ELECTRIC VEHICLE BATTERY TECHNOLOGY

Bharat Sharma
Prakash Tiwari

DEPARTMENT OF AUTOMOBILE ENGINEERING

MANAV RACHNA INTERNATIONAL INSTITUTE OF
RESEARCH AND STUDIES

Abstract:-

The development of the electric vehicle and also the hybrid vehicle
depends on the batteries technology evolution. Due to the restriction of
vehicles emissions the car manufacturers around the world are looking for
an alternative ways to stop the vehicle emissions specially the electric
vehicles, that's why demand of battery increases in todays world. In the
growing markets of electric vehicles there are various battery technology
which have different-different characteristics in terms of power, durability
and energy density. Modern days automobile uses Lithium-Ion battery the
most because it have high energy capacity, longer life, high power density
and it is environment friendly. Nowadays Automobile Industries is going
through a transformation to electric vehicles from internal combustion
engine vehicle ,therefore battery is very important part related to it as
electric motor of the electric vehicle get power from the battery. Battery
makes electric vehicle for reducing environment emissions in transport
sector during use. In this paper we discuss about working of electric vehicle
battery, its types, and also we discuss about different batteries applications,
their electrolytes and electrodes(positive and negative), energy density,
specific power, specific energy and cycle durability. Since car battery have
a crucial role in the overall performance of the EV, the part has been
improved by several researchers. Many modern battery systems have
much lower specific energy compared to liquid fuels, and this also affects
the vehicles' full all-electric range. By-battery life and enhancing the most
significant battery enhancement, we will improve our battery.

Keywords: evolution,emissions,
durability

Introduction:-

A complete analysis of the features of battery units in electric cars is

relevant as the usage of battery technology has increased and the electric
vehicle production has increased worldwide in past years [(1),(2)].
Combination of one or more electrochemical cells that are capable of
converting stored chemical energy into electrical energy is the most
common power source for simple handheld devices for large-scale
industrial applications. Batteries are made up of three basic components
such as an anode (the 'negative' side), a cathode (the 'positive' side), and
some kind of electrolyte (a substance that chemically reacts with the anode
and cathode). There are cells in the battery which are grouped together into
a single mechanical and electronic unit called a component of the battery.
In order to form a battery pack powering the electronic drive mechanism,
these modules are electrically connected. When we talk about electric
vehicle 'battery' is the most important part related to it. The basic
component of any electric car is its battery. It is a system consisting of two
or more galvanic cells connected coupled or both in series or in parallel. A
battery used to power the electric motors of a battery-powered electric car
or hybrid electric car is an electric vehicle battery (also called a traction
battery).These batteries are commonly batteries that are rechargeable. In
order to achieve the necessary voltage and power in the final pack, an
electric vehicle battery often consists of several hundreds of small,
individual cells arranged in a series / parallel configuration. A battery for an
electric vehicle varies from the batteries for starting, lighting and ignition
because they are designed to provide power over long periods of time.
With the invention of the lead acid battery by the Gaston Plante, French
physicist, rechargeable batteries that offered a reliable alternative to store
energy on board a vehicle did not come into being until 1859. In 1867, an
early electric-powered two-wheel cycle was on display, but it could not drive
on the street efficiently.

Electric vehicle battery have many requirements such as it is safe,of high

capacity, high power, long life, low overall cost etc. Electric cars used
Lead-acid batteries because of their High reliability, low price and advanced
technology. The cheapest and, in the past, most common vehicle batteries
available are flooded Lead-acid batteries. There are two main types of
Lead-acid batteries, starter batteries for gasoline engines, and batteries for
deep cycles. But in modern days lithium-ion batteries were developed and
it were bringing a new generation of electric-powered vehicles to the
market [(3)].....In contrast with other widely used batteries, High energy
capacity, long service life and friendliness to the environment define
lithium-ion batteries [(4)]. Other types of batteries also available in electric
vehicle are nickel-metal hydride battery, Lithium-polymer battery and Zebra
or sodium battery etc. Batteries with nickel-metal hydride have a longer
life-cycle than batteries with lithium-ion or lead acid. They are safe and
tolerant to use as usual. The major problems with nickel-metal hydride
batteries are their massive price, high self-discharge rate, and the fact that
high temperatures produce significant heat. For rechargeable electric
vehicles, these issues make these batteries less efficient, which is why they
are used primarily in hybrid electric vehicles. A Li-polymer battery is a
lithium-ion rechargeable battery that uses a polymer electrolyte in place of
a liquid electrolyte. It is used in aircrafts,electric vehicles,radio controlled
equipments and electronics etc. The Sodium Nickel Chloride battery uses a
molten sodium chloroaluminate salt as the electrolyte. A molten sodium
chloroaluminate salt is being used by the sodium nickel chloride or zebra
battery as the electrolyte. The zebra battery, a relatively mature technology,
has a relevant energy of 120 Wh / Kg. They have been used in several
EVs, such as the commercial vehicle of the Modec. Different-different
battery have their own advantages and specifications. The fundamental
chemistry of the numerous batteries and particular EV battery parameters
for energy capacity, specific energy, expense, longevity are extremely
important for power engineers to understand. The fundamentals of battery
chemistry and battery modelling must be appreciated and used by power
engineers for making battery design and collaboration level studies of
electronic power access converter making[(5) (6)]. Aluminium-air,
Lithium-air, Sodium-air, Zinc-air, Liquid metal, Tin Nanocrystal Lithium-Ion
are some of the new battery types that are being heavily researched. For
electronic consumer devices such as laptops and cellphones, EV batteries
are very different from those used. Under limited space and weight, and at
a reasonable price, high power and high energy capacity should be
handled. The sophisticated battery technologies that are ideal for EVs
around the world have earned substantial product development and
investment.

Batteries' safety, longevity, and efficiency rely heavily on how they are
charged or discharged. Battery abuse can decrease the life of a battery
significantly and can be lethal. The present BMS involves both on-board
charging and discharge power. It will in the future be incorporated into the
power delivery structure of the grid. The emphasis here is therefore on the
battery charging and charging facilities for electric vehicles. Consequently,
the priority is given to the debate on battery charging and charging facilities
for electric vehicles discussed here. Battery design forms the basis and
stands as an efficient method for battery design, development and control.
For battery classification and control of batteries, it is particularly important
since the form a series is logically the first phase in designing any
algorithms for device identification and system identification. Substantial
battery modelling research has been done and a number of parameters
have been developed from various aspects and for multiple uses[(7)]. The
battery of an electric vehicle consists of several cells that often have
different characteristics. Even then, due to a number of variables such as
ageing, operational requirements, and chemical property changes, battery
cells change over time and operational requirements. Consequently, during
operating cycles over an prolonged period, SOC, battery health, remaining
life, charge and discharge resistance, and capacitance indicate nonlinear
and time-varying mechanisms[(8)]. Subsequently, capturing the individual
characteristics of each battery cell and creating modified models in real
time is critical for better battery control, efficient device diagnosis, and
improved power performance[(9)]. The battery in an electric car powers all,
unlike the batteries in other vehicles, which mostly function to power the
engine and power appliances like the radio or air conditioner. Most
significantly, it runs the electric engine or, more simply, it runs a device that
runs the electric motor in turn, so it needs to be reliable and long-lasting
enough just to carry drivers where they need to go with a with a minimum
recharging.

Fig1. Block diagram of battery electric vehicle

Working Of Electric Vehicle Battery:-

Fig2. Working of Ev Battery

The oxidation and reduction reaction of an electrolyte with metals is worked

on by A battery . When two separate metallic objects, called electrodes, are
put during a diluted electrolyte, counting on the electron affinity of the
electrode's metal, oxidation and reduction reaction takes place within the
electrodes. One electrode is charged as a cathode as a results of the
oxidation reaction and another electrode is charged as anode thanks to the
reduction reaction. The cathode forms the negative terminal while anode
forms a battery's positive terminal. Actually, when two dissimilar metals are
immersed in an electrolyte, there'll be a possible difference produced
between these metals. This sort of compound is named an electrolyte. The
favored samples of electrolytes are most sorts of salts, acids, and bases
etc. The energy released during accepting an electron by a neutral atom is
understood as electron affinity. because the atomic structure for various
materials are different, the electron affinity of various materials will differ. If
two different sorts of metals are immersed within the same electrolyte
solution, one among them will gain electrons and therefore the other will
release electrons.

On the opposite hand, the metal with high electron affinity will release
electrons and these electrons begin into the electrolyte solution and are
added to the positive ions of the answer . during this way, one among these
metals gains electrons and another one loses electrons. As a
consequence, between these two metals, there would be a disparity in
electron concentration. This variation within the concentration of electrons
leads to the formation of an electrical electric potential between metals. In
any electronics or circuit , this electrical potential distinction or emf are
often used as a voltage source. this is often a standard and fundamental
battery theory, and this is often how A battery functions. In electric vehicles,
both vehicles have traction engines rather than combustion engines that
are found in cars powered by gasoline . All electric vehicles used a traction
battery pack to store the electricity employed by the motors to drive the
vehicle's wheels.The traction battery pack is that the a part of the car that
has got to be plugged in and recharged, and its efficiency helps determine
the general range of the vehicle.

Types of Battery:-

1.Lithium-Ion Battery:-

It is the most common type of battery used in the electric vehicle. It is a

rechargeable battery. It is common used for portable electronics and
electric vehicles. Lithium-ion battery have high power to weight ratio, high
energy efficiency, high power density, longer life and it is friendly for
environment. However, the high capacity and large serial-parallel numbers
of lithium-ion batteries for vehicles place restrictions on the broad
application of lithium-ion batteries in the car, coupled with issues such as
protection, reliability, uniformity and cost. The lithium ions in the Li-ion
battery travel from the negative electrode during discharge to the positive
electrode and back while charging. The three main components of a
lithium-ion battery are the positive and negative electrodes and electrolytes.
Generally, the negative electrode of a conventional lithium-ion cell is
constructed from biomass. A metal oxide is usually the positive electrode.
Lithium-ion batteries work with a higher energy density over a broader
temperature range. Li-ion battery are environment friendly as it contains
less harmful chemicals than other battery types.

2.Lead-Acid Battery:-

A lead-acid battery is the world's single most-used battery device. From the
perspective of thermodynamic principles, electrochemical activation energy,
and molecular structure, the functioning of the lead-acid battery is
defined[(10)]. Lead acid batteries have high strength, cheap, safe and
reliable. It is used in high power applications. Lead acid batteries have very
low ratios of energy to volume and energy to weight, but it has a
reasonably large ratio of strength to weight and can also, if necessary,
provide enormous control voltage. High availability and low cost, because
of their proven technology, most electric cars historically used lead acid
battery. It is of two kinds, car engine starter batteries and deep cycle
batteries. It uses sponge lead and lead peroxide to transform chemical
energy into electrical power. In the lead acid battery the negative electrode
is made from sponge lead which is grey in colour and the positive electrode
form lead peroxide(PbO2) which are of dark chocolate colour. It is also
used as an electrolyte to dilute sulfuric acid. It contains around 31% sulfuric
acid. Large lead-acid batteries are used while submerged to power the
electric motors in diesel-electric (conventional) submarines, and are also
used on nuclear submarines as emergency power. It is also used for
electric scooters, electric wheelchairs, electric powered bicycles, marine
applications, battery electric vehicles and small computer systems.

3.Nickel-Metal Hydride Battery:-

A Ni-MH is a type of battery with a rechargeable charge. Nickel-metal

hydride batteries are safe and tolerant of violence and have a much longer
life span than lead-acid batteries. In Ni-MH battery the negative electrode
uses hydrogen absorbing alloy and the positive electrode using nickel oxide
hydroxide (NiOOH). NiMH cells have an alkaline electrolyte, such as
Potassium hydroxide. The disadvantages of nickel-metal hydride batteries
are their high cost, high self-discharge rate and heat generation at high
temperatures.

4. Nickel Cadmium Battery:-

A Ni Cd battery is a type of rechargeable battery that is used as electrodes

to produce nickel oxide hydroxide and metallic cadmium. The electrolyte of
this battery is an alkaline electrolyte(Potassium hydroxide). The positive
and negative electrode plates, separated by the separator from each other
in this battery, are placed within the case in a spiral shape. The batteries
are harder to harm than other batteries, tolerating deep discharge for long
periods, working very well under extreme conditions, lasting longer in terms
of charge / discharge cycles, providing a very high power density. In
cordless and portable telephones, emergency lighting, and other uses,
Ni-Cd batteries are used. For aircraft starting batteries, electric cars, and
standby fuel, larger flood cells are used.

5. Lithium Polymer Battery:-

The Lithium Polymer Battery is a type of rechargeable lithium-ion battery

that uses a liquid electrolyte instead of a polymer electrolyte. There is a
nanoporous separator in between to prevent the electrodes from contacting
each other directly, allowing only the ions and not the electrode particles to
move from one side to the other. In handheld devices, power banks, very
small laptop computers, portable media players, wireless controllers for
video game consoles, wireless PC peripherals, LiPo batteries are
prevalent.

6. Zebra Battery:-
ZEBRA stands for a sodium-nickel chloride cell (Zeolite Battery Research
Africa battery). This battery's negative electrode consists of liquid Na and
NiCl2 separated by B-aluminium solid electrolyte with Na+ conduction
[(11)]. In 1985, at the Council for Science and Industrial Research ( CSIR)
in Pretoria , South Africa, the Zeolite Battery Research Africa Project
(ZEBRA) group invented it. It is of high energy density five times higher
than lead acid, more than 1000 cycles of cycle life, short circuit resistant,
low cost materials. It is used in traction, EV, HEV, and railway applications.
These batteries are cheaper and have equivalent energy output (in
watt-hours per kilogram) than Li-ion cells, but their low specific power is
one significant drawback.

7. Ultracapacitors:-

Supercapacitors are also called ultracapacitors. It is a high-capacity

capacitor that fills the gap between electrolytic capacitors and rechargeable
batteries, with a voltage gain much higher than most capacitors, yet with
lower voltage limits. In systems where for a relatively short period of time a
significant amount of power is needed, where a very high number of charge
/ discharge cycles or a longer lifespan is needed, supercapacitors have
advantages. Ultracapacitors are electrical storage devices that can very
easily be recharged and release a significant amount of energy. During
acceleration and hill climbing, ultracapacitors can give vehicles extra power
and help recover braking energy. They can also be useful in electric-drive
vehicles as secondary energy storage devices because they support the
level of load power of electrochemical batteries.

Specification Table Of Electric Vehicle Batteries:-

 Electric Specific Energy Specific Cycle
Vehicle Energy Density Power Durability
Batteries
Lithium-Ion 100-265 250-693 250-340 300-500
Battery W-h/kg W-h/L W/kg cycles
Lead-Acid 35–40 W-h/kg 80–90 180 W/kg 200-300
Battery W-h/L cycles
Nickel-Metal 60-120 140-300 250-1000 180 -2000
Hydride W-h/kg W-h/L W/kg cycles
Battery
Nickel-Cadmi 40-60 W-h/kg 50-150 150 W/kg 2000 cycles
um Battery W-h/L
Lithium-Poly 100–265 250–730 245-430 300-500
mer Battery W-h/kg W-h/L W/kg cycles
Zebra 100 W-h/kg 290 150 W/kg 2000 cycles
Battery W-h/L

[(12),(13),(14)]

Lithium-ion battery: The average value of the working voltage during the
whole discharging process 3.7 volt (Nominal voltage). The discharge
capacity of the cell, measured with 1.3A down to 3.0V within 1 hour after a
completed charge. Lithium-ion battery have the highest energy densities of
any battery technology today.. The lifespan of a lithium-ion battery is
between two and three years, or between 300 and 500 charging cycles. A
duration of usage from fully charged to completely discharged is one
charge cycle.The charge/discharge efficiency of lithium-ion battery is
80-90%.

Lead-acid battery: The nominal voltage of the lead-acid battery is 2V and

the capacity of lead-acid battery is 1.3Ah. Sealed lead acid batteries can
have a design life of anywhere from 3 to 5 years or 200-300 cycles all the
way up to 12+ years depending on the manufacturing process of the
battery. The charge/discharge efficiency of lead-acid battery is 50-95%.

Nickel-metal Hydride battery: The nominal voltage of the Ni-metal hydride

battery is 1.2 V and At 1.2 V, they have a nominal charge ability of 1.1-2.8
Ah. Ni-MH batteries can be recharged hundreds of times and they have a
lifetime of 5 years or 180-2000 cycles. The charge/discharge efficiency
Nickel-metal hydride battery is 66-92%.

Nickel-Cadmium battery: Nickel–Cadmium cells have a nominal voltage

1.2V and the capacity is 1.8Ah for a common size cell and for the d size
battery capacity is 3.5Ah. They have long life upto 2000 cycles, depending
on variant. The charge/discharge efficiency of nickel-cadmium battery is
70-90%.

Lithium-polymer battery: The nominal voltage of Lithium-polymer battery is

3.7V and the nominal capacity is 0.75Ah. The life cycle of Lithium-polymer
battery is 2 to 3 years or 300-500 cycles. The charge/discharge efficiency
of lithium-polymer battery is 80-90%.

Zebra battery: The nominal cell voltage for sodium-nickel chloride battery is
2.58V and the capacity is 4.2 to 7 Ah. It has a long lifetime of 15 years or
2000 cycles. The charge/discharge efficiency of sodium- nickel chloride cell
is 100% because there is no loss of charge.

Guidelines or methods to increase battery life:-

•Limit the fast charging of any electric vehicle battery when battery is cold.
•Don't discharge the battery down to zero as it increases the internal
resistance.
•Kept the battery charge between 25 to 75%.
•The method for increasing the life of battery is Advance switching
algorithm method. Depending on the electrochemical properties of
individual cell which selects a set of battery cells for each current demand
and regulates the discharge current from each. Discharging in suboptimal
currents has negative effects on the life of the battery, so sophisticated
switching algorithms are used to eliminate these effects[(15)].
•Charge and use the battery at room temperature.
•Don't park the car in hot place as battery come in contact with heat which
is not good for battery.
•Avoid using fast charging.
•Store the battery in a cool place at partial charge hence some studies
shows that they retain their charge longer.

Conclusion:-

Electric cars and hybrid cars are more environment friendly than internal
combustion engine vehicles. Because of their high energy density relative
to their weight, lithium-ion batteries have been used mainly in electric cars.
High energy density,high power density,moderate energy consumption,
decline of the cost price, long service life,advance manufacturing
technology makes the lithium-ion battery an optimal choice for the electric
vehicles. Their disadvantage of lithium-ion battery is high operating
temperatures, which can have detrimental effects on their energy efficiency
and lifecycle.
Nickel-metal hydride battery having a reasonable energy consumption,they
have very high power density . It is of heavy weight also it is inefficient.
Lead acid batteries are high-powered, cheap, safe , and reliable, but they
are difficult to use in electric vehicles because of their short lifetime and
poor cold-temperature efficiency. The sodium-nickel chloride battery is the
best battery option from an energy consumption perspective.It have low
price,have long durability and good functioning in normal parameters. One
downside to these batteries is increased operating temperature, which
causes the battery electrolyte to solidify if the vehicle is not used.

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