having long legs.
You now include your concept of an ostrich to your previous concept of what is a bird.
• Superordinate learning. Imagine that a child was well acquainted with banana, mango, dalandan, guava
etc., but the child did not know, until she was taught, that these were all examples of fruits. In this case, the
child already knew a lot of examples of the concept, but did not know the concept itself until it was taught to
her.
• Combinatorial learning. This is when newly acquired knowledge combines with prior knowledge to enrich
the understanding of both concepts.
JEROME BRUNER’S THEORY
Jerome Seymour Bruner has offered a lot of features of Piagetian and Vygotskian perspective. Based on the
concept of categorization, Bruner’s theory states that “to perceive is to categorize; to conceptualize is to categorize;
to learn is to form categories; to make decisions is to categorize.” He believed that people interpret the world in
terms of its similarities and differences. Bruner suggests that a system of coding in which the learners have a
hierarchical arrangement of related categories help them facilitate easy transfer, enhance retention, and increase
problem solving ability and motivation.
Bruner proposed three models of representation: enactive representation (action-based), iconic representation
(image-based), and symbolic representation (language-based). Rather than neatly delineated stages, the models of
representation are integrated and only loosely sequential as they “translate” into each other.
Enactive because it focuses on the development of motor capacities or on knowing how to do things.
Iconic because it involves the use of mental images that stand for certain objects or events. Also, because it focuses
on the development of sensory capacities.
Symbolic- this is the highest form of representation because it emphasizes the development of intellectual
capacities. There is great difference between symbol and an icon. A symbol is arbitrary while an icon is a
representation that bears a literal resemblance to its referent.
Spiral Curriculum is one that develops the same lessons at succeeding age or grade levels as well as at
different levels of difficulty. Important aspects of the curriculum should be revisited at different stages so that
children can be encouraged to think and act at different levels of thought and action. This can be achieved by
presenting materials at higher developmental levels.
DUAL-CODE THEORY
Dual-code theory is a theory of cognition that is first popularized by Allan Paivio. He proposed, both visual
and verbal information are processed differently and along distinct channels with the human mind in order to create
separate representations for information processed in each channel. Both visual and verbal codes can be used to
organize incoming information into knowledge that can be acted upon, stored, and retrieved for later use.
Analogue codes deal with physical stimuli in the environment.
Symbolic codes account for knowledge of something arbitrarily as opposed to perceptually.
THE COGNITIVE PROCESS
Cognition involves various intellectual process (such as perception, memory, thinking, and language)
through which information is obtained, transformed, stored, retrieved, and used (Lahey, 2001). It refers to all
intellectual processes through which we obtain information about the world, modify it to satisfy our needs, store it
for future actions and decisions, retrieve it when needed, and use it in order to solve our problems. In order to fully
understand cognition, let us analyze its dimensions (Lahey, 2001; 2003):
• Cognition is a way of processing information. Information is an essential element of cognition. Without
information, cognition is meaningless.
• Cognition is an active process. As a process, specific knowledge is being:
Acquired through senses
Transformed through perception, encoding, and interpretation
Stored through the process of memory
Retrieved through the process of recall
Used in problem solving activities
• Cognition is a useful process. The process of thinking serves its purpose. We think because we want to
clarify or understand something.
The Complex Process of Cognition
• Perception: We interact with an attempt to influence others. We communicate through speech, through
expressive gestures, and paralinguistic techniques. Through various language modalities, we use full range
of paralinguistic techniques to influence other people by utilizing non-symbolic forms of communication.
• Attention: Sociologists have emphasized the symbolic aspects of social interactions. They postulate the
cross-cultural linguistic patterns indicate a wide range of differences in the way we perceive and think about
the world.
• Memory: There is uniqueness in human interactions. Unlike lower forms of animals on the phylogenetic
principle, we interpret the behaviors of others and react to them in various ways in terms of what is believed
to be their meanings.
• Language: We communicate with and influence others in ways that are unintentional, unconscious, non-
symbolic, and nonverbal. Anthropologist, Benjamin Whorf believed that the structure of our thoughts is
reflective of how we use language.
• Reasoning: Various researchers have pondered on the aspects of interactions that are associated with basic
biological responses. Interactions involving our higher cognitive processes- our ability to reason, think
critically and reflectively, use symbols, transform information, modify knowledge to fit new situations,
transmit information from one generation to another- tend to vary across cultures.
• Decision-making: Although every culture is unique in itself, we continue to communicate in various modes
and decide to share certain characteristics. Although researches have revealed that some gestures vary
widely in meaning, we do not cease to communicate with others as we share significant human experiences.
• Problem solving: Differences in opinion, thought processes, language, or metaphysics beliefs become major
sources of problems and conflicts. However, we do not emphasize differences, but we come to a conclusion
that we are not the same wherever we go. We too try understand the complexity of human nature as we
accept that people around the world possess similar inherent emotional dispositions affecting their nature
and range of interactions.
The Cognitive Process of Expects and Expert System
Andrade and May (2004) have identified the different key points in cognitive process of experts and expert
systems. They are as follows:
• Special knowledge is focused on what experts know more about certain topic than other people. Experts
have more strategies to acquire knowledge and use them in meaningful ways. With the strategies they have,
experts can easily deal with problems especially in their area of specialization.
• Domain specificity pertains to the experts’ ability to extend and advance their thinking because they seem
to produce sets where the problems are or can be represented. In hindsight, experts’ knowledge is not just
extensive, but organized in a different way because of the following reasons. First, they are able to interpret
the interrelationships between apparently different parts of their knowledge. Second, the differences in the
encoding ability allow them to structure their knowledge and arrive at an appropriate representation of the
problem faster than the novices. Then, they solve problems more rapidly than novices. Fourth, experts use
various solution strategies, chunking styles or even verbal protocols. Finally, they have more procedural
knowledge for problems in their own specific domains.
• Analogical reasoning deals with the experts’ ability to use their domain-specific knowledge in other
situations. It means that domain specificity can also be used or transferred in new situations. Reasoning by
analogy is another feature of human memory. Experts have the ability to make analogy between problems
by establishing the relationships that support such analogy and the attributes that the relationship applies
to. Sternberg proposed that analogical reasoning is the fundamental to human thought. According to him,
there are four components of analogical reasoning: encoding, identifying the relationship, mapping this
relationship, and application (Andrade & May, 2004).
 • Expert systems account for the use of strategies such as chunking of facts and information into higher-order
tasks that require well-organized rules and schemas. Experts systems can also make use of a combination of
problem-solving strategies such as forward search and backward search. It is assumed that the most difficult
stage in constructing an expert system is obtaining the chunks of schematic knowledge from the human
experts, a process known as knowledge acquisition.
• Creativity hinges on expert knowledge and perseverance. Creative people work hard and long; they are
highly motivated. They are particularly creative in their field of expertise.
The Basic Unit of Cognition (Bruning, Schraw, Norby, & Ronning, 2004)
1. Concepts are the building blocks of cognition; concepts are general labels that we attach to categories of
things and information that share common characteristics. These are mental structures by which we
represent such categories. Objects, people, and events are grouped together according to perceived
properties and characteristics.

Concepts are arranged in hierarchy, called conceptual domains.

❖ Superordinate Concepts are those that are abstract
❖ Basic Concepts are the easiest information to learn
❖ Subordinate Concepts are those detailed in nature

2. Propositions are composed of related concepts. These are units of declarative knowledge that can stand
alone as separate assertions about the observed experiences, events or the relationships among concepts.
3. Schemata. All of us are eager to know how information is organized and utilized to interpret our daily life
occurrences. A schema is an organizational pattern of the mind. It is a mental structure that helps us organize
knowledge; it aids to understand all the things around us. When we try to recall past events we are using our
schemata to facilitate easy retrieval down to our memory lanes.
In hindsight, schemata are general knowledge structures used for understanding. A schema is a
knowledge. It’s not what is true about the world, but it is one’s knowledge about the world. (Medin, Ross, &
Markman, 2005). Schemata possess the following characteristics:
• They are basic knowledge .in all types of knowledge, schemata are present. They do not tell
what is true about an object or person. Rather, they are what we know about such objects.
• They are highly structured. Schemata are highly structured in the sense that they do not
only contain sets of knowledge, but also include how such are related to one another. This
structure allows new bits of information ton fit into the old ones. In this way, new forms of
knowledge are facilitated for inferring additional knowledge. Schemata aid us to facilitate
simple recall.
• They are general categories of knowledge. The brain does not encode information about
a particular situation. Instead, it encodes certain types of situation. As such, the brain does
not treat information as separate entities but as dependent on one another.
• They are used in comprehension. Schemata are significant features of comprehension; they
are used to activate prior knowledge needed to understand a particular text.
4. Productions. If propositions are basic units of declarative knowledge, productions, on the other hand, are
basic units of procedural knowledge. Productions are things made or created which are composed of our
knowledge on how to follow series of step-by-step procedures.

There are Two well-known approaches in understanding productions:

1. Classical exemplar holds the idea that we categorize concepts based on their critical attributes of a
specific object against those of the general concept. If the match is successful, then that object is an
example of that concept. On the contrary, if the attributes of an object do not fit, then the object is not an
example of that concept. Take note that projections make use of the if-then statement. The if contains all
the possible attributes while the then is a conclusion- an acceptance or rejection of an example of a
concept.
2. Prototypical. According to this approach, if the object is similar or closely related to the prototype
(original object used as a model) then the object will be classified as a member of that concept.

5. Script are specific knowledge structures that contain the sequence of events that usually occurs in certain
situations. Scripts are commonplace occurrences; they are properly structured so that the causality of
various events can be explained.
Cognitive Strategies
Cognitive Strategies are mental plans that we apply to manage our thinking and behavior during problem
solving or learning (Zook, 2001). These help us regulate the flow of information. Cognitive strategies do not fulfill
thinking; they merely help us select appropriate mental skills needed in a particular task.
• Student-centered instruction. Students must be actively involved in the learning process. Learning tasks
should be participatory and appealing. Students who are actively engaged in problem solving tasks tend to
interact socially and environmentally. If they have their experience to share, they construct an understanding
that connects with their prior knowledge.
• Activating prior knowledge. Prior knowledge plays a major role in constructing meaning. Students do not
come to class with zero knowledge; they do not come to school as blank slates. In other words, they have
 their background knowledge and concepts that facilitate the learning of new information. Students with
misconceptions will continue with their false beliefs until otherwise corrected by their teachers. So, it is
important that we start with what they know.
• Social interactions. Social interactions are necessary for students to develop authentic learning. It is in the
social context in which they learn how to negotiate, work in a collaborative manner, and constructing
meaning.
• Problem solving. The creative process of solving a problem happens when students engage themselves in
meaningful learning. The classroom is a microcosm of the real world that is replete with problems of real-
life situations.
• Elaboration. As much as possible, we avoid the use of memorization of basic facts. Instead, we should require
students to use those facts in meaningful contexts. We do not mean to disregard basic facts and information
for they are the building blocks of cognition. However, we should use them to help students go beyond those
facts by interpreting the newly acquired material or elaborate them by making connections with prior
knowledge.
• Concept learning. Concept learning equates with knowledge construction. In concept learning, the following
are important to consider:
❖ Using core knowledge
❖ Integration of concepts across curriculum
❖ Provision of an open-ended curriculum
❖ Provision of cognitive flexibility
❖ Provision of cognitive apprenticeship
THE METACOGNITIVE PROCESS
Metacognition refers to the learners’ understanding and control of their cognitive processes (Kauchak &
Eggen,2007). Metacognition is thoughtfulness. It is thinking about their own thinking (Parsons, Hinson, & Brown,
2001). Learners think about their own thinking processes and choose learning strategies that are appropriate for
specific tasks. The notion was first introduced in 1976 by developmental psychologist John Flavell.

Metacognition can be divided into two types of knowledge: explicit and implicit
1. Explicit metacognitive knowledge refers to the conscious factual knowledge. It involves information about
the tasks. For instance, it is easy to remember the major point in the selection rather than to memorize the
entire text. In the same manner, in remembering people, we tend to associate them with common things that
familiar to us. In other words, explicit metacognitive knowledge accounts for our awareness that smaller
chunks of knowledge are understood better than bigger ones. Research shows that explicit factual knowledge
of cognition has been motivated by the plausible assumption that children’s increasing knowledge about
memory and about the general cognitive system leads them to choose the appropriate strategies and to
remember more effectively (Siegler & Alibali, 2005).
2. Implicit metacognitive knowledge. In this type of knowledge, children learn how to monitor themselves.
Self-monitoring skills lie at their decisive power to choose what and how much to study. The amount of time
children study before saying that they know the material increases from age 4 at least through age 12 or 13
(Siegler & Alibili, 2005).
Essential Skills of Metacognition (Woolfolk, 2007)
• Planning is a form of decision-making. Planning allows us to decide on various aspects: the time to be
spent in accomplishing the task, resources to be used, strategies to be employed to finish the task, step
to follow, or what to give priority to. Planning includes setting goals, generating questions, and skimming.
• Monitoring means to have a special duty to be responsible. It entails a lot of checking, supervising, and
seeing how the task progresses or develops. It is one way to ensure that strategies are carried out in
order to achieve success.
• Evaluating is developing a sound judgment about the process and outcomes of thinking. If we fail to meet
the needed standards, then it’s time to think again and the task, so we have to change our approach to
thinking. We need to revisit our objectives and such action goes back to planning.
Steps in Metacognitive Skills
1. Diagnosis means identifying the problem. When confronted with a problem, we estimate the level of its
difficulty.
2. Selection of appropriate strategies comes next after we have diagnosed the material. To accomplish the
task, we use a specific strategy. However, knowing what strategy to use is not enough. We must also know
how it will be useful in an effective manner. The success of learning a material depends on the effective use
of a strategy. If we know how to use strategies such as rehearsal, organization, and elaboration we can
improve our performance in learning a lesson.
3. Monitoring means keeping track of what we do and how well we are doing it. For example, if certain strategy
works best in a particular task, then we tend to continue using it. On the contrary, if a chosen strategy does
not serve its purpose, we tend to look for another one that can work for our advantage.
4. Evaluating is the final step in the use of metacognitive skills. Evaluation means the act of examining or
judging the worth of learning and the usability of a strategy. For instance, id the material to be learned is
valuable, then the strategy used is effective. If not, we tend to discontinue that strategy. Evaluation in this
sense means that we should know how to use a specific strategy without cues or some prompts from others.
It also means that we should develop independence in the use of strategies for learning.
Metacognitive Experiences
Metacognition also includes metacognitive experiences or things that happen to us that refer to our
understanding and knowledge of our own cognitive processes (Galotti, 2004). For example, reflections over what we
did and failed to do, errors we had committed, or the things we had decided upon are all metacognitive experiences
that demand cognitive recognition, restructuring, regulation, Monitoring and evaluation.
Metamemory is a major component of metacognition. Metamemory refers to the knowledge we have about
how memory works (Piper, 2003). To illustrate, let us have this example. Eunice is encoding her research paper and
watching a soap opera on television at the same time. She goes back and forth, sampling information from the soap
opera on the screen and the information in her research paper. This procedure goes smoothly until she discovers
that she has missed some important points in her research. And so, she finds it hard to recapture the fresh
information swaying in her head. In this case, what will Eunice do? Virtually, she needs to decide once and for all.
What does she want for all: to finish her project or to finish watching the soap opera? It is either to abandon, watching
the television drama and pay close attention to writing her research paper, hoping to find leading clues to what she
has missed or forgotten.
Like Eunice, we also display a great deal of variability in using metacognitive strategies. The types of
strategies we use and our self-awareness regarding our own learning and remembering from part of our current
study practices can lead to independent learning. The following is a suggested model for monitoring progress in
metacognition.

Strategies in Metacognition
According to Bee and Boyd (2007), there are four important strategies used in developing metacognition:
rehearsal, clustering, elaboration, and systematic searching.
• Rehearsal is the conscious repetition of information over and over so that such information will dwell in the
long-term memory system.
➢ Production Deficiency this condition occurs among children who are under five in which they never
show any indications of rehearsal.
➢ There are two types of rehearsal: maintenance rehearsal-refers to low-level repetitive kind of
information practice, and elaborative rehearsal-is more complex; it is when we use information for
deep processing and use its meaning to help us store and remember it.
• Clustering is another strategy in which we tend to put some items or things to remember into meaningful
organizations.
• Elaboration occurs when we enrich new information by adding extra information from our own schema.
➢ Elaboration falls under two categories: verbal elaboration-refers to the construction of additional
ideas using words that we might say or write. Under verbal elaboration, we have the following
types: summarization, self-questioning, analogy, mnemonics, or note taking. On the other hand,
image elaboration is concerned with construction of mental pictures that combine new information
with visual image which is already a part of our schema. To elaborate means to extend our knowledge
and to give details about something or to work out something in details.
• Systematic Searching. The processing of memory occurs in a continuum. It means that information is
processed from shallow to deep process. Thus, physical characteristics of certain information such as shape,
color, or specific parts are superficial and therefore account for shallow processing. Certain information has
to be analyzed first at the shallow level. However, we do not have to stop there.
➢ Accounts for two different ways: 1) semantic formation-deep processing and 2) association-
systematically search for the information if it is associated to something familiar, something that
resembles the figure, or one that sounds with it.
THE CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM
➢ Central Nervous System (CNS) - it is located at the center of our body. It is composed of the brain and the
spinal cord. Its primary role is to process and organize information. The central nervous system is so
powerful that it allows the body to receive sensory information from the environment through our eyes, ears,
and other sensory receptors. Our sensory modalities are activated by the neurons so that we can decide what
to do with the sensory information.
➢ Spinal Cord- serves as the communication link between the brain and all the parts of the body.
➢ Neurons-are the building blocks of the nervous system. These are cells that transmit information throughout
the body. Neurons have three different parts: Dendrites, which receive information from other neurons; the
cell body, which provides nourishment; and the axon, which refers to the neurons that send information
along the neurons.
➢ Glial Cells support and provide nutrients for the neurons in the central nervous system.
➢ Axon/ Action Potentials- is responsible for transmitting neural impulses.
➢ Myelin Sheath- if the neuron is activated, the axon potential occurs and travels more quickly down.
➢ Peripheral Nervous System (PNS) is responsible for carrying information to and from the central nervous
system. It is called peripheral because it is found outside the brain and spinal cord.
Peripheral Nervous System (PNS) is divided into two:
❖ Somatic Nervous System (SNS) is also known as skeletal nervous system, which is composed of all
the nerves that connect to sensory receptors and skeletal muscles. The somatic nervous system plays
a major role in communication throughout the entire body.
 ❖ Automatic Nervous System (ANS) is responsible for involuntary actions such as heartbeat, digestion,
pupil dilation, dislodging of the food into the throat, and breathing.
❖ Sympathetic Nervous System is responsible for arousing the body for action and preparing forces in
times of stress. In other words, it is the task of the sympathetic nervous system to arouse the body to
fight or flight when it is under physical or mental stress. It is also called the fight or flight system.
❖ Parasympathetic Nervous System relaxes or controls the body from stress. It is responsible for
calming the body down in order to conserve energy.
THE BRAIN
The adult human brain is a 1.3-kg (3-lbs.) mass of pinkish-gray jellylike tissue made up of approximately 100
billion nerve cells, or neurons; neuroglia (supporting-tissue) cells; and vascular (blood-carrying) and other tissues
(Roediger, Microsoft Student 2008, DVD). The brain is the organ of thoughts and feelings. It is the part of the body
that is responsible for intellectual activities. The brain is divided into three different parts: the hindbrain, midbrain,
and forebrain.
• Hindbrain is a collection of brain structures that include the medulla, pons, and cerebellum.
❖ Medulla is located near the base of the brain. It is composed of various nerve fibers that control
automatic bodily functions such as respiration and heart rate. If medulla is damaged, essential bodily
functions will fail and such failure leads to death.
❖ Pons is derived from Latin which means “bridge”. This is why pons is composed of axons that cross
from one side of the brain to the other. The pons is located above the medulla. It is responsible for
respiration, movement, sleeping, walking, and dreaming.
❖ Cerebellum is located at the base of the brain behind the medulla and pons. It is tasked to coordinate
fine muscles in order to facilitate smooth movement and balance. It is likewise responsible for some
aspects of perception and cognition. In like manner, it is tasked to maintain a sense of equilibrium
and physical balance. For example, when a boxer is on the ring with his opponent, he must protect
his cerebellum from injury. If he happens to injure his cerebellum, he might develop slurred speech
and coordination problems. Another example is in the case of a car accident; the police officers
interrogate and investigate the driver. They can identify whether or not there is drunk driving. When
they do such investigation, they are actually testing the driver’s cerebellum because it is one of the
first parts that are affected by alcohol.
• Midbrain is a part that contains neural centers responsible for our eyes and body movements to visual and
auditory stimuli. The midbrain works with the pons in order to control sleep and level of arousal.

Reticular formation is a finger-shaped set of neurons that runs through the core of the hindbrain,
midbrain, and brainstem. It is responsible for screening incoming sensory information and stimulating the
higher centers of the brain (cortex) in response to an event that demands attention. In the absence of our
reticular formation, we remain unconscious and mentally inactive. Additionally, when a person is in coma, it
means that his or her reticular formation is damaged.
• Forebrain is the largest and the most prominent parts of the human brain. It comprises the thalamus,
hypothalamus, limbic system, and cerebral cortex. The thalamus, hypothalamus, and limbic system are located
near the top of the brainstem. Around them is the cerebral cortex. The word “cerebrum” is Latin origin which
means “brain” while the word “cortex” means “cover.”
❖ Thalamus is responsible for relaying sensory information to the cerebral cortex. It is also
responsible for integrating information, learning, and memory.
❖ Hypothalamus is a small structure that is in charge with our emotions. Likewise, it regulates our
drives for thirst, hunger, sex, and aggression. Besides it is responsible for regulating the body’s
internal environment including temperature control. The hypothalamus influences the pituitary
gland.
❖ Pituitary gland, otherwise known as the “master gland” in such a way that it has neural connections
that facilitate the release of its own hormones into the blood supply of the pituitary. The pituitary
gland attempts to set control over endocrine responses by sending out hormone signals of its own
through the blood. The hypothalamus is so small, but it controls some parts of the autonomic nervous
system and endocrine gland.
❖ Limbic system. The last part located near the top of the brainstem. Sometimes called the “old brain,”
the limbic system involved in our emotional responses. Its location between the cerebrum and the
brain stem permits the interplay of emotion and reason. The word “limbic” means “edge.” Therefore,
in terms of its location, it is found lying at the border between the cerebral cortex and the lower level
brain structures. It is composed of forebrain structures such as the fornix, hippocampus, amygdala,
hypothalamus, and septum whose primary function is to stimulate emotion, motivation, memory, and
other aspects of behavior and cognitive processes.
▪ Fornix is an arched, vaultlike or a triangular structure of white matter in the brain that is
situated between the hippocampus and hypothalamus.
▪ Hippocampus is located at the base of cerebrum. The word hippocampus is of Greek origin
which means “seahorse” because of its shape. It is very important in consolidating learning
and in converting information from the working memory by means of electrical signals to
long-term memory system. It is likewise responsible for making constant check for the
information relayed to the working memory. The hippocampus is likewise significant in
 constructing meaning in our everyday life occurrences. If the hippocampus is injured, the
patients might have difficulty in remembering what they have read. If they read the same
article today, they have the tendency to believe that is the first time they encounter such
article. In the same manner, if a person is introduced to them today, tomorrow, the person
introduced remains a total stranger once again. As a result, they have the tendency to believe
that everything they do is always the first time.
▪ Amygdala is located at the lower end of the hippocampus. It is an almond-shape structure
that can stimulate rage, fear, or pleasure. Just because of its proximity to the hippocampus,
researchers believe that the amygdala encodes an emotional message. It means that when we
recall an emotional event, we have the tendency to experience the same emotions again. In
the limbic system, particularly the amygdala, there is the growing interest in research that
such part has been responsible for the production and regulation of aggression and fear. The
amygdala is so powerful that it can shut down other memory systems. It is associated with
feelings of fear and aggression and is responsible for visual learning and memory.
Researchers in cognitive science believe that emotions play an important role in cognitive
learning.
❖ Cerebral Cortex is a part of the brain; it is a thin surface layer that regulates most complex behaviors
such as receiving sensations, motor control, and higher cognitive processes. It is a part of the brain
that makes sense out of what we read on this page. It is also the part of our brain that makes us
understand and think about the information contained in this text. Virtually, the cerebral cortex is
the essence of life itself. Although it is so small, it is composed of about 30 billion neurons and once
it has been spread out, it can cover almost a whole page of a broadsheet. We recognize the
magnanimity of our cerebral cortex. Having been called the gray matter because of its composition
of billions of nonmyelinated neurons, it is capable of controlling and regulating our more complex
behaviors and higher cognitive processes.
Since the cerebral cortex is responsible for higher mental processes, such as language and
thought, it is so huge that about three-fourths of the neurons in the brain are in the cerebral cortex.
There are two cerebral hemispheres beneath the cortex that closely resemble the size of a big walnut.
The fissure divides the left and right hemispheres. These hemispheres are divided into eight distinct
lobes or areas (four on the left and four on the right).
▪ Frontal lobes are located at the top front part of the two brain hemispheres. The frontal
lobes are the responsible for motor control, speech production, and higher cognitive
functions such as thinking, emotion, and memory. For motor control, it is the task of the
frontal lobe to guide us in our voluntary movements. In the same way, it receives and
coordinates messages from the other three lobes.
With regard to speech production, the Broca’s area is located at the left frontal lobe
and is tasked for speech generation. Paul Broca discovered that clients who had an injury to
this area find it difficult to comprehend written or spoken language. He called that damage
Broca’s aphasia. In terms of higher cognitive functions, the frontal lobes control memory,
thinking, emotion, and personality.
▪ Parietal lobe. Just located behind the frontal lobes which is responsible for interpreting
bodily sensations that include pain, fear, pressure, touch, temperature and the location of
body parts. For example, when somebody pricks us with a needle, reflexively, we feel the pain
and say: “Ouch!” The message of pain is brought directly to the parietal lobes of the brain.
▪ Temporal lobes. Right above our ears lie the temporal lobes which are responsible for
hearing, comprehension, memory, and some emotional control. For example, the auditory
perception (hearing the sound) is processed in the auditory cortex. The sensory information
from the ears is processed here and the sent to the parietal lobes where the auditory
information is combined with visual and other bodily sensations. In the left temporal lobe lies
the Wernicke’s area that is responsible for language comprehension. If the person’s left
temporal lobe were damaged, a German neurologist, Carl Wernicke believed that the person
would find it very difficult to understand what he or she has read or heard. He called this
condition Wernicke’s aphasia. However, he or she could speak without any hassle or
difficulty.
In order to avoid confusion, it must always be noted that Broca’s area in the left
frontal lobe is responsible for speech production and that Wernicke’s area in the left temporal
lobe is responsible for language comprehension.
▪ Occipital lobes. They are located at the lower back of the brain. The occipital lobes are
involved in visual perception such as color, shape, or movements. In other words, they are
responsible for vision. Any damage to this area can cause blindness.
BRAIN LATERALIZATION
It has been indicated that the brain is divided into two hemispheres: the left and right. The left hemisphere
matches objects analytically and verbally. Metaphorically, we can match pencils and ballpoint pens as writing
materials or we can match spoon and fork with chopsticks as eating utensils. On the other hand, the right hemisphere
matches objects that are the same to form a visual pattern or relationship. For instance, we can describe the cognitive
processing of the left hemisphere as more analytic and sequential. We can characterize the right hemisphere as more
holistically and spatially.
Differences in cognitive functions between the left and the right hemispheres
Functions of the Left Hemisphere Functions of the Right Hemisphere
• Regulates positive emotions • Regulates negative emotions
• Controls muscles used in speech • Responds to simple commands
• Controls the sequence of movements • Memorizes music and shapes
• Memorize words and numbers • Interprets visual images
• Regulates speaking and writing • Understands relationships in space
• Understand spoken and written forms • Recognizes faces
Both the left hemisphere (analytical) and right hemisphere (creative) control different bodily functions and
actions. Some common functions attributed to each brain hemisphere include the following (Lucas, 2007).
Summary of differences between the left and right hemispheres
Left-brain hemisphere Right-brain hemisphere
Follows the sequential process Follows random process
Analytical Intuitive
Verbal Language Nonverbal language
Logical Spatial
Linear processing Spontaneous and holistic
Temporal Holistic
Mathematical functions Nonverbal process
Prefers structure Prefers to see and experience
Internal focus External focus
Reasoning Dreams
Judgments Sees similarities
Symbolic processing Concrete processing
Reality-based processing Fantasy-based processing
Deals with one thing at a time Integrates multiple inputs
LEARNING ABILITY; GENETICOR ENVIRONMENTAL?
➢ Francis Galton who first introduced the “nature-nurture” controversy. Galton was a cousin of Charles
Darwin, was impressed by the fact that genius tended to run in families. It shows that for Galton, there is a
strong inherited component in intellectual ability.
➢ The 17th-century philosopher, John Locke believed that the child was born “tabula rasa” or a blank slate
whose every characteristic is a product of the environment. Here, Locke’s belief placed emphasis on learning
as a way of explaining how children’s knowledge develops with age.
➢ a very sharp contrast to Locke was shown by 18th-century Swiss philosopher Jean-Jacques Rousseau. In his
book Emile, Rousseau gave reasons why children should be treated as children and not as miniature adults.
He considered that children are innately good who follow normal course of development according to the
nature’s plan.
Our ability to learn is affected by biological or genetic predisposition (nature) and environmental factors
(nurture). Nature refers to various external factors to which we are exposed from conception to death. Nature
refers to heredity or the genetic makeup of genes which means the information encoded in the deoxyribonucleic
acid (DNA). We have carried this genetic makeup from the time of conception up to the time of death.
Environmental factors account for the nature of the environment including what constitutes it, as well as its
physical characteristics.
▪ Localization. It refers to the brain activity underlying a specific cognitive function that is
concentrated in a particular part of the brain. For instance, let us consider the localization of
language. For a large number of people, the most dominant area of language processing found
at the middle part of the left hemisphere. Therefore, if the Broca’s and Wernicke’s Areas were
injured, such injury could cause language incompetence.
▪ Plasticity. It refers to the idea that the cognitive function of the brain changes in response to
experience. For instance, if we happen to touch hot objects, our reflexes are on the guard to
withdraw our hands from those objects. Neurons have the ability to send messages to the
brain; they also have the capacity to change. It means that neurons can make new connections
or strengthen the old ones. The cognitive function of the brain can be restructured or
reprogrammed by experiences.
Designing the Learning Environment
• Active participation. Effective teaching happens when students are actively engaged in meaningful learning
and when they are interacting with the content.
• Practice. New learning requires more than the usual exposure to classroom discussions. Practice in varying
contexts can improve retention rate and ability to apply new knowledge, skills, or attitudes.
• Individual differences. Students vary in great lengths; they vary in terms of personality, general aptitude,
knowledge of a subject, and others. Effective methods and strategies employed in teaching will help students
to progress at different rates, cover different materials, and participate in different classroom activities.
 • Feedback. Students need to know if their thinking is on track. Feedback may be provided by correction of
papers, sending electronic messages from a computer, the scoring system or rubrics, and by other means.
• Realistic contexts. Students must be taught how to apply knowledge in meaningful real-world contexts.
Rote memorization leads to inert knowledge- we know something but never apply to real life situations.
• Social interactions. Teachers serve as tutors and co-constructors of learning.
Integration and Mainstreaming
Today, more than ever, children with special needs are included in the regular classroom. There is now the
growing emphasis on mainstreaming and inclusion. Everyone has the right to be placed in an equal footing. All
children regardless of their race, culture, tradition, or beliefs have their capacity for development. It is therefore our
responsibility to facilitate and support their learning needs by providing an encouraging classroom environment—
one that stimulates learning. The developmental dimensions of children are not a fixed entity. Rather, it is a variable
that can be nurtured and developed. Integration and mainstreaming are two important aspects that the
environmentalists support.
Learning Strategies
Learning Strategies, sometimes called controlled processes are cognitive processes that do occur
automatically but require effort. A strategy is a cognitive plan; it is a conscious thought or behavior we use to process
the text. Strategies have the power to develop and enlarge the scope of learning by making it more efficient. In
hindsight, learning strategies are overall procedures that help us manage the flow of information so that we can store
if effectively in our long-term memory system.
Differences Between a Learning Strategy and a Study Strategy
Learning strategy uses higher-level thinking behaviors, such as decision-making, self-motivation, and self-
monitoring.
Study strategy is more similar to a standard procedure or an ordered series of steps that requires limited use of
higher-order thinking skills. For example, proofreading is a study strategy. As such, it requires us to check whether
we have correct spelling, punctuation marks, and other mechanics of writing. Learning strategies achieve cognitive
goals whereas study strategies achieve procedural goals.
Types of Study Strategies
Personal Management Strategies
• Efficient Use of Time. We all agree that time is an important part of everyday activities. Time spent cannot
be regained anymore. From this end, we can say that on top of various learning strategies is making efficient
use of time.
Efficient use of time is related to goal setting at the semester. We must develop long-term, short-term,
and immediate goals.
Managing time calls for self-control and self-discipline. To manage time wisely, we need to consider
the following:
❖ Prioritizing
❖ To-do list
❖ Scheduling
• Identify the Personal Skills Needed to Succeed in all Subjects. Now that we have set our goals to study
effectively, it is important to identify our personal skills in order to succeed in college life. We must develop
some personal skills, which include: self-discipline, self-esteem, self-determination, assertiveness, self-
confidence, motivation, initiative, responsibility, alertness, judgment, time management, and money
management.
• Adopt Healthy Habits. All strategies may be of no use and meaning if our physical body cannot get what it
deserves. For instance, if our body is weak and feverish due to lack of sleep or exercise, we cannot perform
well no matter how meaningful the learning tasks are. So, it is also important that we provide our body with
following:
❖ Enough sleep
❖ Regular exercise
❖ Enough rest and relaxation
❖ Proper diet and nutrition
❖ Control stress
COGNITIVE STRATEGIES
• Listening Strategies are useful in developing the other language modalities. Listening needs a very good
attention. To become a good speaker, we need to be a good listener.
• Paying Attention to key words and phrases is important in learning. To do so, we need to develop focus. Do
not allow our attention to wander around. Always remember that we can get something even from the worst
lectures. As we pay attention, we should also develop the ability to take down important notes.
• Reading Strategies account for speed, comprehension, and recall.
• Underlining is used to highlight important key words and phrases. With the use of a marker, we underline
the most important ideas in the text.
• Metaphor, Simile, and Analogy is used to transpose meaning from one idea, concept, event, experience, or
procedure to another. These help to sensitize students to the felt similarities across the various arrays of
knowledge.
• TPSR. Think-Pair-Share-Reflect. This strategy helps students to process information after reading a
selection.
 Think about the selection. Ask students to think independently about the important parts, situations,
procedures, steps, or facts found in the selection. Then, require them to list them down.
Pair it. Each student reads his or her own ideas and discusses them with a partner. Then, each
compares his or her own understanding.
Share it with a group. After they have compared their answers, they should start sharing the results
of their interaction with the entire group.
Reflect. Students should select important key points in the selection and display them on the board.
Then, let them do a short reflection on the lessons they have learned from the selection.
• Writing Marginal Notes is related to underlining in the sense that both make use of a marker to highlight
important points. The difference is that the former uses a line to emphasize key words and phrases while the
latter uses notes written at the margin of a certain page. The use of these two strategies is advisable only
when we own the text or the material.
• Highlighting refers to emphasizing key words, phrases, or messages in order to make them stand out among
the surrounding words. Highlighting can be done by underlining, coloring, shading, changing, font size,
italicizing, boldfacing, and animation.
• Concept Mapping is the arrangement of major concepts from a text or lecture into a visual representation.
Lines are drawn between associated concepts, and concepts name the relationships between connected
concepts.
• Graphic Organizers are tools used to organize information for easy recall and memorization. They also help
us organize ideas and information in the forms of:
❖ Charts are timelines and comparison charts which can be very useful tools for organizing
information; comparison charts can be set up in columns to compare a variety of concepts. Charts are
tools that help us display detailed information. There are several types of charts that include box
(recording progress on certain skills), Venn diagrams (used for comparing and contrasting qualities
or characteristics), concept maps (used for showing how ideas are connected with one another), flow
chars (used for displaying sequencing of events), and timelines (used for showing the historical
events in chronological order). Venn diagrams also help students discern how some concepts are
related to others.
One of the most popular types of chart is called Gantt chart used to showcase how ideas are
arranged in relation to each other.
❖ Tables are used to arrange facts and information in a condensed way into columns and rows.
❖ Outlines reflect the most important ideas contained in a selection or article. Outlines may be used.
The following are some common graphic organizers:
▪ T-Chart is an example of a graphic organizer where we can list the causes and effects as well as
the possible solution to a problem.
▪ Chain of events organizer is used to describe the stages of an event, the action of character or the
steps in a procedure.
▪ Continuum is used for time lines showing historical events, ages (grade levels in school), degrees
of something (weight), shades of meaning, or rating scales.
▪ Comparison or Contrast is used to show similarities and differences.
▪ Spider Map is used to describe a central idea: a thing, a process, a concept, and proposition. The
map may be used to organize ideas or brainstorm ideas for a writing project.
▪ In a Reflective Journal entry, the student identifies the activity, and then reflects on the material
learned.
▪ PIN chart is used in analyzing the problem and putting it in a new light or perspective.
▪ SWOT analysis is used when we evaluate the problem according to its merits and demerits.
• Semantic Web is used for brainstorming, generating insights, and connecting idea activities.
• Story Grammar works best in reading a story. It allows us to ask ourselves some questions as we read the
story. For example, in the story “The Lagoon” by Joseph Conrad, we can ask the following questions:
• SQ3R Strategy is applicable to all subject areas; can be used across all disciplines:
S-Survey. This stage gives us the framework for what to look for or what the chapter or unit will discuss
before we read it. We may browse through the pages and see what will transpire in actual discussions.
Q-Question. Here, we simply ask ourselves several questions as we read the material. Such can lead us to
higher levels of cognitive functioning.
R-Read. Knowing how to read sets the stage for active reading. It means that if we are prepared for material,
we develop focus and concentration as we understand the message the author is trying to convey.
R-Recite. In this phase, we recite or read aloud the important points we need to commit to memory. We do
it by reading the material aloud from memory, giving a detailed account of what we have read, or proving a
list of important points.
R-Review. In this stage, we normally examine the material to see whether it is adequate, accurate, correct,
relevant, or meaningful. Also we consider, check, and then study the material again.
• KWL Strategy helps us organize our understanding of a text. It is a strategy where:
❖ K is for KNOW. Here, we brainstorm what we know about the text. We develop categories for
knowledge about what we know. Then, we list them under the K column.
❖ W is for WANT TO KNOW. We ask questions about what we would like to know about the material.
Then, we list the things we still want to know under the W column.
 ❖ L is for LEARNING. It means that we have learned after reading the text should be written under the
L column.
• How to Increase Comprehension. The following tips may help us increase the level of our comprehension.
❖ Make learning sequential. It means that comprehension is developed by adding new knowledge to
the already existing knowledge.
❖ Rethink at designated points in the lesson. We must make sure that the new material is getting
through our memory systems.
❖ Summarize what we have read in our notes. We must rephrase them in our own words.
• Recalling Strategies.
❖ Understand. It means that we can only recall what we have understood.
❖ Desire. It means that we select what we would like to remember.
❖ Practice. We practice what we have learned.it is important to use what we learn in meaningful ways.
❖ Systematize. It means that to provide easy transfer, we must make a systematic way of remembering
the information.
❖ Develop associations. The law of association explains that if the information is connected to significant
events, then learning is possible to occur.
❖ Interest. Developing an interest in the information will help us learn the material.
• Mnemonic devices are influenced by association theory; these are very specific strategies that help us
remember information. In general, mnemonics work best in associations between unknown and well-
learned information. Many mnemonics, reduction mnemonics, physical tags, and poems.
Rhyming mnemonics. We may have heard the famous “I before e, except after c” in
remembering spelling words. In this rule, we have examples such as Alice, receive, receipt, or
conceive, and so on. Likewise, we have the reduction mnemonics which means shortening the
longer material into its workable form. Usually we use letters to represent the shortened forms
otherwise known as acronyms.
Mnemonics can also be physical tags used in remembering the number of days in each
month. We use our fist and label the knuckles above the fingers. The months that fall on the knuckles
have 31 days; the spaces between the knuckles signify the months with 30 days.
• Questioning is another type of strengthening the cognitive process. To support attention, we use
questioning techniques that help us become alert to the important information or ideas. When we use
questioning strategies in this way, we refer to them as adjunct questions because they are added on to the
information to be learned. Therefore, it may be safe to say that adjunct questions lead us to the right
information. They serve us guide posts thereby helping us activate our prior knowledge. In the same way,
adjunct questions provide opportunities to help us think about the information related to the right answers.
• Contextual clues. The use of contextual clues is another way through which we can develop vocabularies.
Context clues come in four different forms. They are as follows:
❖ Definition or Synonym. In some cases, the unfamiliar words are given definitions or synonyms.
❖ Explanation. the unfamiliar word is explained within the sentence.
❖ Example or illustration. In the form, the unfamiliar word is illustrated or given examples to provide
clear understanding.
❖ Comparison and Contrast. The meaning of unfamiliar word is either compared or contrasted.
• Chunking is an aid to learning; it helps us acquire knowledge and information. When the learning task is too
difficult or too complicated to encode, it is advisable to use the process of chunking. To do this, we need to
break the material into more meaningful units.
Two types of Chunking:
❖ Pattern Chunking is the easiest way to remember bits of information. Here, we have the material
13110117351985. It is composed of 14 digits which to us have no meaning at all. In fact, it exceeds
the working memory’s capacity of about seven times (otherwise known as magic seven). However,
we can arrange the numbers in groups in order to make them meaningful. For example, 1311 (my
house number); 0117 (January 17, my birthday); 35(my age); 1985(the year I got married). Now, we
get the different chunks with meanings:13110117351985.
❖ Categorical Chunking in which we arrange the information by establishing categories. We can also
facilitate understanding by creating categories or arrays which can be presented in the following:
1. Advantages and Disadvantages
2. Similarities and Differences
3. Structure and Function
4. Taxonomies
5. Arrays
• Idea-generating is a strategy through which we can produce ideas. In the book entitled Managing Creativity
and Innovation (2003), two techniques are offered: brainstorming and catchball.
❖ Brainstorming is a technique in which we generate ideas in a spontaneous manner. From the book
Decision-making: Five Steps to Better Results (2006), it is mentioned that brainstorming is a technique
used to create alternatives and problem solutions. It can be best achieved in group activities because
the insights and experiences of many people almost always produce more ideas than the person
working alone. There are three categories of brainstorming.
▪ Visioning requires us to imagine something.
 ▪ Modifying accounts for creating alternatives.
▪ Experimenting deals with testing the proposed solutions.
❖ Catchball is a term used in business which means the cross-functional method for accomplishing two
different goals. At first, the “ball” is tossed to collaborators for consideration. The “ball” represents
the idea which might be a new process, strategy, product or solution to a problem. Catchball is likened
to throwing a ball to members of the group. Whoever catches it should be responsible enough for the
ball to be improved. In other words, “catch” here refers to someone who understands the idea. It is
the responsibility of the person who “catches” the “ball” to improve it. The person then tosses the
improved idea to the group, where somebody catches and further improves it.
❖ PO is another idea-generating technique, which was popularized by Edward de Bono. PO means
provocative operation. He proposed that when we want to play with ideas and explore possibilities,
we could practice divergent thinking.
❖ Plus-Minus-Interesting is another technique for generating ideas. It is also a technique developed by
Edward de Bono. Otherwise known as PMI, it makes use of various proposals that can trigger idea
generation.
➢ The PMI generates ideas in solving problem.
▪ Think-aloud-this verbalizes our thoughts in order to demonstrate the needed skill.
One student may assume the role of a problem solver by thinking aloud as he or she
works through the problem. The second member acts as a monitor who asks
questions to aid in thinking.
▪ Cognitive Apprenticeship-is a relationship in which an expert stretches and
supports a novice’s understanding and use of culture’s skills. In this view, the teachers
model the needed strategies for students. Cognitive apprenticeship is related to
scaffolding in the sense that both provide needed support and guidance. At first
teachers have to model the strategy in learning a skill. Then, teachers have to provide
support or help while students are doing the tasks themselves. Finally, the students
do the task independently.

• Scaffolding was first popularized by Jerome Bruner who postulated the idea of helping students learn. He
believed that with the aid of a more competent person, the learners can increase the level of their
understanding of the material. For instance, children who may have difficulty in speaking and supported by
adults, usually their parents. In doing so, parents use a lot of techniques to clarify their children’s meaning
when speech is unclear. They help their children through expansion and prompting.
❖ Expansion. This process requires parents to elaborate or describe something more fully. For example:
Child: Want more cookies.
Parent: Yes, you want more cookies.
❖ Prompting. This is another way of providing support to children. It is a process where statements are
clarified by asking questions to provide cuing or leading statements. For instance:
Child: More cookies…
Parent: You want more what?
• Emotional Scaffolds are temporary but reliable teacher-initiated interactions that support students’
positive emotional experiences to achieve a variety of classroom goals. However, before using any strategy
to support students’ emotions, it is vital that both students and us should share the “language of emotions”.
We should talk to them and help them develop vocabulary for saying how they feel and expressing a range
of emotions. Positive emotional; tone can develop or enhance students’ understanding of the lesson,
motivation level, collaboration, participation, and emotional well-being.
ARTICULATING THE LEARNING OBJECTIVES
Some Principles of Effective Learning
• Knowing what we know.
• Knowing between ease and familiarity of knowledge.
• Opening sesame to learning.
• Learning is not always perfect.
• Processing our experience through cognitive structures.
• Learning is a lifelong process.
• Develop the attitude of flexibility about classroom management.
• Being a lifetime learner.
• Teaching and learning are situational.
• Planning for time and space affects the learning tasks in the classroom.
• Starting where the students are.
• There are several factors affecting learning.
• Providing a knowledge base about the aspects of assessment and evaluate.
• Obtaining the information and knowledge through the sense.
Lesson Planning
Planning is nothing more than thinking about what we want to accomplish. The main objective of the lesson
planning is to ensure that all activities and processes provide a supportive educational environment for the learner.
Planning should always focus on the interaction between what is to be learned and the learners. Planning a lesson
on a daily basis calls for sequence, continuity, and integration. Sequence means that a single lesson follows a definite
order of presentation. Continuity refers to the articulation of content from one level to another. Normally, it follows
a logical movement where lessons start from the simplest and progress to the most complicated ones. Integration
means that we teach what is needed, when it is needed, and why it is needed. The process of planning should consider
the following aspects:
• Vision, mission and philosophy of the school
• Goals and objectives of the school
• Standards of instruction
• Characteristics of students
• Theme or unit
• Time allotment
• Cognition and metacognition
• Special needs
• Assessment techniques
Specifying the Learning Objectives
Objectives can describe where we want students to go and how we will know if they got there. Objectives
pinpoint the destination—not the journey (Price & Nelson, 2007). They are called learning objectives because they
focus on the learners and learner outcomes (Kauchak & Eggen, 2007).
Learning objectives are commonly classified according to one of the five criteria that can be applied in the
assessment of performance. The criteria include the following:
• Cognitive objectives include knowledge and intellectual abilities to be demonstrated by the learners. They
also include the teachers’ knowledge about subject matter content, pedagogy of teaching, ability to integrate
important information about one’s culture, and ability to analyze the curriculum.
• Performance objectives refer to the learners’ ability to demonstrate an activity. Performance should
develop the learners’ higher order thinking skills.
• Consequence objectives deals with the results of the learners’ actual performance. How do they progress?
Does their performance commensurate with the efforts made by the teachers and their own effort with the
drills and exercises provided for mastery? In other words, their performance should demonstrate the effect
of teaching or the learners’ knowledge about the lesson.
• Affective objectives include the domains of attitudes, emotions, values, beliefs, and relationships. These are
intended to develop the learners’ emotional expression in relation to some actions or ideas.
• Exploratory objectives are concerned with self-learning and self-regulation. It means that learners need to
observe, investigate, verify, examine, analyze, or travel for discovery. Students must be involved in some kind
of experiences in which they are required to visit a place or have an interaction with prominent people in the
community in order to possess authentic learning.
Learning objectives are descriptive outcomes of learning (Freiberg & Driscoll, 2005) in such a way that
objectives describe the:
1. information we intend for students to know or use.
2. specific skill to perform or demonstrate.
3. value or feeling that students experience.
Components of Learning Objectives
• Content describes the specific subject matter. It is the specific lesson that a teacher should teach and students
should learn. For example, “differentiate between metaphors and similes.”
• Behavior describes what students will do to show that they have learned. It is an action word that is
observable and describes the SMART principle where:
S is specific
M is measurable
A is attainable
R is realistic, and
T is time-bound
The use of SMART principle can be made even SMARTER where:
S is specific
M is measurable
A is attainable
R is realistic, and
T is time-bound
E is essential, and
R is result-oriented
• Condition deals with all the circumstances, situations or settings under which the learners will perform the
desired behavior.
• Criterion. The fourth component refers to the level of acceptable performance. It is also the standard
describing mastery level of student performance of a behavior.
Criteria for Selecting Learning Objectives
• Appropriateness of the objectives to the learning outcomes.
• Logical learning outcomes.
• Attainability of objectives.
 • Harmony between the objectives and the philosophy of the school.
❖ Constitutional aims
❖ Institutional mission or the school’s philosophy
❖ College goals and objectives
❖ Curriculum goals
❖ Course objectives
❖ Unit objective
❖ Lesson plan objectives or specific instructional objectives
• Harmony between objective and basic principles of learning.
To make sure that there is harmony, we need to consider the following factors:
❖ Readiness
❖ Motivation
❖ Retention
❖ Transfer
Taxonomy of Learning Objectives
Taxonomy is a hierarchical model that describes classification and sequencing procedures.
Appropriate action verbs for the cognitive, affective, and psychomotor domains are listed below.
Bloom’s Taxonomy of the Cognitive Domain
Bloom’s taxonomy of cognitive learning, originated by Benjamin Bloom and collaborators in the 1950’s, describes
several categories of cognitive learning.
ORIGINAL BLOOM COGNITIVE TAXONOMY
Category Description
Knowledge Ability to recall previously learned material.
Comprehension Ability to grasp meaning, explain, restate ideas.
Application Ability to use learned material in new situations.
Analysis Ability to separate material into component parts and show
relationships between parts.
Synthesis Ability to put together the separate ideas to form new whole,
establish new relationships.
Evaluation Ability to judge the worth of material against stated criteria.

This taxonomy was revised in 2001 by Anderson and Krathwohl to change the category names from nouns to verbs,
and to switch the Evaluation and Synthesis levels in the hierarchy.
REVISED ANDERSON AND KRATHWOHL COGNITIVE TAXONOMY
Category Description
Remember Ability to recall previously learned material.
Understand Ability to grasp meaning, explain, restate ideas.
Apply Ability to use learned material in new situations.
Analyze Ability to separate material into component parts and show
relationships between parts.
Evaluate Ability to judge the worth of material against stated criteria.
Create Ability to put together the separate ideas to form new whole,
establish new relationships.

Krathwohl and Bloom’s Taxonomy of the Affective Domain

Krathwohl and Bloom's 1964 taxonomy of the affective domain describes several categories of affective learning.
AFFECTIVE TAXONOMY
Level Definition Example
Receiving Being aware of or attending to Individual reads a book
something in the environment. passage about civil rights.
Responding Showing some new behaviors Individual answers questions
as a result of experience. about the book, reads another
book by the same author,
another book about civil rights,
etc.
Valuing Showing some definite The individual demonstrates
involvement or commitment. this by voluntarily attending a
lecture on civil rights.
Organization Integrating a new value into The individual arranges a civil
one's general set of values, rights rally.
giving it some ranking among
one's general priorities.
 Characterization by Value Acting consistently with the The individual is firmly
new value. committed to the value,
perhaps becoming a civil rights
leader.

Psychomotor Domain
The following is a synthesis of the taxonomies of Simpson (1972), Dave (1970), and Harrow (1972).
PSYCHOMOTOR TAXONOMY
Level Definition Example
Observing Active mental attending of a The learner watches a more
physical event. experienced person. Other
mental activity, such as reading
may be a part of the
observation process.
Imitating Attempted copying of a The first steps in learning a
physical behavior. skill. The learner is observed
and given direction and
feedback on performance.
Movement is not automatic or
smooth.
Practicing Trying a specific physical The skill is repeated over and
activity over and over. over. The entire sequence is
performed repeatedly.
Movement is moving towards
becoming automatic and
smooth.
Adapting Fine tuning. Making minor The skill is perfected. A mentor
adjustments in the physical or a coach is often needed to
activity in order to perfect it. provide an outside perspective
on how to improve or adjust as
needed for the situation.

THE PLACE OF MOTIVATIONIN LEARNING

Motivation refers to an internal state of arousal that often precedes behavior. It means that motivation is
linked with behavior. If we are motivated to do something, such motivation is manifested in our behavior. In the
classroom, learning becomes a form of behavior. From this vintage point, we can say that learning is motivated.
Motivation is caused by a variety of factors: exercise, good nutrition, sleep, rewards, challenges, friendship, kindness,
security, authority, independence, pleasant environment, creative expression, and meaning (Epstein & Rogers).
Factors Affecting Motivation
• Knowledge in a particular content area;
• Beliefs about what the teacher expects;
• Adolescents’ self-concept or perceived personal ability;
• Anxiety and concern over grades;
• Level of support in the classroom environment;
• Difficulty and challenge of the task;
• Social interactions; and
• Belief that learning is useful, meaningful, and of consequence of others.
Various abilities that must be developed to enhance our motivation level (Epstein & Rogers, 2001):
1. Manage the environment.
2. Manage our own thought.
3. Set goals.
4. Maintain a healthy lifestyle.
5. Make commitments.
6. Monitor our behavior.
7. Manage stress.
8. Manage rewards.
Sequence of Motivation
Satisfaction or
Choice Instrumental dissatisfaction
Behavior of a motive
Choice. We exercise the power to select. In panoply of different categories, we select the best that suits our taste and
our best judgment.
Instrumental behavior. Deals with all the activities that we engage in order to satisfy our motive.
Satisfaction or dissatisfaction of a motive. Everything we do leads to satisfaction of our motives.
Factors Affecting the Satisfaction of a Motive
Physical properties of the goal. Certain goals may be characterized by quality, quantity, or value. For instance, how
does the amount of praises (quantity) affect our desire to satisfy our motive to succeed in an English class? What is
the quantity (value) of our verbal responses in relation to our motive? How do incentives as forms of reinforcers
become important to us?
Consummatory behavior. The word “consummatory” is an adjective which means “that of relating to something used
to achieve, fulfill, or complete.” Giving grades consummates on the completion of certain subject. A program
consummates with a culminating ceremony. Smiling is a consummatory behavior after a person receives a greeting.
Also, students consummate a college education on receiving a diploma.
Subjective feeling of individuals. The third and last aspect deals with how we feel about satisfying a motive. Do we
feel a sense of pride or shame? do we feel a sense of relief or harm? Do we have the moral discernment for success
and failure?
Motives and Drives
Drives for motivation that is assumed to have a strong biological component and plays an important role in survival
and reproduction. Hunger, thirst, and fear are all examples of biological drives. On the contrary, still many
psychologists reserve the term Motives urges that are mainly learned such as the need for achievement. Conversely,
many of our goals, activities, and desires are driven by both biological components and learning.
There are two types of motivation that emerge from biological component and learning:
• Intrinsic Motivation comes from within the individual. Intrinsic motivation comes from the pleasure
provided by the work itself.
• Extrinsic Motivation comes from a pleasure of a reward (Deeprose). Aptly put, extrinsic motivation is based
on the external reward; it comes from outside us. Extrinsic motivation is concerned with the performance of
an activity because of some external rewards that hinge on external consequences. Such include money,
praises, recognition, or grades.
THE ELEMENTS OF A MOTIVATIONAL SYSTEM
Motivation is a goal-directed behavior that is affected by personality, persona, and self-regulation.
• Personality is the totality of what we are and who we are in relation to other people. Personality refers to
the way we think, act, or behave. Personality reflects the inner thoughts and feelings through actions. All the
things we do and say account for our personality.
• Persona is the self; the perceived personality of a person. It is the identity or role that we assume or the
image of character we project. However, we may not wear the kind of self or persona we want to portray
because we have two different selves: the inner and outer self. Sometimes we have the tendency to use a
personal façade especially if we are trying to stash our hidden thoughts and feelings.
In motivation, the way we look at ourselves plays a crucial role in academic success. In the study of the “self”
there are three interrelated concepts. Such include: self-concept, self-esteem, and self-regulation.
Self-concept accounts for our perceptions formed through experience. Self-concept is both evaluative and
descriptive, referring to both what we think about ourselves in certain dimension and how we feel about that.
Self-enhancement is our desire to learn positive things about ourselves.
Consistency motive deals with our desire for information that confirms our current knowledge.
Appraisal motive that is concerned with our desire to learn about ourselves based on different feedbacks
given by other people in different situations.
Our self-concept is both multidimensional and hierarchical. The multidimensionality of our self-concept
deals with the idea that we have a different self-concept about different aspects of our own life. These aspects are
arranged in the mind in a hierarchical manner in such a way that they go together to form an academic self-concept.
Self-esteem is the second important key word in the study of motivation. Self-esteem on the valuing process
where there is the belief in our own worth as a person.
Self-regulation is the third and last important keyword in the study of motivation. This is the behavioral
component in the study of the self. Self-regulation refers to a system by which we control our actions and decisions.
It also pertains to our behavioral component that describes the extent to which we monitor our own behavior.
Inner Speech
Self-talk/ Inner speech/ Private speech is an effective way of developing our self-concept and enhancing our self-
monitoring skills. It is an internal conversation within us. Knowledge of inner speech helps us monitor our behavior.
Johnson (as cited by Brownell) proposed four characteristics of inner speech. They are as follows:
• Egocentric does mean selfish or self-centered. It is the attention that is directed inward. It is the energy focused
on identifying past association and clarifying personal response to what we have heard.
• Silent means that we do not allow others to hear the words we say.
• Compressed syntax means that inner speech is not constructed the way it is in spoken language, normally, the
way in which the syntax of message is reduced as the ideas we hear are processed contributes to the
difference between speaking and listening rates.
• Semantic embeddedness can signify more than it does in the interpersonal communication. The more first-
hand knowledge we have about certain information the richer our resources.
Self-efficacy
Self-efficacy refers to our ability to deal effectively with a particular task. It deals with our judgments about
certain courses of actions—about our ability to do specific things.
 By any chalk, self-efficacy has something to do with self-fulfilling prophecy or a condition in which we end
up acting in certain ways because that is what others expect of us. The way we perform a specific task depends, to a
large measure, on how we are expected to do it.
THEORIES OF MOTIVATION
Biological perspective accounts for the inborn processes that control and direct behavior. Under this
perspective, we have the following theories of motivation.
• Instinct Theory describes how motivations result in automatic behaviors. It means that these become
unlearned response because they are instinctive, inborn, or inherent in every one of us.
• Drive-Reduction Theory is anchored on the belief that all living organisms have biological needs such as
food, water, air, shelter, and clothing. If we are hungry, our hunger drive motivates us to look for something
to eat. If we fail to satisfy our physiological need, such hunger creates tension. The drive-reduction theory
hinges on the biological principle of homeostasis, which means that if there is a biological need that
produces a drive, homeostasis is on the rescue to create balance in the internal environment. In hindsight,
drive-reduction theory is one that “pushes” us to do something.
• Arousal Theory emphasizes the idea that we possess certain amount of curiosity in which we tend to explore
novelty and complexity of things in the environment. We also have the need for sensory stimulation that
begins early in life and continues to develop across the lifespan. Arousal theory is likewise focused on the
idea that all of us have the need to achieve and maintain an ideal level of arousal that maximizes our
performance. Generally, when we say “ideal level,” we mean the level that is appropriate enough to maximize
our performance. We are responsible for maximizing our arousal level.
Psychological perspective accounts for an attempt to explain the “why’s” of our own actions that describe
incentives and cognition.
• Incentive Theory explains that motivations result in external stimuli that “pull” people in certain
directions. As opposed to drive-reduction theory which acts as the “push” factor, the incentive theory
refers to the “pull” factor.
• Cognitive Theory is concerned with attributions that affect motivation. Attributions refer to perceptions
that help us think about our own actions and those of others.
Humanistic Perspective clearly delineates our needs that span from psychological drives to social motives
up to our creativity. This was proposed by Abraham Maslow in his famous hierarchy of needs or level of importance.
The pyramidal presentation describes that the lower needs are more pervasive and that the higher needs are more
tenuous and they are easily overpowered by the influence of lower needs.

• Physiological needs include the need for food, air, water, clothing, shelter, sex, and others. These lie at the
base and must be satisfied first before the needs in the higher levels can be fully achieved.
• Safety needs are concerned with our needs to feel safe and avoid danger. If we are starving, we can risk our
physical safety just for food.
• Belonging and love needs moves us to affiliate ourselves with, be connected to, or be respected and loved
by others. If we feel that we are already free from danger or peril, we may seek for love, affection, and
belongingness.
• Esteem needs involve our needs to express and do what is necessary in order to gain respect and honor.
• Self-actualization needs deals with our need to develop ourselves to the fullest and to the most productive
persons we can be. This teaches us to use our creative power to move on the highest level in order to be self-
actualized. It also teaches us that some of our needs are more important than others.
The first stages are based on deficiency needs or D-needs. Failure to meet D-needs means we lack the
qualities for basic psychological adjustment. In other words, we lack a positive sense of self—a sense that allows us
to love, be loved, or feel secured.
Maslow’s term for self-actualizing need is called being needs or B-needs. Self-actualizing need is associated
with its peripheral needs such as truth, justice, beauty, wholeness, richness, playfulness, meaningless, and goodness.
We are afraid because people in our lives might not also accept change. Maslow referred such of change as
Jonah complex.
SHAPING MOTIVATION
Mastery goals are otherwise known as learning goals. They develop our intrinsic motivation. When we have
mastered certain skill, we feel great; we feel that we have personally improved. In this way, we also improve our
level of competence, our level of self-concept, our level of self-esteem or a sense of mastery.
Performance goals is the idea that performance of certain task leads us to develop self-worth. Otherwise known as
ego goals, performance goals are related to achieving success with less effort. The use of performance-orientation
structure leads us to superficial processing of information involving our ability to recall, memorize, or rehearse.
Factors that Shape Motivation
• Effective Teachers
The following are identified effective teacher characteristics at classroom level.
❖ Pedagogical knowledge
❖ Communication skills
❖ Leadership
❖ Human relations
❖ Technological literacy
• Classroom Management is symbolized by the way in which the space and all the variables in the classroom
are controlled.
There are interesting ways conceiving the task of establishing classroom management.
❖ Content management accounts for organizing activities, space, and instruction.
❖ Conduct management focuses on rules and consequences.
❖ Covenant management deals with our ability to focus on relationships between the school and home,
teachers and students, and students and students.
• Effective Instruction is important when we assign students to work in their skill group. No lesson should
begin unless we provide clear instructions and gain students’ interest.
• The Use of Imaginative Activities can enhance motivation. When we give students some imaginative
activities in which they can experience vicarious oddities of life; in which they can explore the vast realm of
life’s ups and downs; and in which their curiosity is piqued, they are in better position to develop their own
learning. In addition, imaginative activities help them see connections between the old and new information.
Likewise, these give students the extra power to show their ownership of learning.
• Establishing Effective Learning Environment is also an important factor in shaping motivation. So, the
environment should have the following:
Withitness refers to “eyes at the back” or our awareness of what is happening in the classroom. We
should be aware of our students’ behavior, including their academic standing, their common learning
problems, and their peers.
Group alerting pertains to the classroom environment that signals the entire class to a certain
transition that is about to occur. It may be done using:
✓ Individual responses
✓ Group or choral responses
✓ Suspense among students
✓ Language of oculesics to gain attention
Student accountability is about tasks or assignments with which we can make ourselves busy and
responsible for individual or group work.
Satiation, valence, and challenge are three important things to consider in the classroom
environment. Satiation means gratification of our desire. Valence is the experienced level of value of a certain
moment. On the other hand, challenge deals with an invitation that stimulates students’ thinking. Classrooms
should be a place in which interactions are challenged through a free market of ideas.
• Keller’s ARCS Model in Motivation has four categories of motivation (Zook, 2001):
Attention is the basic aspect of motivation; it is a mental focus. Without attention, then we wander
aimlessly. If we do not have focus, we do not know where we are headed to.
Relevance refers to the connection between the material to be learned and to our real-life situations.
First of all, the material must have some logical or sensible connections with our life. If we cannot find any
connections then, we may not find the material relevant.
Confidence us concerned with our self-assurance or personal belief that we can really work on the
material. This is related to motivation in the sense that confidence allows us to create a positive feeling about
our own worth and capacity. We are able to chalk out our own self-efficacy and eventually generate a positive
self-concept. When we feel good about ourselves, we exude a positive feeling about our academic success.
Satisfaction supports motivation; it is a feeling of fulfillment; it is a sense of accomplishment. We
develop satisfaction if we have mastered the needed skills in performing certain task.
• Questioning Strategies help our students develop focus. When we use questions to support their attention,
we use adjunct questions (Zook, 2001). They are called adjunct because they are added in the information
to be learned. Adjunct means something essential added to something else.
There are seven habits of effective questioning: (Goldman, et.al., 2003):
❖ Asking fewer questions
❖ Differentiating questions
❖ Questioning for depth
❖ Questioning for breadth
❖ Using wait time
❖ Selecting students
❖ Giving useful feedback
✓ Immediacy
✓ Consistency
✓ Regularity
✓ Sincerity
 Questioning is a skill that we must develop. According to Davis, (2007), questioning is likened to the
funneling process where the three types of questioning are identified. They are as follows:
❖ Open questions allow an easy access into the answer.
❖ Probing questions dig deeper into the problem; they investigate something completely. Probing
questions led to thorough exploration and investigation.
❖ Closed questions are found at the latter part of the lesson. They signal that the learning transaction
has been completed.
There are three types of questions used in classroom interactions:
❖ Trigger questions open a discussion, serve as stimuli that set off an action or event, and provide broad-
based operations for learning events.
❖ Probe questions generate further answer or explanation. We utilize these for deeper and more
comprehensive search for meaning and understanding.
❖ Redirect questions add ideas to what has already been asked. When we throw questions to the entire
class, we invite students to give their views and opinion to the same issue.
• Storytelling Strategies can connect with more than the minds of our students; we have to connect with their
own core values, and with their most significant experiences and memories. Stories are everywhere. We hear
them, we tell them, we write them, we read them, and we enjoy them. We use them to get inspired and inspire
others. We also use them to motivate others.
• Appropriate Feedback is very crucial in teaching and learning because it is essential in self-regulation.
Though we often give feedbacks as verbal forms, we must consider nonverbal praises.
• Assessment Techniques account for the what, why, when, and how of assessment. As a form of decision-
making, assessing students’ performance has played an important role in shaping motivations.
Types of Assessment
❖ Diagnostic assessment provides the needed information to make decisions regarding alternative
methods or procedures. Diagnostic assessment determines the content or type of instruction needed
by students.
❖ Formative assessment describes what students already know and can do before or during
instruction.
❖ Summative assessment includes students’ achievement upon the completion of a lesson or unit.
• Modelling Technique is a motivational technique in which people whom students admire demonstrate,
through their actions, the values and behaviors we want students to acquire. These actions are usually
expressed in the forms of verbal and nonverbal languages. For example, students who are required to
dramatize real-life situations are compelled to model what they see on television screens or within their
immediate environment. Additionally, classroom modeling results in the transfer of desirable behavior
patterns. It is believed that the most notable model is the teacher.
• Games and activities are expected to increase the level of student motivation. However, not all games can
be used in the classroom. Effective games should meet at least these six characteristics (Lucas, 2007):
❖ Meaningful. For a game to be effective, it should have its direct contribution to the program objectives
of the school.
❖ Time-effective. A game is time-effective if it can be finished within few minutes.
❖ Cost-effective. Materials used in the classroom should not be too expensive.
❖ Adaptable. Games should allow for flexibility or change. It means that these should be suited to any
level of students and also to the content or objective we want to reinforce. Not all games are
adaptable. However, we must store them in our teaching “tool box” for some modifications and
repair.
❖ Non-threatening. Games should stimulate thinking. They should also be designed in ways that
students celebrate academic success.
❖ Participative. Games should be participative in nature. It means that the more students participate,
the greater the chance of learning. Effective games provide students’ development on cognitive,
affective, and psychomotor domains.
• Teacher Expectations have a powerful influence on student performance. If we expect students to be
motivated, hardworking, enthusiastic, and interested in our class, they are more likely to be so. Our positive
expectations have something to do with students’ performance. The idea of self-fulfilling prophecy works
in this case. If we expect them to score higher in their exams and motivate them to study harder, then they
will be like what we have expected. Consequently, students will believe and achieve in accordance with our
expectations.
• Reward Mechanism is a formal system of reinforcement. It is an agreement whereby students earn specified
rewards for displaying certain types of behaviors. This is another way by which we can motivate students to
perform better in their academic tasks. Premack principle, also known as differential probability
principle, refers to the existence of two responses that differ in their likelihood of occurrence when the
original is given free access to both activities. David Premack explained the idea of reinforcement in a
different way. He proposed that the opportunity to perform the higher probability response will serve as a
reinforcer for the lower probability response. It means that all the things that a student does are collectively
known as performance. And such performance depends on many things including motivation.
• Contingency Contracts are more formal written agreements between students and teachers. These describe
exactly what students should do to earn a desired privilege or reward. It means that we are entering a
 provision that has to be fulfilled. We can write a contract and present it to our students. It can be the other
way around where we require them to write a contract and present it to us. Sometimes, we tend to be eclectic
in the sense that it is written by both the students and us.
THE FOUR PILLARS OF LEARNING
The UNESCO provides the four pillars of learning:
• Learning to be aims for complete development of mind and body; it is for the complete fulfillment of man in
all aspects of his personality, the complexity of his human forms of expression and various commitments—
as individual person, member of a family and of a community, citizen, producer or inventor of techniques,
and creative dreamer. Learning to be is equivalent to learning to understand our right to self-identification
and self-definition.
• Learning to know equates with learning how to learn by developing concentration, memory, and thinking
skills. These skills can be developed in the use of varied activities such as games, travel, work experience,
and practical science activities. The ability to concentrate must be developed at an early stage of life.
• Learning to do. Is related to the occupational training that is adapted to the types of work needed in the
environment. The growing concept has been called “personal competence”. Learning to do equates with the
right to self-development.
• Learning to live together. The task of education is to teach students about human diversity and to instill in
them an awareness of the similarities and interdependence of all people.
CHILDREN’S LEARNING AND DEVELOPMENT
Dialectal Theory recognizes the important role the environment plays in shaping children’s developmental
progress. This theory provides an understanding on the role of interactions (dialogs) between children and their
environment. There are four distinct dimensions of these interactions:
• Inner biological deals with the physiological maturation or internal process within the growing children. This
is responsible for some major life changes brought about by their biological functioning of the physical body.
Such include courting a girl, leaving home, getting steady, marrying, and having their own children.
• Individual psychological accounts for some traits and tendencies. For example, children develop values,
assertiveness, sensitivity, artistic inclination, respect, obedience, sociability, and other talents that change as
time passes by. This dimension determines the specific role that children have for their parents, classmates,
teachers, friends, neighbors, and so on.
• Cultural-sociological dimension refers to the elements of one’s cultural heritage such as religion, traditions,
laws, and communities. Sudden changes in cultural environments create disturbances and troubles.
• Outer physical dimension involves various phenomena such as climate, calamities, disaster, famine, draught,
poverty, terrain, and other forms of natural environmental disturbances affect how children conduct their
lives in a coherent fashion.
Inner Psychological Dimension
• The perceptual-cognitive-moral domains.
• Children’s perception. The children are born with multiple sensory organs and a well-formed brain.
The fundamental organization of the brain does not change after birth, but details of its structure
demonstrate plasticity. It means that the brain has the capacity to be molded.
In some cases, they engage in intermodal perception in which they integrate information
from two or more modalities. Indeed, children learn through their perception as it becomes an
important tool in learning.
The baby’s perception is quite different from the adult’s. in other words, they differ in the
ways they look at the same thing although they look at the same thing. This type of learning is called
perceptual learning. Perceptual learning for children such as looking, listening, smelling, feeling,
becomes more searching and less captive as they grow.
• Children’s cognitive development. As children grow, they seek to construct an understanding of the
world. The brain creates schemes which are mental representations that organize knowledge. We
know that children learn to think as they grow, but we do not know exactly what constitutes their
thinking; we do not know where and how their perceptual processes cease and cognitive processes
commence.
The study of cognitive development was advanced by Jean Piaget—a Swiss psychologist who
popularized the idea of biological adaptation. Piaget believed that as children grow, they experience
a lot of changes in the environment. They perceive more learn more, and experience more as they
adapt to it by changing in certain ways. The interaction between children and the environment is
facilitated by two different processes—accommodation and assimilation. Accommodation occurs
when children modify their cognitive structure in order to fit in new information. On the other hand,
assimilation happens when children react to something new by looking for something in which they
are already familiar. Accordingly, Piagetian thinking is divided into four different stages: sensory-
motor stage, preoperational stage, concrete operational stage, and formal operational stage.
In language learning children all over the world exhibit the same path. It means that children
undergo the same pattern of language development:
➢ Babbling and other vocalization. During the first year, children produce sounds and gestures
to attract the attention of their caregivers. Such include the following sequence:
1. Crying
2. Cooing
 3. Babbling
4. Gestures
➢ Recognizing language sounds. Over the next several months, children learn to change the
sounds from their own language—the one their parents or caregivers speak.
➢ First words. Between 10 to 15 months of age, children say their first words. The most
important characteristic of the first word utterances is their shared meaning. These single
word utterances accompanied by gestures, actions, vocal intonation, and emotions are called
holophrases. They say words that refer to important people (Mama), familiar objects
(pencil), toys (ball), body parts (nose), food (milk), color (red), and words of greetings (bye).
At this stage, children’s receptive vocabulary (words children understand) generally exceeds
spoken vocabulary (words children use).
➢ Two-word utterances. Between 18 to 24 months, children use two-word utterances to convey
meanings. These two-word utterances are known as telegraphic speech. Examples include:
red balloon, big car, tall tree, sit down, and so on.
➢ Children’s moral development. When children learn the physical environment, they also learn
how to behave in certain ways and in certain situations. One of the most important aspects of
their behavior is moral behavior, which includes reasoning process.
Kohlberg’s Stages of Moral Development
Levels Stages Reasoning Guides
Preconventional ➢ Punishment- Obey the rules to avoid
level obedience punishment
➢ Reciprocity- Do what is best for the person
needs in return
Conventional ➢ Approval of Be good in the eyes of others
level others
➢ Law and Act according to the law
order
Postconventional ➢ Individual Follow the rules and make
level rights rational judgment
➢ Ethical Act according to one’s
principles conscience based on what the
person believes is right and
just.

• The socio-emotional or personality domains. As children grow, they do not only learn how to think but
they also learn how to feel, act, and control their feelings in response to other people’s actions. They learn
how to be sociable and get the attention of adults. The child’s ability to interact and do such in a positive way
is known as sociability. However, the child’s sociability is influenced by the caregiver’s willingness and
abilities for interactions.
There are two main categories of emotions: 1) primary emotions including joy, surprise, anger, sadness, fear
and 2) self-conscious emotion including empathy, jealousy, and embarrassment.
ADOLESCENTS’ LEARNING
➢ Puberty is a period of rapid physical maturation involving hormonal and bodily changes. The onset of
puberty among the girls is marked by menarche.
➢ Amygdala of the processing of information about emotion.
➢ There are two kinds of egocentrism that affect their interactions: 1) preoccupation with their own thoughts
and 2) preoccupation with other people’s thoughts. David Elkind described the formation of personal
fable—an intense investment of their own thoughts and feelings and a belief that these thoughts are unique.
Adolescents believe that they alone have certain insights and no one could understand their own thoughts.
The second egocentrism is about imaginary audience — an assumption that they are the center of interest
of other people’s thoughts and attention. Instead of thinking that everyone is preoccupied with his or her
thoughts and feelings, the adolescents continue to envision that their thoughts are the subject of other
people’s thoughts. This subjectivity generates an uncomfortable self-consciousness that makes interactions
awkward.
ADULT LEARNING
Adult learning refers to the practice of teaching and educating adults. It is lifelong education, usually in the form of
short or part-time courses and training designed to make professionals up-to-date with the latest development in
their field. Adult learning is conceived in the perspective of lifelong learning. It is education that people pursue in
many different places and environments—in the workplace, at home, in the community, or in non-formal settings.
Andragogy is an approach trying to understand that adult learner has had different life experiences as compared to
a child—and that different teaching and learning techniques must be utilized to educating this “different” kind of
students. Andragogy consists learning strategies focused on adults.
Key Differences between Adults and Children as Learners
Child and Adult Learning Characteristics
Children Adults
 Rely on others to decide what is important to be Decide for themselves what is important to be
learned. learned.
Accept the information being presented at face Need to validate the information based on their
value. beliefs and values.
Expect what they are learning to be useful in Expect what they are learning to be immediately
their long-term future. useful.
Have little or no experience upon which to Have substantial experience upon which to
draw, are relatively “blank slates.” draw. May have fixed viewpoints.
Little ability to serve as a knowledgeable Significant ability to serve as a knowledgeable
resource to teacher or fellow classmates. resource to the trainer and fellow learners.

Experiential learning
Learning is an experience. As we explore the vast realm of knowledge, it becomes one of the most wonderful
experiences that can happen to us. Understanding learning and how it occurs is anchored on the idea that learning
should be an interesting exciting, and meaningful experience. We should also experience the beauty of learning.
STUDENTS WITH SPECIAL LEARNING NEEDS

Key Points
• Special education is the practice of educating students with disabilities or special needs in an effective way
that addresses their individual differences and needs.
• Some forms of support include specialized classrooms; adapted equipment and materials; accessible
settings; teacher’s aides; and speech, occupational, or physical therapists.
• Common types of learning disabilities include intellectual disabilities, autism, ADHD, dyslexia, deaf-
blindness, developmental delay, orthopedic impairment, speech or language impairment, and traumatic
brain injury.
• Two laws, the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA) and Section 504, provide guidance to
educators in order to provide appropriate and equal education to students with disabilities.
• The Individuals with Disabilities Education Act provides federal funding to states to be put towards the
educational needs of disabled children. Its two main components include Free and Appropriate Public
Education (FAPE) and the Individual Education Program (IEP).
• Section 504 is a civil-rights law that protects students with disabilities from discrimination, even if they are
not provided for by the IDEA. Section 504 states that schools must ensure that a student with a disability is
educated among peers without disabilities.

Key Terms
• intelligence quotient: A score derived from one of several different standardized tests attempting to
measure intelligence.
• phonological: Of or relating to the study of the way sounds function in languages, including syllable
structure, stress, accent, intonation, and which sounds are distinctive units within a language.
• impairment: A deterioration or weakening; a disability or handicap; an inefficient part or factor.

The following are categories of exceptionalities:

❖ Intellectual. These students are superior or displays a very low rate of learning.
❖ Communicative. Students who manifest specific learning disabilities or language impairments.
❖ Sensory. Students who display auditory or visual disabilities.
❖ Behavioral. These students are emotionally disturbed and socially maladjusted.
❖ Physical. These students have some mobility problems. Usually, they can only walk with aid of wheel chair or
any ambulatory tools.
❖ Multiple. These students possess a combination of conditions such as cerebral palsy and dyslexia.
Students with disabilities have difficulties in acquiring and processing new information. On the other hand,
students who are gifted demonstrate a high level of achievement in cognitive abilities, creativity, academic
performance, and the performing arts. They do not just learn more quickly or with lesser effort. Normally, gifted
students account for their original output and performance that is extremely advanced for their age.
The following are some categories of students with special needs:
• Students with Learning Disabilities
Description: the term learning disability was first coined by Kirk in 1963 as a compromise term for kids with
learning problems. To define these children, other terms used at that time included minimally brain damaged,
slow learner, dyslexic— (which means inability to read), and perceptually disabled.
Students with special learning needs vary tremendously in their academic achievement and overall
intelligence. Oftentimes, they experience difficulties in learning which are manifested in one of these areas:
oral expression, basic reading skills, reading comprehension, and mathematical and reasoning abilities.
These learning abilities are caused by problems with the brain’s processing system’s ability. It is said that
 most of these problems continue to linger throughout the person’s life. However, some of them can
successfully adapt to their differences with various coping mechanisms that will help them live normal lives.
• Students with Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD)
Description: students with ADHD experience difficulty in focusing and attending to relevant information.
They have the tendency to blurt out things that get them in trouble. These students seem to be in constant
physical motion, with focus only briefly on one thing after another. One major possible cause of ADHD is
neurological. It is believed to have been caused by imbalance in neurotransmitters. High or low levels of
neurotransmitters which are responsible for regulating and focusing behavior.
Additionally, students with ADHD possess behavior characteristics such as distractibility, short
attention spans, impulsiveness, inability to organize, and a high level of movement.
• Students with Cognitive Disabilities
Description: Students with cognitive disabilities are usually identified and evaluated by a psychologist with
the use of an instrument called IQ test. The IQ score, otherwise known as intelligence quotient, is currently
considered a useful predictor of students’ academic or scholastic performance.
• At risk Students
Description: the term at risk is a new terminology commonly applied to students who are not only involved
in special education but also to those whose life experiences or conditions interfere with their academic
ability or school success. In general, at risk students manifest characteristics such as the following:
❖ Students who live in substandard housing
❖ Students who are homeless
❖ Students who have been neglected by their parents
❖ Students who are physically or sexually abused
❖ Students whose parents are drug users or dependent
❖ Students whose parents are alcoholic or alcohol dependent
❖ Students who are exposed to prostitution
❖ Students who are also exposed to various troubles that are traumatic in nature
❖ Children who are born with a very low weight rate
At risk students are not specially labeled as special education students. They may have problems with school
success and achievement that are characterized by the following:
❖ They never contribute to class
❖ They have very little or nothing to say when called on
❖ They often daydream
❖ They generally do not respond to classroom activities
❖ They see successes and failures beyond their control
❖ They blame others for what happens to them
• Students who are Truant
Description: Students who are truant often miss classes for no reason at all. They also miss classroom
interactions, lessons, and rarely perform well in school. Students who are truant seem happy to leave home
and pretend that they go to school. Sometimes, they go off with their friends to do something which they find
more exciting such as playing billiards, playing videogames, strolling, watching movies, or hanging out with
others.
• Students who are Gifted and Talented
Descriptions: students who are gifted and talented display an array of abilities that are superior in nature.
They may perform exceptional abilities in various areas such as visual or performing arts, creativity,
leadership, or thinking. These students manifest a more extraordinary way of thinking and manipulating
information in a more sophisticated and complicated manner than those of others. Likewise, they
demonstrate a more determined attitude to finish the tasks assigned to them.
• Students with Dyslexia
Description: Dyslexia is not the same as poor reading ability. This condition is brought by certain brain
damage. Dyslexics are those who have difficulty in reading despite an otherwise normal range of cognitive
skills. There are three main types of dyslexia: deep dyslexia, surface dyslexia, and visual dyslexia.
Deep dyslexia refers to one’s inability to read words letter-by-letter, but with access to word
meanings via word shape.
Surface dyslexia means one’s inability to recognize whole words, but must spell words out letter-by-
letter to hear them.
Visual dyslexia deals with confusion between words containing similar letter features.
THE CONCEPT OF INCLUSION
Inclusion is a program for students with disabilities. In our thinking, schools must be a place where all students learn.
In this program, special education teacher works and collaborate with the general education teachers of designated
students. Also, this program means that persons with disabilities should be provided with equal opportunities for
development of independence, responsibility, decision-making skills, and become an active member in the
community in which they live.
Teacher factors:
• Spray and pray approach to teaching. At times, we tend to “cover” the content and as a result, we expose
students to a great deal of information but we tend to teach very little of it. Figuratively, we “sprayed” with a
 thin layer of information that covers a wide range of subject matter, and we “pray” that some of it will stick.
Thus, the adage “less is more—depth is more” has been proven true.
• Focus on esoteric trivia and specialized knowledge at the expense of focusing on major concepts and
essential ideas. As we teach, we need to examine the evaluative measures we give them. These tests should
reflect the concepts of the curriculum that have great merits for understanding the world and solving real
world problems.
• Intellectual bulimia for learning. This thing accounts for the situation in which students tend to memorize
as much “stuff” as they can in order to perform well on the forthcoming tests. Metaphorically speaking,
individuals who suffer from this approach to learning do not want to absorb too much calories. Many
students with learning disabilities tend to forget the information once the test has been taken.
• Limited ability to access background knowledge and form rational understandings. Many students
with learning disabilities experience difficulty accessing their own background knowledge about the subject
matter. Consequently, they develop poor relational understanding of a concept to be learned because they
do not see the perceived relations between the old and new information. Thus, they tend to accumulate more
knowledge rather than integrate knowledge.
• Limited elaboration skills. Some students lack the need elaboration skills such as paraphrasing a definition,
identifying the main idea, role-playing or acting out a scene or the meaning of an idea, forming predictions,
or transforming the information into a series of questions. As a result, students with learning disabilities fail
to transform ideas into meaningful learning.
• Ineffective learning strategies. One of the many strategies students use to study the definitions of concepts
“look and remember” technique in which students typically stare at the term and definition, probably trying
to activate their photographic memory. Another technique is known as “rote verbal rehearsal” in the way of
cognitive activity, and neither is particularly helpful in facilitating comprehension or memory of new
concepts.
CMC or Content Mastery Classroom is the place where students come from a core subject class for some extra
help on assignments, new materials, projects, or to have extra time to study for tests.
COMMUNICATION
Communication is the heart and soul of classroom interactions. it is used to express our thoughts and
feelings as well as our perceptions. Whatever we do is always communicated. Words are the building blocks of
communication.
Language is an effective tool for every individual to communicate. Language is an essential element of
communication can really take place. Language is a system of communication—with its own set of conventions or
special words. Language may be verbal or nonverbal. Verbal language uses words while nonverbal language uses
signs and symbols for communication.
Functions of Language
Language is a very important aspects of people’s everyday life occurrences. Human language serves the following
purposes:
• Instrumental. Language is instrumental; it is used as a means to satisfy people’s needs. For example, if
Keizha is hungry, she might cry in order to express the need for food. Crying is used as an instrument to
satisfy a need. Therefore, crying as a form of language helps Keizha express her feelings.
• Regulatory. Language has a regulatory function.it is used to control our behavior. For instance, Keizha is
starting to obey rules, commands or requests. Using her unique power of language, she is making a lot of
demands. At first, her demands are simple, but gradually, they become complex. As a little girl, Keizha starts
to develop the power of language as she tries to obey certain rules and instructions.
• Interactional Language. Language is used as a means of interactions with the self and with other people.
Language is used as the foundation of all human relationships. It is used to build or destroy such relationship.
Language is a powerful means of providing avenues for self-expression and maintaining relationships.
• Personal. It must be realized that there is a link between the language used and a child’s personal thoughts
and feelings. Language plays a very important role in shaping her thoughts and feelings.
• Imaginative. The use of imaginative language is manifested in the way a child reveals his creative
imagination of the things around him. In other words, he/she is not imitating the environment. Rather,
he/she creates his/her own original ways of thinking and doing things. He/she tries to exercise his freedom
of expression by creating new hopes and visions, new ideas and feelings out of the old ones.
• Informational. Language is informational in the sense that it is used in communicating knowledge. The child
uses language that makes ideas more concrete and illuminated.
• Heuristic. Language provides not only free expression but also opportunities for investigating and finding
sound evidence. Language is used in finding new ways of learning.
Characteristics of Language
Every language is unique. Every language is characterized by its unique features such as the following:
• Language is systematic
• Language is arbitrary
• Language is basically vocal
• Language is symbolic
• Language is infinite
• Language is dynamic
 Language undergoes the four processes of growth and development obsolete, archaic, colloquial, and new.
Just like style or fashion, language changes its form and meaning as time goes by.
❖ Obsolete. Words that are no longer used or called obsolete. Although obsolete words may possibly
be used, they may be superseded by something new. For example, the word dagger is considered
obsolete; it is no longer used. However, it can be used for some purposes in order to produce a
humorous effect or a different feeling as intended by the writer or speaker.
❖ Archaic. Archaic words are those that are rarely used, outmoded or no longer useful in ordinary
language. However, archaic words are present in older literature. Examples are thy, thee, thou, or
amongst. Just like an outfit, archaic words can only be used for special effect. For instance, if there is
a program in celebration of the “Linggo ng Wika,” practically, women would use Maria Clara dress
and men would use barong Tagalog.
❖ Colloquial. Words used in spoken language in order to create the effect of conversation are called
colloquial. The ordinary words that people use in everyday conversations are colloquial.
❖ New. New inventions call for new terms and labels. Once words are new, they have the tendency to
become colloquial several years after they were invented and used. In the same way, colloquial words
today have the tendency to become archaic and so on.
• Language is social
• Language is unique
Dimensions of Language
Human languages are immensely complex systems of conventions for linking symbols with meanings for the
purpose of communication. Language is a system. It is so structured that the collection of sounds makes meaning;
various units combine to form meanings. There are two important dimensions of human language: uses and
structures.
Language use has something to do with pragmatics. People have developed a very complex language. Since
time immemorial when human civilization was young, language had become an important means of communication.
With the use of language, people can invent, innovate, propagate, and perpetuate. They are also capable of displaying
their potential for problem solving, critical thinking, and other forms of metacognitive tasks. Language is used to
transmit message and it is the same language used to generate and interpret messages.
Structural Levels
The second aspect is called language structures. There are three important structural levels: words, syntax,
and discourse.
Words are the building blocks of a language. These are communication symbols used in the classroom.
Words are not objects; they are not people or animals. Words are simply the labels we attach to people, objects or
animals. The words we use in everyday activities, interactions, and occurrences are characterized by:
• Context. It provides the environment surrounding the use of words. For example, the word “calculus”
provides a different context when used in a sentence like this “The calculus is found in his kidney.” However,
“My favorite subject is Calculus,” creates a different meaning based on a given context. Therefore, context
adds meaning to a particular word.
• Social cues. These are positive or negative bits of information associated with certain word. Social cues
influence the way other people respond to us. For instance, if with a worried look, the teacher enters into the
classroom and says no word at all, what will be our reactions? Of course, we may stop talking and just observe
how things unfold the way they should.
• Meaning. It is assumed that the intended meaning always lies in the speaker. Sometimes, we fail to decipher
the meaning the speaker wishes to convey because of communication filters which interfere with meaning.
• Readability. It refers to the condition in which the written and oral output is made comprehensible and
intelligible. Many of the activities and learning tasks require that e write and speak well.
A phoneme is the smallest structure of a language. For example, the word cat has three different letters, but
also three different phonemes: /k/, /a/, /t. Another example is the word laugh that has five letters, but it is composed
of three different phonemes: /l/, /a/, /f/. Each sound is distinctively unique; each sound is important in the
formation of certain words. Any alterations in sound production may result in changes in words; and any change in
a word means a change in its meaning.
In writing, phonemes are represented by graphemes. A grapheme is a written symbol, letter, or combination
of letters that represents a single sound. In the language system, there is no one-to-one phoneme-grapheme
correspondence. Apparently, there are some sounds that represented differently because the basis is not the spelling
or letter formation, but the sounds. Some phonemes may be represented by different graphemes in words. For
example, the phoneme /f/ may be represented by different graphemes in words such as /full/, /phone/, /laugh/, or
/cough/. In the same way, some phonemes may be represented by ought string. To illustrate, the words /dough/;
/cough/; /lough/; /brought/; /though/; /trough/; and /thoroughbred/ with various ways of sound production have
the same grapheme ough.
The second structural unit of language is called morphemes. A morpheme is the smallest meaningful unit in
the structure of a language. For example, the word teacher has five different phonemes, but has only two morphemes.
The first morpheme is /teach/ and the other one is /er/. The word teach in itself has meaning of its own. On the other
hand, the /er/ ending as a suffix provides another meaning. Morphemes are classified as free or bound. A free
morpheme is one that can stand alone as a words. A bound morpheme cannot stand alone; it has to be attached to
other morphemes to form a word. Morphemes can be combined to form words which can be a combination of free
and bound or free and free just like the compound words playground, classmate, hardware, notebook, eyesight, and
others.
The second structural level of a language is known as syntax. If words are the building blocks of a language,
sentences are basic units of a language. If a word conveys certain meaning, a sentence conveys a message.
Syntax refers to the logical arrangement of words in a sentence. To secure logic and meaning, a sentence
needs to follow a correct grammatical pattern. The words used in a sentence must be logically arranged; they must
also be grammatically ordered. If not, the words can create a different meaning. For example:
The dog eats meat.
The meat eats dog.
The first sentence is logically structured while the next sentence is not. It may be grammatically correct but
semantically wrong.
However, there are words that if arranged differently do not affect or change the meaning the sentence
wishes to convey. For instance:
Yesterday, we went to the zoo.
We went to the zoo yesterday.
Even if the word yesterday is placed in two different positions, it does not affect or change the meaning of a
sentence. Now, consider the following sentences
The new teacher scolded the naughty boy.
The naughty boy scolded the new teacher.
The new boy scolded the naughty teacher.
The naughty teacher scolded the new boy.
In the examples given, what do we notice? Yes, the arrangement of words especially of modifiers affects the
meaning the sentence wishes to convey.
The third structural level is called discourse. If words are the building blocks of a language and sentences
are the basic units of a language, then it is true that discourse structure is the framework of comprehension.
Discourse structure is the highest level in a language system. Discourse structure can be categorized into narration,
exposition, argumentation, and description.
• Narration. It deals with the use of actions, events in time, or with life in motion. As it tells a story, it is
concerned with what happened to whom in certain place in the story. A story is a situation with its interesting
plot, characters, and all the other elements of a good story which may be of fiction or nonfiction. Narration
gives us a moving picture in sequence. It reveals a transformation of life from being simple to complex or
from one situation to the next.
• Exposition. The word exposition means a detailed description of events. It is a part of the story in which facts
about the characters and events are made known. The different events and characters in a story should
appeal not only to emotion, but also to the intellect. Other forms of discourse should lead to understanding,
but exposition is the most common because it is applicable to all the types of writing activities that demand
cognitive challenges such a s defining a term, explaining a phenomenon, discussing a process, giving the
meaning of a philosophy, pointing out the significance of a theory, or describing a process or a mechanism.
There are some methods of exposition with which we should be familiar. There are the methods of:
❖ Identification. When we identify an object or event, we simply recognize by saying what it is or what
it is not in relation to other things or events within the story.
❖ Comparison and contrast. To compare and contrast, we first identify the purpose for which it should
be made. Next, we should consider some general principles or guidelines that govern such
comparison and contrast. Then, we consider things with which audience is familiar.
❖ Illustration. This is facilitated by using phrases such as “for example,” “for instance,” “by way of
illustration,” “or as an example.” Using this method gives us an idea of making our comparison and
contrast more understandable.
❖ Classification. It deals with our ability to group objects in their proper categories which range from
the least inclusive. The process classification is a fundamental way of organizing our knowledge base.
A classification system is not only a sum of items or objects placed in certain category. Rather, it is a
concept or an idea that a particular object must possess in order to fall under such category.
❖ Definition. Defining gives a word its boundaries or limitations. We cannot arrive at the correct
definition of a word if we do not have certain knowledge about it. Definition follows a definite
formula: W=G+D (where W is the word to be defined; G is the genus or the class to which the word
belongs; D means the differentia or the characteristics that set the word different from its class). For
instance, how do we define a noun? “A noun is a part of speech that names a person, place, thing,
concept, an animal, idea or an event.” In our definition, W is a noun; G is a part of speech; and D is its
defining characteristics.
❖ Analysis. It is concerned with the process of dividing a whole unit into its constituent parts.

• Argumentation. Once we hear the word “argument” or “argumentation,” we think of something that arises
in conflict.
We use reasoning power to come up with correct decision. The following are important appeals.
❖ Appeal to reason
❖ Emotion and reason
❖ Proposition
 ▪ Proposition of fact
▪ Proposition of value
▪ Proposition of policy
• Description. When we describe people, places, events or objects we use effective words that appeal to the
senses. It presents the qualities or characteristics of a person, place, or thing as we create mental pictures
upon the minds of our listeners or readers.
Language Levels
Every student has the ability to develop his or her own degrees of language levels. That is, students may have
difficulty acquiring a good vocabulary, but may struggle to pick up fine distinctions between language sounds. The
students’ performance at the six language levels is supposed to improve noticeably and become increasingly
effortless over time (Levine, 2002). The following are the six language levels:
Metalinguistic

Discourse

Syntax
Semantics

Morphemes
Figure 43. Six language levels
Communication in Teaching and LearningPhonemes
The following are some important points needed in effective expression of ideas
• Communication skills.
Factors to consider:
➢ The words we use
➢ Encoding and decoding systems
➢ Nonverbal cues.
✓ Paralinguistic techniques
✓ The language of kinesics
✓ The language of haptics
✓ The language of proxemics
✓ The language of chronemics
• Intellectual skills
• Our attitudes
• Our knowledge base
• Our sociocultural system
The Message
The message is the meat of communication situation. It is the translation of our ideas, thoughts,
feelings or perceptions. The message is embedded in the following signs and symbols:
• Natural sign is a part of a larger thing, category, group, or condition signified by it. A natural sign is
inherent in the thing it symbolizes. For example, in classroom setting, the receiving of grades.
Conversely, if students give correct responses, they will receive higher grades than those who do not.
In short, receiving high grades is a sign or an indication of better performance in school.
• Non- natural sign is not a basic part or a very nature of something. For instance, a drop of blood is a
sign of life but it may also signify the death of someone.
• Iconic sign is described as a symbol or a figure for the thing or information it signifies. For instance,
the symbol (™) is a sign for trademark, $ for dollar sign, % for percentage, & is a symbol for and, * is
for asterisk, ! for exclamation.
• Digital sign is a sign for processing, storing, or transmitting information in the form of numerical
digits. This sign is independent of the inherent parameters of its meaning. For instance, using a
scoring rubric fir assigning grade in a paragraph, we may use the 1 – 4 scales where 1 is the lowest
and 4 being the highest for each set of dimension.
Basic Principles that Govern Classroom Communication
• Communication should have its conviction
• Communication should have its definite purpose
• Communication should promote the achievement of such purpose
• Communication involves preparation
• Communication is a two-way traffic. If the sender is encoding the message, the receiver has to listen well
so that he or she can decode the message loud and clear. To provide a two- way traffic, we develop
DESIRABLE habits of communication:
❖ Develop an idea and emphasize our purpose
❖ Encode the idea into appropriate words and cues or other symbols of transmission
❖ Send the message with chosen media such as by phone call, mail, e-mail, or personal visit
❖ Interpret the message politely
❖ Accept the message with humility. Then, use the information wisely and effectively
 ❖ Believe in the communication conviction with our desire to promote learning
❖ Lend our ears and hearts for effective communication. Do not argue. We simply explain for clarity
and understanding.
❖ Engage in giving immediate feedback. It is necessary to check whether the purpose is achieved.
• Communication is characterized by different barriers
❖ Physical. The physical barriers in the environment-the noise, the place that is too crowded or
congested, the people around, and some physical defects-hinder effective communication.
❖ Psychological. These are communication interferences that arise from human values, emotions, or
poor listening habits.
❖ Semantic. Semantics in communication interfere with meanings. Such arise when the symbols used
are limited and meanings are multifaceted. If we have chosen the wrong meaning, then
misunderstanding arises.
• Communication uses symbols
• Communication uses paralinguistic techniques
• Communication reveals our personality and individuality.
• Communication involves more than a dozen of Cs. To be an effective communicator of ideas, we need to
possess more than a dozens of Cs. They are as follows: character, credibility, conviction, confidence, courtesy,
and commitment, consistency of purpose, competency, clarity, conciseness, continuity, comprehension, creative
thinking, and critical thinking.

Effective Communication
Three major areas in which we need to use effective communication:
▪ Inclusion. Equipped with proper training on special education, we can incorporate in our regular
classes those students with special needs in planning for instruction. In inclusive education, we can
explore several opportunities such as:
• Understanding students’ individualized needs and the corresponding programs or
interventions for such needs
• Consultation with teachers with training on special education
• Planning varied learning episodes
• Coordinating assignments with resource room teachers
• Establishing rapport for collaborative teaching
▪ Communication with parents. They have the right to know the performance of their children. They
should also be updated on the various school programs intended for a holistic formation of their
children. Their children’s attendance or tardiness, the level of performance on a particular subject or
their attitudes toward learning, all of these and many more should be communicated with parents.
We talk to parents in a way that is friendly and encouraging.
▪ Conferencing. Conducting conferences with parents is an effective way of getting their cooperation.
To provide an effective conference with parents, we can use the following communication
techniques:
• Stand when the parents arrive to give them the needed recognition and respect.
• Greet them with a smile and a courteous manner.
• Sit with parents in the same type of chair and in a position where they can be so familiar.
• Listen attentively to what the parents are saying. Do not interrupt while they are talking.
• Ask questions or clarifications when they are done.
• Focus on the future success of the child.
• Avoid comparing other children’s performance.
• Show a loving concern for their child.
• Thank the parents for their time to attend such conference.
We can use the acronym CHILD to be an effective communicator in the conference.
C - Care for the feelings of the parents
H – Have a regular conference in order to ferret out the real cause of a problem
I – Infuse a positive outlook about the situation and a warm attitude by creating opportunities where they
can talk about their feelings
L – Listen to what they say
D – Deal with the behaviors that promote a greater level of cooperation and
problem solving strategies
INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES IN LEARNING
Individual differences account for our distinguishing characteristics that make us unique.
Differences in Abilities
Many psychologists equate cognitive abilities with intelligence (Galotti, 2004). Differences in abilities refer
to our capacity to carry out cognitive functions. We exhibit various differences in abilities such as the following
(Galotti, citing Horn):
• Verbal comprehension refers to our ability to understand words, sentences, paragraphs or long
compositions such as stories, novels, essays, or plays.
• Sensitivity to problems refers to our ability to devise approaches and ways of solving a problem.
 • Syllogistic reasoning accounts for our ability to draw conclusions and interferences.
• Number facility deals with our capacity to use arithmetic operations.
• Induction is our ability to perceive relations.
• General reasoning is the use of our cognitive tasks to find solution to algebraic operations.
• Associative memory pertains to our ability to recall previous experiences in relation to new ones.
• Span memory pertains for our ability to recall a set of elements after one presentation.
• Expressional fluency deals with our ability to produce different ways of saying the same words and phrases.
• Spontaneous flexibility refers to our ability to produce diverse functions and classifications for an object.
• Perceptual speed deals with our cognitive task determines patterns under certain conditions.
• Visualization is another cognitive task that manipulates forms of images for us to see how they appear.
• Spatial orientation refers to our ability to imagine parts that are arranged in space.
• Length estimation accounts for our ability to calculate lengths or distances between points.
Differences in Cognitive Styles
Field dependence or Field independence is a cognitive style dimension in which people may have
difficulty or ease in ignoring background context to identify parts of a figure as separate from a whole.
Field-dependent people tend to have more difficulty locating number 5in the figure because they are
influenced by the intricate patterns that hinder them to separate the background from the figure they are looking
for. In contrast, field-independent people are those who have the ability to separate the background context from
the embedded picture. It means that they are not dependent on the picture as a whole. Rather, they tend to go beyond
what is embedded in it.
Types of Cognitive styles and their descriptions
Cognitive categories Descriptions
Cognitive Tempo Reflective – the students postpone decisions and examine the possible
consequences of any choices made. Thy think several times before they
make a decision.
Impulsive –the students give the decision quickly. They give their
answers in the spur of the moment. And so, they commit errors due to
hasty decision.
Field independence or Field dependence –the students are global. They are people-oriented.
Field dependence They seek the help of various elements in the environment. They
accomplish the tasks in groups.
Field independence –the students are analytical. They want a very little
interaction. They want to accomplish the tasks alone.
Sensory Modalities refer to the system of students’ interaction in the environment by using one of their
senses such as sight, taste, hear, smell, or touch. Information is received through one of these sensory modalities. For
example, what we see in the environment is received through the visual modality; what we hear is received through
the auditory modality; what we touch or feel is through the tactile modality; what we smell is through olfactory
modality; and what we taste is through the tactile modality. Students learn best with their preferred sensory
modalities which are important variables in students’ learning styles.
Various types of learning are identified in order to provide ownership of learning. We do not learn in the
same manner, in the same speed, or in the same pattern. The following learning styles (Longworth, citing the UK
Campaign for learning, 2003):
• Activists are students who learn by doing. They are willing to participate in the classroom tasks and
discussions.
• Reflectors are those who learn by watching others and thinking about things before they act.
• Theorists are learners who would know first the theory before they perform the task.
• Pragmatists are learners who prefer practical tips and techniques from an expert before they act.
As teachers we are so concerned about students’ learning. It is for this reason that we exert a lot of
effort to make the lessons both teachable and learnable. When we reflect about what and how we
teach, we also reflect on how students learn and what learning styles they use. Oftentimes, we hear
people talk about students’ learning styles. According to Davies (2006), the VAK is the most common.
Most students prefer one of the following learning styles to another.
• V is for Visual. These learners need to see our body language and facial expression; they
prefer to sit in front of the class. They also think in terms of visual displays such as diagrams,
charts, illustrated textbooks, overhead transparencies, interactive whiteboards, flipcharts,
and handouts.
• A is for Auditory. These are students who learn through verbal lectures, discussions,
listening to audiotapes and to others who are talking. For auditory learners, written
information has no meaning unless it is spoken and heard.
• K is for Kinesthetic. These students learn by doing. They prefer the hands-on approach
rather than listening to lectures. They do not comprehend the information unless they
manipulate it or they are actively involved in it. In other words, they enjoy exploring the
physical world around them.
THEORIES OF INTELLIGENCE
Assessing Intelligence
There are several ways through which we can assess intelligence.
Stanford-Binet Intelligence Test is the modern version of test designed to assess the intelligence of
children and adults from ages two to twenty-four (Romero & Kemp, 2007). The difficulty of test items is arranged
according to age.
Wechsler Scales. The Wechsler Scales are one of the most widely used tests of general intelligence. There
are three main scales:
• Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale (WAIS). This test is intended for adults.
• Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children (WISC). This type of test is used for ages six through sixteen.
• Wechsler Preschool and Primary Scale of Intelligence (WPPSI). This test is concerned with ages four to six.
The Wechsler Scales involve two subtests. The performance subtest is composed of abilities such as matrix
reasoning, digit symbol, block design, picture arrangement, symbol search, and picture completion. The next
subtest is called verbal subtest, which includes abilities that require test takers to answer general verbal
information such as general comprehension, arithmetic, and vocabulary.
Types of Intelligence
There are two types of intelligence:
• Rational Intelligence. It deals with the mental functions necessary for conceptual and rational thinking. It
draws the demarcation line between feelings and intuition.
• Emotional Intelligence this intelligence deals with our sensitivity. Sometimes, we fail to decide on what is
right because we are overwhelmed by what we feel.

In the 1960s American psychologists Raymond Cattell and John Horn applied new methods of fact analysis
and concluded that there are two kinds of general intelligence:

• Fluid Intelligence represents the biological basis of intelligence. Measures of fluid intelligence, such as
speed of reasoning and memory, increase into adulthood and then decline due to the aging process.
• Crystalized Intelligence, on the other hand, is the knowledge and skills obtained through learning and
experience. As long as opportunities for learning are available, crystalized intelligence can increase in college
professors throughout their life span.
Theories of Intelligence
Triarchic Theory of Intelligence was proposed by Robert Sternberg. He developed this theory to
emphasize products of or the end results of intellectual work. Likewise, he focused on the process of intellectual
work by emphasizing an information-processing approach. In the same way, he specified three important
components of intelligence: analytic components, creative intelligence, and practical intelligence (Romero & Kemp,
2007).
Analytic Intelligence is also known as componential intelligence. It deals with the mental processes used in
thinking. It involves the idea of measuring intelligence. There are three important components of analytic
intelligence.
• Metacomponents are the higher order thinking skill (HOTS).
• Performance components. They deal with the lower-order thinking skills (LOTS).
• Knowledge-acquisition components are concerned with the processes used in acquiring and storing
information.
Creative Intelligence emphasizes the use of our experiences in order to gain information. Also known as
experiential intelligence, it is concerned with how we use our insights and creative power to solve problems and
how such solutions can be associated with the idea of automaticity.
Practical Intelligence, otherwise known as contextual intelligence deals with the way we adapt ourselves
to the specific environment in which we can use such knowledge. Practical intelligence is the knowledge used to cope
with new situations that demand higher degree of flexibility and adaptability. If we can adjust to new contacts, we
are capable of using practical intelligence.

Summary of Sternberg’s Triarchic Theory of Intelligence

Components Descriptions
Analytic Intelligence Ability to define, plan, monitor, and evaluate the
(Componential Intelligence) problem
Creative Intelligence Ability to use experiences in order to formulate
(Experiential Intelligence) new ideas in solving problems
Practical Intelligence Ability to adapt and adjust to new contexts to
(Contextual Intelligence) maximize opportunities for acquiring
knowledge and information.

Theory of Multiple Intelligences (MIs)

Gardner placed less emphasis on explaining the results of mental tests. According to this view, all human problem
solving skills are governed by one underlying mental ability. This ability is known as general intelligence or g. He
also construed that pieces of evidence for multiple intelligences were derived from prodigies and savants. Prodigies
are people who show exceptional talent in a specific area at a young age, but who are normal in some aspects. On the
other hand, savants are people who got low scores on IQ tests, but demonstrates remarkable ability such as memory
or in drawing ability.
According to Howard Gardner (1983), the different types of intelligence are as follows:
• Linguistic intelligence
• Logical or mathematical intelligence
• Spatial intelligence
• Musical intelligence
• Bodily-kinesthetic intelligence
• Intrapersonal intelligence
• Interpersonal intelligence
• Naturalist intelligence
Emotional intelligence refers to our ability to recognize the meanings of emotions and their relationships,
to reason, and problem-solver on the basis of them. It accounts for our ability to perceive emotions and use
them wisely. In addition, emotional intelligence deals with our ability to understand other people’s emotions
and develop a deep sensitivity to emotional undercurrents that lie behind many social interactions
(Compton).
LEARNING IN DIVERSITY
Diversity means differences. Classroom settings generate a lot of difference which include:
1) Diversity in learning styles or modalities. In learning, modality means the style of learning or how students
perceive information.
2) Diversity among socioeconomic groups in regard to how they view the resources that affects schools. Jensen (as
cited by Tileston, 2004) has pointed out that children are not as prepared for school today as they were two
decades ago. It is believed that school readiness begins in the womb. Infants who are exposed to poor
nutrition, drugs, and smoking from conception may have difficulty in learning. Jensen also has pointed out
that the embryo, once it is at its peak, generates brain cells at the rate of 2,500 per minute.
3) Diversity in race or ethnicity. We should encourage them to indicate when they are confused or having
difficulty in some areas. Students may feel more comfortable when we acknowledge and do something about
their confusion.
Problem Solving
Problem solving is a form of thinking. Considered the most complex of all intellectual functions, problem
solving has been defined as higher-order cognitive process that requires the modulation and control of more routine
or fundamental skills. It occurs if an organism does not know how to reach a desired goal state. It is part of the larger
problem process that includes problem finding and problem shaping.
Problem solving is a skill; it is a way of deliberate thinking. It is important skill that develops our higher-
order skills (HOTS). At this point, we must consider integrating the different types of thinking skills. They are as
follows:
• Directed thinking is goal-oriented and rational. It requires us to have a clear idea of what to achieve and
how to achieve it.
• Decision-making allows us to experience cognitive overload (when the information available overwhelms
our cognitive processes). This thing happens when we have to decide and we have several bits of information
available. We are so overwhelmed by various bits of information and when we gather pieces of evidence and
put them together, we get confused and thus commit errors.
• Creative thinking gives us the potential power to experience the “Aha!” principle. In this type of thinking,
we create our own universe through our perceptions of it and behave consistently with the universe we
created. To be creative means to be resourceful in the use of our imagination to come up with new ideas and
thoughts.
❖ Preparation is the first stage of creative thinking; it is where we collect the needed information and
where a variety of ideas are tossed around, or possible solutions are generated.
❖ Incubation is when solutions are not arrived at, we move to this second stage. At this stage, we handle
solutions carefully as we use a level of deep processing.
❖ Illumination is when creative solution has finally emerged as a sudden flash of light or in just a flick
of a finger, it is called insight. Illumination gives birth to an insight. Insightful solution is triggered
and stimulated by everyday occurrences.
❖ Verification. In this stage, we usually transform an insight into its final form—realistic, relevant, and
practical learning. Creativity as a talent that should be developed by: P-practice, R-responsibility, O-
opportunities, M-motivation, O-openness, T-training, and E-encouragement.
• Reflective thinking is a metacognitive function that involves awareness of the process of learning. It is the
key element in all forms of practice. Likewise, it deals with standing back, having a good look at the ways we
do things, learning from our mistakes, and developing new approaches to learning.
• Reasoning can fall within the area of problem solving. When we try to solve a reasoning task, we have a
definite goal and try to come up with a solution. Nonetheless, reasoning and problem solving are not the
same, but they go together.
• Critical thinking – it is a form of thinking that involves complex aspects and is based on standards of
objectivity and consistency.
• Convergent thinking – calls for a logical, factual, conventional, and focused thinking about a problem until
we arrive at a solution.
 • Divergent thinking- the creative process of thinking starts with divergence—the process of breaking away
from the ordinary and looking at things in different perspective. Stating the obvious, divergent thinking has
a broad focus. The most common measure of creativity is called ideational fluency or the sheer number of
different ideas that we can generate.
❖ Fluency pertains to the number of different ideas that we are capable of producing.
❖ Flexibility deals with our ability to adapt to new situations and changes
❖ Originality accounts for our ability to think creatively.
❖ Elaboration refers to the richness of details we are able to produce.
Means-Ends Analysis is a problem solving heuristic that compares the goal state with the present state and
tries to reduce the distance. A particular type of means-end analysis is called hill-climbing where one operates by
the rule that “anything that gets me closer to the goal than I am now is good.”
Characteristics of Difficult Problems
As elucidated by Dietrich Dörner and later expanded upon by Joachim Funke, difficult problems have some
typical characteristics that can be summarized as follows.
• Intransparency (lack of clarity of the situation)
o Commencement opacity
o Continuation opacity
• Polytely (multiple goals)
o Inexpressiveness
o Opposition
o Transcience
• Complexity (large numbers of items, interrelations and decisions)
o Enumerability
o Connectivity (hierarchy relation, communication relation, allocation relation)
o Heterogeneity
• Dynamics (time considerations)
o Temporal constraints
o Temporal sensitivity
o Phase effects
o Dynamic unpredictability
Some problem-solving techniques:
1. Divide and attack: break down a large, complex problem into smaller, solvable problems.
2. Hill-climbing strategy, (also called gradient descent or ascent, difference reduction, greedy algorithm)-
attempting at every step to move closer to the goal situation. The problem with this approach is that many
challenges require temporarily moving farther away from the goal state. For example, traveling 1,000 miles
to the west might require driving a few miles east to an airport.
3. Means-end analysis, more effective than hill-climbing, requires the setting of sub goals based on the process
of getting from the initial state to the goal state when solving a problem.
4. Trial-and-error (also called guess and check)
5. Brainstorming
6. Morphological analysis
7. Method of focal objects
8. Lateral thinking
9. George Pólya’s techniques in How to Solve It.
10. Research: study what others have written about the problem (and related problems). Maybe there’s already
a solution?
11. Assumption reversal (write down any assumptions about the problem, then reverse them all)
12. Analogy: has a similar problem (possibly in a different field) been solved before?
13. Reduction (complexity): transforming the problem into another problem for which solutions exist.
14. Hypothesis testing: assuming a possible explanation to the problem and trying to prove the assumption.
15. Constraint examination: are you assuming a constraint which does not really exist?
16. Incubation: input the details of a problem into the mind then stop focusing on it. The subconscious mind will
continue to work on the problem, and the solution might just “pop up” while doing something else.
17. Build (or write) one or more abstract models of the problem.
18. Try to prove that the problem cannot be solved. Where the proof breaks down can be the starting point for
resolving it.
19. Get help from friends or online problem solving community (e.g.3form, InnoCentive).
20. Delegation: delegating the problem to others.
21. Root Cause Analysis.
Multiconstraint Theory is an overall theory of analogical reasoning and problem solving. It predicts how
people use analogies in problem solving and what factors govern the analogies they construct.
Project-based learning is sometime called problem-based learning (PBL). As the word suggests, it
involves a collaborative effort of both teachers and students to come up with a solution to a problem by going far
beyond their minimum effort, making meaning and connections, and answering open-ended questions that can be
found in real-life settings.
 Multidisciplinary curriculum. With problem-based learning, we design an engaging classroom atmosphere
by using the integrated curriculum. In its simplest form, integrated curriculum is about making connections. In this
approach, we make connections across various disciplines by organizing topics around a theme. We should possess
that needed knowledge that represents a basic category of competencies that are transferable. There are three types
of integration:
• Intradisciplinary approach. When we focus on the disciplines, we are using the multidisciplinary approach.
When we integrate the sub disciplines within a subject area, we are using a Intradisciplinary approach. A very
good example for this is when we integrate reading, writing, and oral expression in language arts.
• Interdisciplinary approach. If we are assigned to teach in English, we do not just teach grammar, but we
also teach other related disciplines. When we integrate music in teaching mathematics, we are using the
interdisciplinary approach in which students learn mathematical concepts and skills while singing,
dancing, or drawing.
• Transdisciplinary approach. In this approach, we organize lessons around students’ questions and
concerns. Aptly put, transdisciplinary approach uses integrated curriculum that accounts for the
development of life skills in real world context. There are two routes that lead to transdisciplinary
integration: project-based and negotiating the curriculum.
Negotiating the curriculum. Another alternative view to transdisciplinary approach is called negotiating
the curriculum in which students’ questions form the basis for the curriculum. We provide lessons consisting
of three different components of learning: seeing much, suffering much, and studying much.
LATERAL THINKING
Lateral thinking is a term coined by Edward de Bono, a Maltese psychologist, physician, and writer. It first
appeared in the title of his book the use of lateral thinking, published in1967. He is the originator of the term “Lateral
Thinking” which has an official entry in the Oxford English Dictionary, and extremely popular “Six Thinking Hats”
De Bono defined lateral thinking as methods of thinking concerned with changing concepts and perception. Lateral
thinking accounts for reasoning that is not immediately obvious and deals with ideas that may not be obtainable by
using only traditional step-by-step process. Edward de Bono emphasized the term problem solving implies that there
is a problem to respond to and can be resolved. This explains the existence of problems ant that problems are
ubiquitous. A corollary aspect to this idea is the belief that there is no problem that cannot be resolved. It is therefore
logical to think that making a good situation equates in providing a better solution to a problem.
PSYCHOANALYTIC THEORY
Freud’s Personality Components
Id. The id operates on the pleasure principle. It focuses on immediate gratification or satisfaction of its needs. So
whatever feels good now is what it will pursue with no consideration for reality, logicality or practicality of the
situation.
Ego. The ego operates using the reality principle. It is aware that others also have needs to be met. It is practical
because it knows that being impulsive or selfish can result to negative consequences later, so it reasons and considers
the best response to situations. As such, it is the deciding agent of the personality. Although it functions to help the
id meet its needs, it always takes into account the reality of the situation.
Superego. It is likened to conscience because it exerts influence on what one considers right or wrong.
ATTRIBUTION THEORY
This theory explains that we attribute our successes or failures or other events to several factors.
These attributions differ from one another in three ways – locus, stability and controllability (Omrod, 2004)
1. Locus (place): Internal versus external. If your student traces his good grade to his ability and to his hard work,
he attributes his good grade to internal factors. If your student, however, claims that his good grade is due to the
effective teaching of his teacher or to the adequate library facilities, he attributes his good grades to factors external
to himself.
2. Stability: Stable versus unstable. If you attribute your poor performance to what you have inherited from your
parents, then you are attributing the cause of your performance to something stable, something that cannot change
because it is in your genes. If you attribute it to excessive watching of TV, then you are claiming that your poor
eyesight is caused by unstable factor, something that can change.
3. Controllability: Controllable versus uncontrollable. If your student claims his poor academic performance is
due to his teacher’s ineffective teaching strategy, he attributes his poor his poor performance to a factor beyond his
control. If, however, your student admits that his poor class performance is due to his poor study habits and low
motivation, he attributes the event to factors which are very much within his control.