ELECTRIC

VEHICLES
Dr.PARKAVI KATHIRVELU
UNIT – II
12 Periods
Energy Storage and Charging Schemes of EV
Introduction to Energy storage systems – Types – Batteries– Super capacitor–
Flywheel – BEV Range Estimation – Simple drive cycle for vehicle
comparisons – Charging standards and technologies– Level I, Level II and
Level III – Charging Methods – Constant current, Constant voltage and
Constant current and voltage– Basics of Wireless charging scheme.
 Energy storage systems

 Electric vehicles have three different types of on-board

energy storage systems

Static energy
supercapacitors
 Automotive battery

 An automotive battery or car battery is a rechargeable battery

that is used to start a motor vehicle. Its main purpose is to
provide an electric current to the electric-powered starting
motor, which in turn starts the chemically-powered internal
combustion engine that actually propels the vehicle. Once the
engine is running, power for the car's electrical systems is still
supplied by the battery, with the alternator charging the battery
as demands increase or decrease.
Batteries in the market

 Lead-Acid Batteries
 Lead-acid batteries are the oldest type of rechargeable battery, dating all the way back to
the 1850s! And yet, they’re still a great option today.
 They’re very powerful, hardy, and cheap. And they last for a long time, too—3 to 5 years.
 Unfortunately, they obviously contain lead, a notorious toxin. This being the case, they
are very bad for the planet if not properly disposed of.
 Lead-Acid Battery

 SLA or lead-acid is one of the oldest kinds of rechargeable batteries

 The main use for this kind of battery is as a secondary storage system for
commercial vehicles
 Parameters:
• Mass energy Density:30-40 Wh/kg
• Volume Energy density:60-75 Wh/L
• Power Density:180 W/kg
• Self-Discharge rate:3-20% per month
 Nickel-Cadmium (NiCd) Batteries
 they can supply a very high electrical current—ideal for high-drain devices
like cameras.
 However, they have a very low capacity (that is, they don’t hold a
charge for very long). Because of this, they are not considered so ideal
these days.

Nickel-Metal Hydride (NiMH) Batteries

➢ NiMH batteries eliminate the shortcomings of NiCd batteries in every way, except for
their lifespan. NiMH batteries last up to 1000 charges

Nickel-Zinc (NiZn) Batteries

➢ NiZn batteries were created as an alternative to NiMH batteries
➢ The main difference between the two is that NiZn batteries have a higher voltage
than NiMH.
 Types of Batteries Used In Electric
Vehicles & Their Parameters

➢ Lithium-ion batteries are the most commonly used electric car batteries.
➢ Hybrid nickel-metal batteries are only used for hybrid cars yet.
➢ SLA or Lead-Acid batteries have a life span of only 3 years.

Lithium-ion Battery
➢ This is the most widely used electric car battery in the industry
➢ Lithium-ion batteries have an immensely high power-to-weight ratio, making the cars highly energy efficient.
The battery performs quite better than others at high temperatures as well.
Parameters:
Mass energy Density: 100-180 Wh/kg
Volume Energy density: 200-300 Wh/L
Power Density: 1000-1500 W/kg
Self-Discharge rate: 1-5% per month
 Hybrid Nickel-Metal (NIMH) battery

 Another variant of electric cars is hybrid cars which contain both battery-powered and fuel-powered engines.
 These kinds of batteries do not require any outer power source to charge.
 The charging of the battery mainly depends on the regenerative braking, speed, and wheels of the car. When
compared to Li-ion batteries, NIMH batteries have a better life cycle and are safer in case of intolerant use.
 these batteries have a higher self-discharge rate
Parameters:
Mass energy Density: 40-120 Wh/kg
Volume Energy density: 140-400 Wh/L
Power Density: 300-1000 W/kg
Self-Discharge Rate: ~30% per month
 Lithium-Ion Battery

EV battery

Lithium-Sulfur Solid-State Battery

 Solid-State Battery
 Solid-state batteries are currently in development, and they've not yet been used in electric
vehicles. According to Toyota, the first electric vehicles with solid-state batteries could be on
the road by 2025.

Lithium-Sulfur
➢ Lithium-sulfur batteries are another alternative to lithium-ion batteries. Similar to solid-state
batteries, lithium-sulfur batteries can deliver more range than lithium-ion batteries.
➢ They're also cheaper to produce with less impact on the environment compared to lithium-ion
batteries
➢ The state of charge (SOC) is the portion of the total battery capacity that is available for discharge. It is
often expressed as a percentage, and can be seen as a measure of how much energy remains in the
battery.
➢ The depth of discharge (DOD) is the portion of electrical energy stored in a battery that has been
discharged. It is often expressed as a percentage.

➢ For example, if the pack capacity is 24 kWh and 6 kWh has been discharged, the DOD is 6/24 or 25%.
The remaining energy in the pack is then 18 kWh, and the SOC is 18/24 or 75%
Topology 1: Passive Parallel Configuration
Topology 2: UC/Battery Configuration
Topology 3: Battery/UC Configuration
Topology 4: Cascaded ConvertersConfiguration
 Topology 5: Multiple Dual-Active-Bridge
Converters Configuration
Hybrid flywheel ESS
 Working of Batteries

 Electrochemical batteries, more commonly referred to as “batteries,” are electrochemical devices

 convert electrical energy into potential chemical energy during charging, and convert chemical
energy into electric energy during discharging.
 A “battery” is composed of several cells stacked together.
 A cell is an independent and complete unit that possesses all the electrochemical properties.
 Basically, a battery cell consists of three primary elements: two electrodes (positive and negative)
immersed into an electrolyte
➢ The negative electrode in an electrochemical cell is
often a pure metal, or an alloy, or even hydrogen.
➢ During discharge, the negative electrode gives up
electrons to the external circuit and during charge, the
negative electrode accepts electrons from the external
circuit
➢ The positive electrode in an electrochemical cell is often
a metallic oxide, sulfide, or oxygen.
➢ During discharge, the positive electrode accepts
electrons from the external circuit, a process by which
the electrode is reduced.
➢ During charge, the positive electrode gives up electrons
to the external circuit and is oxidized.
➢ The electrolyte is an ionic conductor that provides the
medium for internal ionic charge transfer between the
electrodes.
➢ The electrolyte most often comprises a liquid solvent
containing dissolved chemicals (the solute) that provide
this ionic conductivity
➢ The anode is a graphite structure and the
cathode is layered metal oxide.
➢ Lithium-ions are deposited between these
layers.
➢ When the battery is charging, the lithium-ions
move from the anode to the cathode and
take on electrons.
➢ The number of ions therefore determines the
energy density.
➢ When the battery is discharging, the lithium-
ions release the electrons to the anode, and
move back to the cathode.

Basic operation of a lithium-ion battery (Source:

Bosch Media)
Fuel Cell

➢ A fuel cell is a device that makes electricity

from fuel and air.
➢ Instead of burning the fuel to make heat to
drive a mechanical generator, fuel cells
react the fuel and air electrochemically,
without combustion.
➢ The electrochemical approach avoids
pollutants that are created by high flame
temperatures, and it is a more direct and
efficient way to make power from a fuel.
Fuel cell fed EV
The most common type of fuel cell for vehicle applications is the polymer
electrolyte membrane (PEM) fuel cell. In a PEM fuel cell, an electrolyte
membrane is sandwiched between a positive electrode (cathode) and a
negative electrode (anode). Hydrogen is introduced to the anode, and
oxygen (from air) is introduced to the cathode. The hydrogen molecules
break apart into protons and electrons due to an electrochemical
reaction in the fuel cell catalyst. Protons then travel through the
membrane to the cathode.

The electrons are forced to travel through an external circuit to perform

work (providing power to the electric car) then recombine with the
protons on the cathode side where the protons, electrons, and oxygen
molecules combine to form water.
Flywheels for EV

➢ Flywheels are an energy storage technology

consisting of rapidly spinning discs that may
discharge their energy in minutes.
➢ systems use vacuum-sealed carbon-fiber discs
moving on low-friction bearings or
superconducting magnets to get high efficiency
and lessweight.
➢ The devices should be able to spin at 60,000
rpm. This in turn will produce 80 horsepower
while consuming 20% less fuel.
 APPLICATION OF FLYWHEEL ENERGY
STORAGE SYSTEM
Buses
Cars
Container Cranes/Straddle Carriers
Construction Machines
Garbage Trucks
Charging Stations
continuously variable transmission (CVT) Cable Ferries
Train Stations
Flywheel in distribution network
ADVANTAGES OF FESS
High specific power
long cycle life
high energy efficiency
quick recharge
low cost
environmental friendliness.
They do not suffer from temperature
dependence and their state of charge is DISADVANTAGES OF FESS
most easily determined. Complexity of durable and low loss bearings.
Mechanical stress and fatigue limits.
Material limits at around 700M/sec tip speed.
Potentially hazardous failure modes.
Short discharge time.
 Batteries Types and Battery Packs

 An electric battery stores and converts electrochemical energy to electrical energy.

• The primary battery cannot be recharged after discharge.

Primary • Examples of primary batteries are the alkaline-manganese batteries.
Battery • we commonly use in our TV remote controls and other common
appliances.

• A secondary battery is a battery that can be repeatedly charged and

Secondary discharged.
Battery • Examples of secondary batteries are lead-acid (with symbol PbA),
nickel-metal hydride (NiMH), and lithium-ion (Li-ion)
 Battery Parameters

Cell Voltage
 The rated voltage of a battery cell is the average voltage over a full discharge cycle.
 Li-ion cell has a rated voltage of 3.75 V, while the cell voltage can actually vary from about 4.2 V
when fully charged to 2.5 V when fully discharged. NiMH has a rated cell voltage of 1.2 V.
 Specific Energy
 The specific energy of a battery is a measure of the stored energy of a battery per unit weight.
 Li-Ion has the highest energy density of the batteries
 The specific energy of the Li-ion battery is approximately 3 to 5 times that
of the lead-acid battery

Cycle Life
➢ Cycle Life is a measure of the number of times a battery can be charged and discharged
before it reaches its end of life.
➢ Electrochemical batteries degrade with time and usage.
➢ Factors such as temperature and cell voltage also play a critical role.
➢ Li-ion has the highest cycle life and NiMH is similar. Lead-acid batteries have a significantly lower
cycle life.

Specific Power
➢ Specific power is a measure of the discharge power available from a battery pack per unit weight.
➢ Lead-acid traditionally has had a high specific power and is used as the starter battery for
conventional cars.
➢ The newer batteries, such as Li-ion and NiMH, have comparable specific powers.
Self-Discharge

➢ Electrochemical cells consume energy even when not being charged or discharged.

➢ This energy usage is a parasitic use of stored energy and is termed self-discharge.

➢ Self-discharge rates are relatively high for nickel-based batteries compared to their
competitors. There can be a very high initial self-discharge of a battery in the first 24 hours
after being fully charged, but this rate tapers off.

➢ The self-discharge rates can increase significantly with temperature.

➢ self-discharge of Li-ion is less than 2%, the overall self discharge of a battery pack may be
closer to 5% as up to an additional 3% may be required by the electronic system and
circuits managing the battery pack
 Life time of the battery

 Automotive products are typically designed for a 10- to 12-year lifetime.

 The typical semiconductor device, such as a microprocessor or switch, exhibits minor degradation with
time.
 Electrochemical devices, such as batteries, fuel cells, and electrolytic capacitors, can degrade quickly as
they age, especially with increased usage.
 Thus, a significant challenge for battery manufacturers has been to develop batteries that match the
automotive product’s lifetime
 BEV Range Estimation
A typical quantity of measure related to battery energy storage is capacity, with the unit of
ampere-hour (Ah).
 C rate

 The capacity of a battery is commonly rated at 1C, meaning that a fully charged battery rated
at 1Ah should provide 1A for one hour. The same battery discharging at 0.5C should provide
500mA for two hours; at 2C, it delivers 2A for 30 minutes.

The state of charge (SOC) is the portion of the total battery capacity that is available
for discharge. It is often expressed as a percentage, and can be seen as a measure of how
much energy remains in the battery.
The depth of discharge (DOD) is the portion of electrical energy stored in a battery
that has been discharged. It is often expressed as a percentage.
For example, if the pack capacity is 24 kWh and 6 kWh has been discharged, the
DOD is 6/24 or 25%. The remaining energy in the pack is then 18 kWh, and the
SOC is 18/24 or 75%.
 Battery Lifetime and Sizing Considerations

 Time and charge/discharge cycles: One of the characteristics of electrochemical cells is that the
ability to store charge degrades with time.
 Repeated deep charge/discharge cycles can even more significantly result in a reduced lifetime.
➢ Lifetime: The lifetime of a battery can be described using time (years) or repeated cycles.

➢ Beginning of life (BOL): The beginning-of-life parameters are typically the values for the capacity and
the internal resistance of the battery when it is initially manufactured.

➢ End of life (EOL) : The end-of-life parameters are the values of critical components once they
degrade with time or usage. A typical end-of-life criterion is for the battery energy storage capacity
to drop to 80% of the BOL value or for the internal resistance to increase by 50%
 The factors affecting the life of a battery

 Voltage: Too high a cell voltage can result in breakdown of the electrolyte reduce storage
capacity, and consequently reduce cycles and lifetime.
 The float voltage is the voltage at which the cell is maintained once the battery has been fully
charged in order to compensate for the self-discharge of the cell.
High temperatures: operating at high temperatures significantly reduces the lifetime and
reliability of a component

Low temperatures: Operation at very low temperatures can also be problematic for some
battery technologies. The electrolyte can become more viscous and have decreased
conductivity. Freezing Li-ion cells at temperatures less than −10 C (14 F) reduces the
power and stored energy available from a battery.

Time:
➢ factors such as voltage, temperature, and cycles significantly affect the lifetime.
➢ A lower SOC results in a lower cell voltage, which slows the degradation of the
electrolyte and the loss of active lithium.

Life cycle and DOD:

➢ If battery can sustain 1000 cycles at 100% DOD, then it will sustain 2000 cycles for a 50%
DOD and 10,000 cycles for a 10% DOD.

➢ cycle lifetime index “L” is introduced here as a novel concept, and is used in
this section as a parameter to quantify battery life
Voltage, Current, Resistance, and Efficiency of
Battery Pack
Estimated charging times
 Charging Methods

Level 1
AC
charging
Plug in Level 2
Charging
DC
Level 3
charging

Static
Charging Inductive
Dynamic
Wireless
charging
Static
Battery
Capacitive
Swapping
Dynamic
 Charger levels
Electrical output‍
 Level 1: 1.3 kW and 2.4 kW AC current
 Level 2: 3kW to under 20kW AC current, output varies by model
 Level 3: 50kw to 350kw DC current
Range
‍
➢ Level 1: 5 km (or 3.11 miles) of range per hour of charging; up to 24 hours to fully charge a
battery
➢ Level 2: 30 to 50km (20 to 30 miles) of range per hour of charging; overnight full battery
charge
➢ Level 3: Up to 20 miles of range per minute; full battery charge in under an hour
Use cases
 Level 1: Residential (single-family homes or apartment complexes)
 Level 2: Residential, commercial (retail spaces, multi-family complexes, public parking lots);
can be used by individual homeowners if a 240V outlet is installed
 Level 3: Commercial (for heavy-duty EVs and most passenger EVs )
Architecture of conventional EV
charging station: Common
AC bus-based system
Common DC bus-based system
Architecture of AC and DC bus-based
EV charging stations
Configuration of conventional off
board charger
Configuration of conventional on
board EV
Configurations of dedicated onboard
charger (a) Second-generation volt, (b)
Tesla Model 3/Y,
(c) Hyundai vehicle-to-device, (d)
Hella electronics/GaN systems.
 Charger Architectures

Conductive ac charging power block diagram

RCCB: The residual current circuit breaker (RCCB) detects an imbalance in the line
and neutral currents, usually between about 5 to 20 mA, and triggers a circuit breaker
to take the charger off-line to prevent fatalities. This circuitry is also known as a
ground-fault circuit interrupter (GFCI).

• EMI filter: Switching power electronics can generate significant radiated and conducted noise,
known as electromagnetic interference. A high-current filter with common-mode and differential-
mode stages is required to meet legal emissionstandards in the United States (FCC) and the EU (VDE).
FCC Part 15b is commonly referenced in the United States, while the VDE B standard is commonly
referenced inEurope.

• Rectifier: A simple diode bridge rectifies the 50/60 Hz ac waveform.

• Boost PFC: A boost converter, typically switching at tens or hundreds of kHz, chops
up the low-frequency rectified power and boosts it to a voltage level of about 400 Vdc, a
value higher than the peak ac value.

• Dc link: An electrolytic capacitor is usually used for bulk storage to filter the 50/60 Hz
component
Dc-hfac chopper: A full-bridge or H-bridge converter is used to chop the nominal 400
V dc link voltage into a high-frequency pulse stream going from -400 V to +400 V at
the switching frequency.

• Transformer: the high-frequency pulse stream is galvanically isolated for safety by the
transformer. The pulse stream must be high frequency in order to minimize the size
and weight of the transformer.

• Rectifier-filter: The output of the transformer secondaries are rectified and filtered to
create dc current to charge the battery.
 Wireless Charging of Electric Vehicles

 The basic feature of the wireless charger is the same as

the transformer. While using wireless charging, one must
know that a transmitter and a receiver will be there. This
receiver generally converts 220v 52Hz AC power into
high-frequency AC, which boosts the transmitter coil
and thus generates a magnetic field.

 The receiver coil then generates the current flowing in it.

For effective wireless charging, it is necessary to
maintain the resonance frequency for both the
transmitter and the receiver. Here, a type of
compensation network is added to it to maintain the
balanced frequency. Next, the AC power source is
converted into DC power and feeds the battery with
sufficient power. There are mainly two types of wireless
charging systems – static wireless charging and
dynamic wireless charging.
Wireless Charging of Electric Vehicles
Bidirectional wireless system with SS
topology
Coil design(charging pads)
Compensation topologies
 Charging standards

 The Society of Automotive Engineers (SAE)

 The Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE)
 The International Electrotechnical Commission (IEC)
 Underwriters’ Laboratories (UL) organizations
 National Electric Code(NEC)
IEEE standard
SAE standards
The International Electrotechnical
Commission (IEC)Standards
Underwriters’ Laboratories (UL)
organizations
National Electric Code(NEC)standard
EV STANDARDS IN INDIA
 Types of charging cables

Case B: The charging cable is not permanently connected to the

Case A: The charging cable is permanently connected to the vehicle or the charging station (Source: Mennekes)
vehicle (Source: Mennekes)

Case C: The charging cable is permanently connected

to the charging station (Source: Mennekes)
 charging Methods

 There are three common methods of

charging a battery:
1. constant voltage,
2. constant current and
3. a combination of constant
voltage/constant current with or without
a smart charging circuit.
Charging Technologies
 Constant Current Charging

 CC charging* is a simple method that uses a small constant current to charge the battery
during the whole charging process.
 CC charging stops when a predefined value is reached.
 This method is widely used for charging NiCd or NiMH batteries, as well as Li-ion batteries.
 The charging current rate is the most important factor, and it can significantly influence the
battery’s behavior.
 A high charging current provides a quick charge but also significantly affects the battery’s
aging process.
 A low charging current provides high capacity utilization but also produces a very slow
charge, which is inconvenient for EV applications.
 constant voltage charging

 which regulates a predefined constant voltage to charge batteries.

 Its main advantage is that it circumvents over voltages and irreversible side reactions, thus
prolonging battery life.
 Since the voltage is constant, the charging current decreases as the battery charges.
 A high current value is required to provide a constant terminal voltage at a nearly stage of the
charging process.
 A high charging current from 15 percent to 80 percent SOC provides fast charging, but the
high current stresses the battery and can cause battery lattice collapse and pole breaking.
Simple Drive Cycle for Vehicle
Comparisons

 The following assumptions are made in order to simplify the analysis of the drive cycle:
 1) The various machines operate in steady state.
 2) The engine, generator and the motor response times are negligible.
 3) The transient losses of accelerating and braking and the resultant kinetic energy
gain and loss are negligible due to the few stops and starts in the drive cycle.
 4) The gearing and transmission efficiency, regardless of the vehicle, is 95%.
 5) The electric drive efficiency for both motoring and generating is 85%
Simple drive cycle

Simplified vehicle powertrain

Simple drive cycle
Over the one hour cycle on a flat road, the vehicle is cruising at 50 km/h for a time period t1=
1800 s, cruising at 90 km/h for t2 = 1200 s, and in idle mode for t3 = 600 s. Subscripts 1, 2, and 3 will
be used for the various parameters during time intervals t1, t2, and t3, respectively, while subscript
C is used for the overall cycle.