Introduction to mechanisms and machines

Velocity & acceleration analysis, Cams

MODULE 1&2
Theory of Machines

The subject Theory of Machines may be

defined as that branch of Engineering-science,
which deals with the study of relative motion
between the various parts of a machine, and
forces which act on them.

The knowledge of this subject is very essential

for an engineer in designing the various parts
of a machine.
Sub-divisions of Theory of Machines
Slider crank mechanism
Link/ kinematic link / element

A link is defined as a member or a

combination of members of a mechanism
connecting other members and having
relative motion between them.
The link may consist of one or more
resistant bodies.
A link may be called as kinematic link or
element.
Joint: A connection between two links that
allows motion between the links.
The motion allowed may be rotational (revolute
joint), translational (sliding joint), or a
combination of the two (roll-slide joint).
Classification of kinematic pairs
According to the type of relative motion
between the elements

a. Sliding pair
b. Turning pair
c. Rolling pair
d. Screw pair
e. Spherical pair
According to the type of contact between the
elements

(a)Lower pair
(b) Higher pair
Lower pair

When the elements of a pair having a surface

contact between them when relative motion takes
place and the surface of one element slides over
the surface of the other, the pair formed is known
as lower pair.
• sliding pairs • turning pairs • screw pairs
According to type of closure

(a)Closed pair
(b)Un closed pair/Open Pair
(a)Closed pair:- When the elements of a pair are
held together mechanically in such a way that
only required relative motion occurs, then it is
known as closed pair.
• lower pairs are closed pair.

(b) Un closed pair/Open Pair:- When the elements

of a pair are in contact either due to force of
gravity or spring action, the pair is called as a un-
closed pair or Open Pair.
• cam and follower
Degrees of freedom

It is defined as the number of input

parameters which must be independently
controlled in order to bring the mechanism
for useful engineering purposes.

It is also defined as the number of

independent relative motions, both
translational and rotational, a pair can have.
Degrees of freedom = 6 – no. of restraints
Number of degrees of freedom/mobility

To find the number of degrees of freedom for a plane

mechanism we have Kutzbach criterion,

Number of degrees of freedom n= 3 (l – 1) – 2j– h

n = Mobility or number of degrees of freedom
l = Number of links
j = Joints with single (one) degree of freedom
h = number of higher pairs
If there are no higher pairs then h=0.
Grubler’s criterion
For a plane mechanism with only single degree of freedom
we have,
Number of degrees of freedom n= 3 (l – 1) – 2j– h
by substituting n=1 and h=0 in Kutzbach equation, we get
3 l –2j– 4=0
This equation is known as Grubler’s criterion for plane
mechanism.
According to Grashoff's law,
Length (link4+link3)<=Length (link1+link2)
Grashoff's law:
Grashoff 4-bar linkage: A linkage that
contains one or more links capable of
undergoing a full rotation.
A linkage is Grashoff if
S+L<P+Q
Where: S = shortest link length, L = longest,
P, Q = intermediate length links
Both joints of the shortest link are capable of
360 degrees of rotation in a Grashoff
linkages.
Kinematic chain

When the kinematic pairs are

coupled in such a way that the last
link is joined to the first link to
transmit definite motion it is called a
kinematic chain.
The crank shaft of an engine forms a kinematic pair
with the bearings which are fixed in a pair.
the connecting rod with the crank forms a second
kinematic pair.
the piston with the connecting rod forms a third
pair.
the piston with the cylinder forms the fourth pair.
Kinematic chain

1. l = 2p-4
l=number of links
p=number of pairs
2. j= (3/2)l – 2
j = number of joints
Valid for lower pair only.
Determine whether the following is a kinematic chain
or not?

LHS>RHS
Such type of chain is called locked chain and forms a rigid
frame or structure which is used in bridges and trusses.
Kinematic chain/constrained kinematic chain, and
it is the basis of all machines.
Such a type of chain is called unconstrained chain
i.e. the relative motion is not completely
constrained.
This type of chain is of little practical importance.
FORCES ACTING IN A MECHANISM
TRANSMISSION ANGLE
Transmission angle is the angle between the
coupling member and the output member in a
mechanism.
The optimum value of the transmission angle is
90 degree.
If the maximum deviation of the transmission
angle from 90 degree exceeds 40 or 50 degree
the mechanism will lock.
Inversion of a Mechanism
we can obtain as many mechanisms as the
number of links in a kinematic chain by fixing,
in turn, different links in a kinematic chain.

The method of obtaining different

mechanisms by fixing different links in a
kinematic chain, is known as inversion of the
mechanism.
The most important kinematic chains are
those which consist of four lower pairs,
each pair being a sliding pair or a turning
pair.
The following three types of kinematic
chains with four lower pairs are
important from the subject point of view
1. Four bar chain or quadric cyclic chain
2. Single slider crank chain
3. Double slider crank chain
v
Inversions of four bar chain

1.Beam engine (Crank and lever mechanism)

2.Coupling rod of a locomotive (Double crank
mechanism)
3.Watt’s straight line mechanism or Double
lever mechanism
BEAM ENGINE (CRANK AND LEVER
MECHANISM)
The purpose of this mechanism is to convert
rotary motion into reciprocating motion.

In this mechanism, when the crank rotates

about the fixed center A, the lever oscillates
about a fixed center D.

The end E of the lever CDE is connected to a

piston rod which reciprocates due to the
rotation of the crank.
COUPLING ROD OF A LOCOMOTIVE
(DOUBLE CRANK MECHANISM)
This mechanism is meant for transmitting
rotary motion from one wheel to the other
wheel.
The links AD and BC (having equal length) act
as cranks and are connected to the respective
wheels.
The link CD acts as a coupling rod and the link
AB is fixed in order to maintain a constant
center to center distance between them.
WATT’S INDICATOR MECHANISM
(DOUBLE LEVER MECHANISM)
It consists of four links.
fixed link at A, link AC, link CE and link BFD.
The links CE and BFD act as levers.
The displacement of the link BFD is directly
proportional to the pressure of gas or steam
which acts on the indicator plunger.
On any small displacement of the
mechanism, the tracing point E at the end of
the link CE traces out approximately a
straight line.
Straight line mechanisms

Sometimes the point on the mechanism is

required to move in straight line.
Such mechanisms are called straight line
mechanisms.
These mechanisms are of the following two
types
1. in which only turning pairs are used
2. in which one sliding pair is used
 STRAIGHT LINE
MECHANISMS

EXACT STRAIGHT LINE APPROXIMATE STRAIGHT

MECHANISMS LINE MECHANISMS

SCOTT
PEAUCELLIER HART’S
RUSSEL

GRASS
ROBERT WATT’S
HOPPER
PEAUCELLIER MECHANISM
PEAUCELLIER MECHANISM

Consists of 8 links
OQ=QC
OB=OA
BP=PA=AC=CB
OQ is fixed
QC rotating link
As link QC rotates around Q, P moves in a straight
line perpendicular to OQ.
WATT’S MECHANISM
Approximate straight line mechanism.
Four bar chain OBAO1
Crank OB
Follower AO1
Coupler link AB perpendicular to OB and AO1
Link OB and AO1 oscillates about O and O1.
If P is a point on link BA such that PB/PA=AO1/BO
For small oscillations of OB and AO1 point P will
traces an approximate straight line.
Single slider crank chain
A single slider crank chain is a modification of the basic four bar
chain.
It consist of one sliding pair and three turning pairs.
It is found in reciprocating steam engine mechanism.
This type of mechanism converts rotary motion into reciprocating
motion and vice versa.
In a single slider crank chain, as shown the links 1 and 2, links 2 and
3, and links 3 and 4 form three turning pairs while the links 4 and 1
form a sliding pair.
Inversions in a single slider chain mechanism

1.Pendulum pump or Bull engine

2.Oscillating cylinder engine
3.Rotary internal combustion engine or Gnome
engine
4.Crank and slotted lever quick return motion
mechanism
5.Whitworth quick return motion mechanism
PENDULUM PUMP (BULL ENGINE)
When the crank (link 2) rotates, the
connecting rod (link 3) oscillates about a pin
pivoted to the fixed link 4 at A and the piston
attached to the piston rod (link 1)
reciprocates.
OSCILLATING CYLINDER ENGINE
It is used to convert reciprocating motion into
rotary motion.
In this mechanism, the link 3 forming the turning
pair is fixed.
The link 3 corresponds to the connecting rod of a
reciprocating steam engine mechanism. When the
crank (link 2) rotates, the piston attached to piston
rod (link 1) reciprocates and the cylinder (link 4)
oscillates about a pin pivoted to the fixed link at A.
ROTARY INTERNAL COMBUSTION
ENGINE (GNOME ENGINE)
It consists of seven cylinders in one plane and all
revolves about fixed center ,while the crank (link 2)
is fixed.
In this mechanism, when the connecting rod (link
4) rotates, the piston (link 3) reciprocates inside
the cylinders forming link 1.
CRANK AND SLOTTED LEVER QUICK
RETURN MOTION MECHANISM
WHITWORTH QUICK RETURN
MOTION MECHANISM
Double Slider Crank Chain

A four bar chain having two turning and two

sliding pairs is known as double slider crank
chain.
Inversions of double slider crank chain
There are three important inversions of
double slider crank chain.
1)Elliptical trammel.
2)Scotch yoke mechanism.
3) Oldham’s Coupling.
Elliptical trammel.
It is an instrument used for drawing ellipses.

The fixed plate or link 4 has two straight

grooves cut in it, at right angles to each
other.
The link 1 and link 3, are known as sliders
and form sliding pairs with link 4.
The link A B (link 2) is a bar which forms
turning pair with links 1 and 3.
When the links 1 and 3 slide along their
respective grooves, any point on the link 2
such as P traces out an ellipse on the surface
of link 4.
AP and BP are the semi-major axis and semi-
minor axis of the ellipse respectively.
Scotch yoke mechanism
This mechanism is used for converting rotary motion into a
reciprocating motion.
The inversion is obtained by fixing link 1.
The fixed link 1 guides the frame.
When the link 2 crank rotates about B as center, the link 4
reciprocates.
Oldham’s Coupling

An Oldham's coupling is used for connecting two parallel

shafts whose axes are at a small distance apart.
The shafts are coupled in such a way that if one shaft
rotates, the other shaft also rotates at the same speed.
This inversion is obtained by fixing the link 2.
When the driving shaft A is rotated, the flange C
(link 1) causes the intermediate piece (link 4) to
rotate at the same angle through which the flange
has rotated, and it further rotates the flange D (link
3) at the same angle and thus the shaft B rotates.
Links 1, 3 and 4 have the same angular velocity at
every instant.

There is a sliding motion between the link 4 and

each of the other links 1 and 3.
COUPLER CURVES

The path generated by a point on the coupler link

is known as a coupler curves.
The generating point is called a coupler point
(tracer point).
A and B are called coupler points.
When the input link rotates any point on coupler
generates a path or curve called coupler curves.
Various coupler curves can be obtained by varying lengths
of link 2 and 4.
The coupler curves have variety of shapes like
Ellipse
Circle
Straight line
Banana
Arcs etc.
Generally the crank length is taken as unity and the length
of other links are varied to get different mechanisms.
The coupler curves are very useful and invaluable to the
machine designer who needs a mechanism to generate a
curve with specified characteristics.
Normally a sixth order algebraic equation is required for
coupler curves.
Kinematic analysis

Velocities and accelerations in mechanisms/machines can

be determined by
1.Graphical method
a.Relative velocity method, Relative acceleration method
b. Instantaneous center method
2.Analytical method
Relative Velocity
Consider two bodies A and B moving along parallel lines in the same
direction with absolute velocities vA and vB such that vA > vB
The relative velocity of A with respect to B,
vAB = Vector difference of vA and vB = VA -VB
Motion of a Link

Consider two points A and B on a rigid link AB.

Let one of the extremities (B) of the link move relative to
A, in clockwise direction.
Since the distance from A to B remains the same,
therefore there can be no relative motion between A and
B, along the line AB.
Motion of a Link

The relative motion of B with respect to A must be perpendicular

to AB.
Velocity of any point on a link with respect to another point on the
same link is always perpendicular to the line joining these points
on the configuration (or space) diagram.
Rubbing Velocity at a Pin Joint
In a four bar chain ABCD, AD is fixed and is 150 mm long.
The crank AB is 40 mm long and rotates at 120 r.p.m.
clockwise, while the link CD = 80 mm oscillates about D. BC
and AD are of equal length. Find the angular velocity of
link CD when angle BAD = 60°
NBA = 120 r.p.m. or ωBA = 2 π × 120/60 = 12.568 rad/s
Since the length of crank AB = 40 mm = 0.04 m, therefore
velocity of B with respect to A or velocity of B, (because A
is a fixed point),
VBA = vB = ωBA × A B = 12.568 × 0.04 = 0.503 m/s
1. Since the link AD is fixed, therefore points a and d are taken as
one point in the velocity diagram. Draw vector ab perpendicular
to B A, to some suitable scale, to represent the velocity of B with
respect to A or simply velocity of B (i.e. vBA or vB ) such that
vector ab = vBA = vB = 0.503 m/s
2. Now from point b, draw vector bc perpendicular to CB to
represent the velocity of C with respect to B (i.e. vCB) and from
point d, draw vector dc perpendicular to CD to represent the
velocity of C with respect to D or simply velocity of C (i.e. vCD or
vC ). The vectors bc and dc intersect at c.
3. By measurement, we find that vCD = vC = vector dc = 0.385 m/s
We know that CD = 80 mm = 0.08 m
∴ Angular velocity of link CD,
V CD/ CD =0.385 /0.08
ωCD = 4.8 rad/s (clockwise about D) Ans.
Combined motion of rotation and translation of the link A
B may be assumed to be a motion of pure rotation about
some centre I, known as the instantaneous centre of
rotation (also called centro or virtual centre).
Properties of the Instantaneous centre
1. A rigid link rotates instantaneously relative to another
link at the instantaneous centre for the configuration of
the mechanism considered.
2. The two rigid links have no linear velocity relative to
each other at the instantaneous centre.
In other words, the velocity of the instantaneous centre
relative to any third rigid link will be same whether the
instantaneous centre is regarded as a point on the first
rigid link or on the second rigid link.
Number of Instantaneous Centres in a Mechanism

The number of pairs of links or the number of instantaneous centres

is the number of combinations of n links taken two at a time.
Mathematically, number of instantaneous centres,
Types of Instantaneous Centres

The instantaneous centres for a mechanism are of

the following three types
1. Fixed instantaneous centres,
2. Permanent instantaneous centres, and
3. Neither fixed nor permanent instantaneous
centres.
The first two types i.e. fixed and permanent
instantaneous centres are together known as
primary instantaneous centres and the third type is
known as secondary instantaneous centres.
Location of Instantaneous Centres
Aronhold Kennedy (or Three Centres in Line) Theorem

The Aronhold Kennedy’s theorem states that if three

bodies move relatively to each other, they have three
instantaneous center and lie on a straight line.
Method of Locating Instantaneous Centres in a
Mechanism
1.Book keeping method
2.Circle method
The locus of all instantaneous centres is
known as centrode.
A line drawn through an instantaneous centre
and perpendicular to the plane of motion is
called instantaneous axis. The locus of this
axis is known as axode.
The locus of the instantaneous centre in space during a
definite motion of the body is called the space centrode
and the locus of the instantaneous centre relative to the
body itself is called the body centrode.
During the motion of the body, the body centrode rolls
without slipping over the space centrode.
Acceleration Diagram for a Link
1.The centripetal or radial component, which is
perpendicular to the velocity of the particle at
the given instant.

2. The tangential component, which is parallel to

the velocity of the particle at the given instant.
Analytical Method for Velocity and Acceleration of the
Piston
Let
l = Length of connecting rod between the centres,
r = Radius of crank or crank pin circle,
φ = Inclination of connecting rod to the line of stroke PO,
and n = Ratio of length of connecting rod to the radius of crank = l/r
 Velocity of piston

Acceleration of piston ap =

Angular Velocity of the Connecting rod

Angular Acceleration of the Connecting rod

In a slider crank mechanism, the length of the
crank and connecting rod are 150 mm and 600 mm
respectively. The crank position is 60° from inner
dead center. The crank shaft speed is 450 r.p.m.
(clockwise). Using analytical method, determine:
1. Velocity and acceleration of the slider, and 2.
Angular velocity and angular acceleration of the
connecting rod.
Given : r = 150 mm = 0.15 m ; l = 600 mm = 0.6 m ;
θ = 60°; N = 400 r.p.m or ω = 2 π × 450/60 = 47.13
rad/s
If the crank and the connecting rod are 300 mm and 1 m
long respectively and the crank rotates at a constant speed
of 200 r.p.m., determine:
1. The crank angle at which the maximum velocity occurs,
and 2. Maximum velocity of the piston.

Given : r = 300 mm = 0.3 m ; l = 1 m ; N = 200 r.p.m. or ω =

2 π × 200/60 = 20.95 rad/s
Coriolis component of acceleration

When a point on one link is sliding along another

rotating link then the Coriolis component of the
acceleration must be calculated.
Eg. quick return mechanism
Slotted lever mechanism
The anticlockwise direction for ω and the radially
outward direction for v are taken as positive.
It may be noted that the direction of Coriolis
component of acceleration changes sign, if either ω
or v is reversed in direction.
The direction of Coriolis component of acceleration
will not be changed in sign if both ω and v are
reversed in direction.
The direction of Coriolis component of acceleration
is obtained by rotating v, at 90°, about its origin in
the same direction as that of ω.
Cam and followers
A cam is a rotating machine element which
gives reciprocating or oscillating motion to
another element known as follower.
The cam and the follower have a line contact
and constitute a higher pair.
The cams are usually rotated at uniform
speed by a shaft, but the follower motion is
predetermined and will be according to the
shape of the cam.
Applications

The cam and follower is one of the simplest as well

as one of the most important mechanisms found in
modern machinery today.

The cams are widely used for operating the inlet

and exhaust valves of internal combustion engines,
automatic attachment of machineries, paper
cutting machines, spinning and weaving textile
machineries, feed mechanism of automatic lathes
etc.
Classification of Followers

1.According to the surface in contact

2.According to the motion of the follower
3.According to the path of motion of the
follower
According to the surface in contact
According to the motion of the follower
According to the path of motion of the follower
(a)Radial follower.
When the motion of the follower is along an axis passing
through the center of the cam, it is known as radial
follower.

(b) Off-set follower.

When the motion of the follower is along an axis away
from the axis of the cam center, it is called off-set
follower.
Classification of Cams

1. Radial or disc cam or plate cam

In radial cams, the follower reciprocates or oscillates in a
direction perpendicular to the cam axis.
2.Wedge cams
A wedge of specified shape that reciprocates and leads to
reciprocation or oscillation of the follower.
3.Cylindrical/barrel cam
The cam is of cylindrical shape. A groove is cut on the
surface of the cylinder and follower moves inside the
groove. The cylinder rotates, and the follower oscillates or
translates accordingly.
4.Spherical cam
A spherical cam is similar to a cylindrical cam; the only
difference is groove is cut on a sphere instead of a
cylinder.
5.End cam
This cam has a rotating portion of a cylinder. The
follower translates or oscillates, whereas the cam
usually rotates. The end cam is rarely used because
of the cost and the difficulty in cutting its contour.
6.
7.Globoidal cam
8
 Advantages of Cam and Follower mechanism
•It is an accurate design mechanism with a higher standard
method of motion transformation.

•The elements used in the mechanism are usually durable

and long lasting.

•A wide range of linear motions is available from cams and

followers.

•Load Carrying capacity of cam and follower is excellent.

• Cam follower can absorb more shock and can reduce

distortion.
Limitations

Higher accuracy of machine element is required.

Wear and tear in mechanism can affect the motion

transmission.

More expensive to manufacture and machine require

greater precision.
Terms Used in Radial Cams
1. Base circle.
It is the smallest circle that can be drawn to the cam profile.
2. Trace point.
It is a reference point on the follower and is used to generate the
pitch curve.
In case of knife edge follower, the knife edge represents the trace
point and the pitch curve corresponds to the cam profile. In a roller
follower, the center of the roller represents the trace point.
3. Pressure angle.
It is the angle between the direction of the follower motion and a
normal to the pitch curve.
This angle is very important in designing a cam profile.
If the pressure angle is too large, a reciprocating follower will jam in
its bearings.
4. Pitch point. It is a point on the pitch curve having the maximum
pressure angle.
5. Pitch circle. It is a circle drawn from the center of the cam
through the pitch points.
6. Pitch curve. It is the curve generated by the trace point as the
follower moves relative to the cam.
For a knife edge follower, the pitch curve and the cam profile are
same whereas for a roller follower, they are separated by the radius
of the roller.
7. Prime circle. It is the smallest circle that can be drawn from the
center of the cam and tangent to the pitch curve. For a knife edge
and a flat face follower, the prime circle and the base circle are
identical.
For a roller follower, the prime circle is larger than the base circle by
the radius of the roller.
8. Lift or stroke. It is the maximum travel of the follower from its
lowest position to the top most position
;l;
Profile of the cam when the line of stroke of the follower
is offset 20 mm from the axis of the cam shaft
Displacement diagram
Flat /mushroom face follower
Find the maximum velocity and acceleration during out
stroke and return stroke and mark on velocity and
acceleration diagram..