Atterberg’s Limits/ Consistency limits

• Atterberg –Swedish Engineer

• Fine grained soils can exist in 4 states

Solid state
Semi-solid state
Plastic state
Liquid state

1
 Atterberg Limits

Border line water contents, separating the

different states of a fine grained soil

water content
0 Shrinkage Plastic Liquid
limit limit limit

Solid semi- plastic liquid

solid

2
Volume
of soil

3
Water content at which soil mass changes
from

•Liquid to plastic state – Liquid Limit

•Plastic to Semi-solid – Plastic Limit

•Semi-Solid to Solid – Shrinkage Limit

4
Liquid Limit

•Casagrande’s Apparatus

5
6
Defined by Laboratory Test concept developed by Atterberg in 1911.

7
• The liquid limit (LL) is arbitrarily defined as the water
content, in percent, at which a part of soil cut by a groove
of standard dimensions will flow together at the base of
the groove for a distance of 12 mm under the impact of 25
blows in the device

8
 LL Test Procedure
• Prepare paste of
soil finer than 425
micron sieve

• Place Soil in Cup

9
• Cut groove in soil
paste with
standard
grooving tool

10
 LL Test Procedure
• Rotate cam and
count number of
blows of cup
required to close
groove by 12mm

11
12
13
 LL Test Procedure

• Repeat the test with different water

contents for blows between 10 and 40.
• Obtain water content for each test
• Plot water content versus number of blows
on semi-log paper

14
15
16
 Plastic Limit
The minimum water content at which a soil will
just begin to crumble when it is rolled into a
thread of approximately 3 mm in diameter.

17
Plastic Limit w% procedure

• When point is reached where thread is

cracking and cannot be re-rolled to 3 mm
diameter, collect at least 6 grams and
measure water content.

18
19
20
Consistency Indices

21
 Flow Index
• Is the slope of flow curve obtained by plotting water content as
ordinate on natural scale against number of blows as abscissa on
logarithmic scale

22
23
24
• It is useful in the study of the field behaviour of soils

25
 Indian standard soil classification

• The classification of soils is mainly based on index

properties of soil which are described in detail in previous
lectures

26
27
28
 NEED FOR SOIL CLASSIFICATION SYSTEMS

A soil classification system represents, in effect, a language

of communication between engineers.

It enables one to use the engineering experience of others.

The engineering properties have been found to correlate

quite well with the index and classification properties of a
given soil deposit.

Therefore, by knowing the soil classification, the engineer

already has a fairly good general idea of the way the soil will
behave.
• Each soil is given a 2 letter classification (e.g. CL). The following
procedure is used.

• The first letter of the group symbol is termed the PREFIX and the
second letter is termed the SUFFIX. These letters are abbreviations of
certain soil characteristics as follows:

• Fine grained (>50% smaller than 0.075 mm or 75μ)

• Use plasticity chart to classify the soil

• Equation of A-line = 0.73 (LL-20)
• For Organic soils a reduction in Liquid limit to a value less than
three-fourth of the liquid limit before oven drying
Prefix Definition Suffix Definition

M Silt L Low Plasticity

C Clay I Intermediate
plasticity

O Organic H High Plasticity

31
32
33
 Questions
1. The percentage of soil passing through 75μ sieve is 60 %.
If the liquid Limit of the soil is 40 % and Plastic limit is
25 %, classify the soil according to Indian standard
classification system.

2. A soil has the following characteristics:

% passing through 75 μ sieve = 58%

Liquid limit =40 % , After oven drying Liquid Limit = 25%
Plasticity Index = 10%
Classify the soil according to Indian standards

34
• Coarse grained (>50% larger than 0.075 mm)

• Prefix (1st letter) S if > 50% of coarse is Sand

• Prefix (1st letter) G if > 50% of coarse is Gravel

Suffix (2nd letter) depends on %fines

• if %fines < 5% (Clean sand/ gravel) suffix is either W or P

(Well graded = W, Poorly graded = P)

• if %fines > 12% (Sand/Gravel containing fine soil) , Use plasticity

chart (suffix is either M or C)

• if 5% < %fines < 12% Dual symbols are used

(i.e. GW-GC, GP-GC, GW-GM, GP-GM, SW-SC, SP-SC, SW-
SM, SP-SM)
Criteria for Well-Graded
Soil

1  C c  3 and C u  4
(for gravels)

1  Cc  3 and C u  6
(for sands)
 Soil Classification

To determine W or P, calculate Cu and Cc

If prefix is G then suffix is W if Cu > 4 and Cc is between

1 and 3
otherwise use P

If prefix is S then suffix is W if Cu > 6 and Cc is between

1 and 3
otherwise use P
Prefix Definition Suffix Definition

G Gravel W Well graded

S Sand P Poorly Graded

M Silt M Silty

C Clay C Clayey

O Organic H High Plasticity

Pt Peat I Intermediate
plasticity
L Low Plasticity
38
 Soil Classification
Coarse grained soils
To determine M or C use plasticity chart

Below A-line use suffix M - Silt

Above A-line use suffix C - Clay

40
Question

• The sieve analysis of a soil gave the following results

• % passing through 75μ sieve =13

• % retained on 4.75 mm sieve = 35%
• Coefficient of uniformity = 7
• Coefficient of curvature = 2.5
• The fine fraction gave the results of Liquid limit = 15 and
Plasticity Index = 3.

• Classify the soil.

41
Question

• The sieve analysis of a soil gave the following results

• % passing through 75μ sieve =3%

• % retained on 4.75 mm sieve = 35%
• Coefficient of uniformity = 7
• Coefficient of curvature = 2.5
• The fine fraction gave the results of Liquid limit = 15 and
Plasticity Index = 3.

• Classify the soil.

42
Example

100

80
% Finer

60

40

20

0
0.0001 0.001 0.01 0.1 1 10 100
Particle size (mm)
Example
100

80
% Finer

60

40

20

0
0.0001 0.001 0.01 0.1 1 10 100
Particle size (mm)

Particle size fractions: Gravel 8%

Sand 82%
Silt and Clay 10%
Of the coarse fraction about 82% is sand, hence Prefix is S
Cu = 12.5, Cc = 1.38
Suffix1 = W
From Atterberg Tests
LL = 32, PL = 26
Ip = 32 - 26 = 6
From Plasticity Chart point lies below A-line
Suffix2 = M

Dual Symbols are SW-SM

To complete the classification the Symbols should be accompanied
by a description
 Soil Classification
• Fine grained soils (> 50% finer than 75 mm)
• Both letters determined from plasticity chart
47
48
49
50
Soil Structure and clay mineralogy

1
Soil Structure

•It is a geometrical arrangement of soil

particles in a soil mass

2
Important types of soil structures

1.Single grained

 Present in the case of coarse grained soils like sand and gravels.

 When such soils settle out of suspension in water, the particles

settle independently of each other.

3
Single grained 4
2. Honey-comb structure
• Present in fine sands and silts.
• Under vibrations and shocks – large deformation take place

5
3. Flocculated structure 4. Dispersed structure
Occurs in the case of clays

6
Representation of clay particle

• Edge is positively charged and faces is negatively charged

7
• Flocculated structure- It occurs in the case of undisturbed clays.
The net inter-particle force between the particles is attractive.

• Dispersed structure- It occurs in the case of remoulded clays. The

net inter-particle force between the particles is repulsive.

8
1. Clay Minerals

9
10
tetrahedron
octahedron
Tetrahedral sheets and Octahedral sheets

• Tetrahedral sheet- combination of silicon tetrahedral units

• Octahedral sheet - is a combination of aluminium octahedral

units

13
14
15
16
Different type of clay minerals

2:1 two tetrahedral sheets to one octahedral

sheet
1:1 one tetrahedral sheet to one octahedral
sheet
Kaolinite

The basic kaolinite unit is a two-layer unit that is formed by stacking

an alumina sheet on a silica sheet.

The units are held together by hydrogen bonds.

The strong bonding does not permit water to enter the lattice. Thus,
kaolinite minerals are stable and do not expand under saturation.

18
 19
Kaolinite
Montmorillonite
The bonding between the three-layer units is by Vander Waals forces.

This bonding is very weak and water can enter easily.

Thus, this mineral can imbibe a large quantity of water causing swelling.

During dry weather, there will be shrinkage.

20
Montmorillonite 21
Illite

The link between structural units is through potassium ions and not
through water

Illite consists of the basic montmorillonite units but are bonded by

potassium ions

Illite swells less than montmorillonite however, swelling is more than

Kaolinite.

22
Illite 23
Diffuse double layer theory

24
• The surface of a clay particle, being negatively charged, attracts
positive ions.

• The layer on the clay surface up to the limit of attraction is called

Diffuse double layer

• Water held in the zone of diffuse double layer is called adsorbed water

• Because of the net negative charge on the clay particles, water gets
attracted and forms a bond

25
Consolidation

1
Definition
 Compression of saturated soil by the
expulsion of water in the voids, under
steady static pressure

2
 What is Consolidation?

When a saturated clay is loaded externally,

GL

saturated clay

the water is squeezed out of the clay over a long time

(due to low permeability of the clay).

3
 What is Consolidation?

This leads to settlements occurring over a long time,

settlement

time

which could be several years.

4
 In granular soils…

Granular soils are freely drained, and thus the

settlement is instantaneous.
settlement

time

5
Leaning Tower of Pisa
6
7
 Compaction and consolidation
 Slow process of volume
 Rapid process of volume reduction
reduction

 By mechanical process such as

 By sustained & static loading
rolling, tamping and vibration

 Volume reduces due to

 Volume reduces due to expulsion of
expulsion of water from voids
air from voids

 Natural process caused by the

 Artificial process done to increase
weight of buildings and other
soil density
structures

 Applies to cohesive as well as

 Applies mainly to cohesive
cohesionless
soils

8
 Spring analogy

1) The container is completely filled with water, and the hole is closed. (Fully saturated
soil)
2) A load is applied onto the cover, while the hole is still unopened. At this stage, only the
water resists the applied load. (Development of excess pore water pressure)
3) As soon as the hole is opened, water starts to drain out through the hole and the spring
shortens. (Drainage of excess pore water pressure)
4) After some time, the drainage of water no longer occurs. Now, the spring alone resists
the applied load. (Full dissipation of excess pore water pressure. End of consolidation) 9
 Similar to spring analogy

 Solid particles- Analogous to spring

 Water in voids- Water in cylinder
 Effective stress in soil- Stress carried by
spring
 Pore water pressure- Pressure carried by
water in the cylinder

10
 Consolidation Test

~ simulation of 1-D field consolidation in lab.

GL
porous stone

undisturbed soil
specimen metal ring
Dia = 50-75 mm (oedometer)
Height = 20-30 mm

field lab

11
12
13
14
 Consolidometer - Used to measure consolidation of saturated
clay water system. Also called Oedometer.

 The soil sample is contained in the brass ring between two

porous stones about 1.25 cm thick. Inner diameter of cell
60mm. The specimen shall be 20 mm thick.

 water has free access to and from both surfaces of the specimen.

 The compressive load is applied to the specimen through a

piston, either by means of a hanger and dead weights or by a
system of levers. The compression is measured on a dial gauge.

 An initial setting load of 5 kN/m2 is first applied to the sample

 At the bottom of the soil sample, the water expelled from the
soil flows through the porous stone into the water container.
15
16
 Loads are applied in steps in such a way that the successive load intensity, p,
is twice the preceding one. The load intensities commonly used being 1/4,
1/2,1, 2,4, 8, and 16 tons/ft2 (25, 50,100,200,400, 800 and 1600 kN/m2).

 Each load is allowed to stand until compression has practically ceased (no
longer than 24 hours). The dial readings are taken at elapsed times of 1/4,
1/2, 1,2,4, 8,15, 30, 60, 120, 240, 480 and 1440 minutes from the time the
new increment of load is put on the sample (or at elapsed times as per
requirements).

 After the greatest load required for the test has been applied to the soil
sample, the load is removed in decrements to provide data for plotting the
expansion curve of the soil.

 Maximum load intensity depends on actual loading on soil in the field after
construction.

17
18
e – log v’ plot
- from the above data

loading
void ratio

v’ increases &

e decreases
unloading
v’ decreases &
e increases (swelling)

log v’
19
Compression and recompression indices

Cr
1
void ratio

Cc ~ compression index

Cc

Cr ~ recompression index 1
(or swelling index)
Cr
1

log v’
20
 CONSOLIDATION TEST- RESULTS
 Results are plotted in the form of plot between void ratio and
effective stress
 Void ratio calculated in two methods

 Height of solids method

 Change in void ratio method

21
 CONSOLIDATION TEST- RESULTS
 Height of solids method
 Height of solids determined from dry mass of soil
 Height of solids (Hs) = Vs / A = (Ws / Gɣw) / A
Vs = Volume of solids, A = Area of c/s of soil specimen
Ws = Dry mass of soil, G= Specific gravity of soil, ɣ w = density of water
 Void ratio (e) = Volume of voids / Volume of solids
= (V - Vs) / Vs
= (A * H – A * Hs) / (A * Hs)
= (H – Hs) / (Hs)
 H has to be calculated for each loading conditions
H = H0 +- ∆H, H0 = initial height
22
 CONSOLIDATION TEST- PROBLEMS

 Computation by height of solids method

 In a consolidation test, the initial thickness and the area of cross-
section of the specimen was observed to be 25 mm and 50 cm2
respectively. If the volume was observed to be 125 ml, the mass of
solids as 190.24 gm, find the final void ratios corresponding to the
experimental results. Assume G = 2.67 and wf = 24.94%. Assume
least count of the dial gauge as 0.01 mm.

23
CONSOLIDATION TEST- PROBLEMS
Applied Pressure (kN / m2) Dial Gauge Reading
0.0 490
10.0 482
20.0 470
40.0 431
80.0 390
160.0 343
320 295
640 249
0.0 364

24
 CONSOLIDATION TEST- PROBLEMS
 Computation by height of solids method
 In a consolidation test, the initial thickness and the area of cross-
section of the specimen was observed to be 25 mm and 50 cm2
respectively. If the volume was observed to be 125 ml, the mass
of solids as 190.24 gm, find the final void ratios corresponding to
the experimental results. Assume G = 2.67 and wf = 24.94%.
Assume least count of the dial gauge as 0.01 mm.
 Given,
 H0 = 25 mm; Area = 50 cm2; V = 125 ml = 125 cm3; Ws =
190.24 g;
G = 2.67; wf = 24.94 %; L.C = 0.01 mm
Hs = (Ws/Gɣw)/A = 190.24/(2.67*1*50) = 1.42 cm = 14.25 mm
25
 CONSOLIDATION TEST- PROBLEMS
Observations Calculations
Applied Dial Change in H = H0 +- ∆H H – Hs e = (H – Hs)
Pressure Gauge Thickness (mm) (mm) Hs
(kN / m2) Reading ∆H (mm)

0.0 490 25 10.75 0.754

10.0 482 -0.08 24.92 10.67 0.748
20.0 470 -0.12 24.80 10.55 0.740
40.0 431 -0.39 24.41 10.16 0.713
80.0 390 -0.41 24.00 9.75 0.684
160.0 343 -0.47 23.53 9.28 0.651
320 295 -0.48 23.05 8.80 0.618
640 249 -0.46 22.59 8.34 0.585
0.0 364 +1.15 23.74 9.49 0.666
26
Change in void ratio method

27
 H -e Relation

average volumetric strain strain = H

Ho
q kPa
GL q kPa
H
GL

Ho
saturated clay
saturated clay
e = eo
e = eo - e

Time = 0+ Time = 
28
H -e Relation

Consider an element where Vs = 1 initially.

e
eo

Time = 0+ Time = 

 average volumetric strain = e

1  eo 29
 H -e Relation
Equating the two expressions for average
vertical strain,

consolidation change in void ratio

settlement
H e

Ho 1  eo
initial void ratio
initial thickness of
clay layer

30
 Final void ratio can be found out using ef = wG
(S =100 %)

 THen
𝛥𝐻 𝛥𝑒
=
𝐻𝑓 1 + 𝑒𝑓

 Then
𝛥𝐻
𝛥𝑒 = (1 + 𝑒𝑓 )
𝐻𝑓

31
 CONSOLIDATION TEST- PROBLEMS

 Computation by change in void ratio method

 In a consolidation test, the initial thickness and the area of cross-
section of the specimen was observed to be 25 mm and 50 cm2
respectively. If the volume was observed to be 125 ml, the mass of
solids as 190.24 gm, find the final void ratios corresponding to the
experimental results. Assume G = 2.67 and wf = 24.94%. Assume
least count of the dial gauge as 0.01 mm and final height as 23.74.

32
CONSOLIDATION TEST- PROBLEMS
Applied Pressure (kN / m2) Dial Gauge Reading
0.0 490
10.0 482
20.0 470
40.0 431
80.0 390
160.0 343
320 295
640 249
0.0 364

33
 CONSOLIDATION TEST- PROBLEMS
 Computation by change in void ratio method
 In a consolidation test, the initial thickness and the area of cross-section of the
specimen was observed to be 25 mm and 50 cm2 respectively. If the volume
was observed to be 125 ml, the mass of solids as 190.24 gm, find the final
void ratios corresponding to the experimental results. Assume G = 2.67 and wf
= 24.94%. Assume least count of the dial gauge as 0.01 mm and final height
as 23.74..
 Given,
 H0 = 25 mm; Area = 50 cm2; V = 125 ml = 125 cm3; Ws = 190.24 g;
G = 2.67; wf = 24.94 %; L.C = 0.01 mm; Hf = 23.74
ef = wG = 0.2494 * 2.67 = 0.666

∆e =(1 + ef) * ∆H / Hf = (1 + 0.666) * ∆H / 23.74 = 0.0702 * ∆H

For first reading, value = 0.0702 * (-0.08) = -0.006
34
 CONSOLIDATION TEST- PROBLEMS
Observations Calculations
Applied Dial Change in H = H0 +- ∆H ∆e e
Pressure Gauge Thickness (mm)
(kN / m2) Reading ∆H (mm)
0.0 490 25 0 0.754
10.0 482 -0.08 24.92 -0.006 0.748
20.0 470 -0.12 24.80 -0.008 0.740
40.0 431 -0.39 24.41 -0.027 0.711
80.0 390 -0.41 24.00 -0.028 0.684
160.0 343 -0.47 23.53 -0.033 0.650
320 295 -0.48 23.05 -0.034 0.617
640 249 -0.46 22.59 -0.032 0.585
0.0 364 +1.15 23.74 0.081 0.666

35
 COMPRESSION INDEX
 Compression Index (Cc) is equal to the slope of the linear portion of
void ratio v/s log (σ’) plot

 Cc = - ∆ e / log 10 (σ’ / σ0’) [σ’ = final effective stress, σ0’ = initial

effective stress, ∆ e = change in void ratio]
Voids Ratio v/s log (σ')
16

Slope = Cc
Voids Ratio (e)

∆e
∆ σ’
0
0 50
Log (σ’)
36
 COEFFICIENT OF COMPRESSIBILITY
 Defined as the ratio of the decrease in void ratio per unit increase in
effective stress

 Slope of the void-ratio- effective stress curve at the point of

consideration

 av = - de / dσ = - ∆e / ∆ σ

 For convenience, reported as positive

 Unit is m2 / kN

37
 COEFFICIENT OF COMPRESSIBILITY
 Decrease in volume- expressed in terms of change in voids ratio

Voids Ratio with Stress

0.9

0.7
Voids Ratio

0.5
∆e
0.3
∆σ
0.1
0.7 0.8 0.9 1 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4 1.5 1.6

Stress (σ’)

38
 Coefficient of volume compressibility
~ denoted by mv

~ is the volumetric strain in a clay element per

unit increase in stress no units

V
change in volume

original volume
i.e.,
mv  V

kPa-1 or MPa-1 kPa or MPa
39
Relationship between Compression Index and Liquid Limit

40
 The equation of this straight line may be
approximately written as

Cc = 0.007(𝐿𝐿 − 10) − 𝐹𝑜𝑟 𝑟𝑒𝑚𝑜𝑢𝑙𝑑𝑒𝑑 𝑠𝑜𝑖𝑙

Cc = 0.009(𝐿𝐿 − 10) − 𝑢𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑏𝑒𝑑 𝑠𝑜𝑖𝑙

 LL is the liquid limit in percentage

 Undisturbed- field soil

41
 ∆V 1
 mv = - ( ) X
𝑉 ∆σ’
𝛥𝑒 1 𝛥𝑒
𝑚𝑣 = − × 𝑎𝑣 = −
1 + 𝑒0 𝛥𝜎′ 𝛥𝜎′

42
43
Consolidation settlement
∆V 1
 mv = - ( ) X∆σ’
V

𝛥𝐻 1
𝑚𝑣 = − ×
𝐻 𝛥𝜎′
 ignoring the negative sign which merely indicates that the height
decreases with increase in pressure.

𝛥𝐻 = 𝑚𝑣 × 𝐻 × 𝛥𝜎′

 𝛥𝐻 is the consolidation settlement Sc

44
45
 ∆e
Cc = - 𝜎′ [σ’ = final stress, σ0’ = initial stress, ∆ e = change in
log10 ( ቁ
𝜎0 ′
void ratio]

𝜎′
log10 ( ቇ
𝜎0 ′

𝐶𝑐 × 𝐻 𝜎′
𝑆𝑐 = log10 ( ቇ
1 + 𝑒0 𝜎0 ′

𝐶𝐶 × 𝐻 𝜎0 ′ + 𝛥𝜎′
𝑆𝑐 = × log10 ( ቇ
1 + 𝑒0 𝜎0 ′
46
47
 A soil of specific gravity 2.65 has a
moisture content of 18% when fully
saturated. 1.9 cm thick sample of this soil
tested in a consolidometer shows a
compression of 0.050cm when load is
increased from 40 to 80 kPa. Compute the
compression Index.

 Ans:- Cc=0.129

48
PROBLEMS
 Calculate the final settlement of the clay layer shown below due
to an increase in pressure of 30 kN / m2 at the mid-height of the
layer. Take γw = 10 kN / m3. Also calculate the settlement when
the water table rises to the ground surface.

Sand γ = 20 kN / m3 4.0
m
Clay γ = 18 kN / m3 2.5
Cc = 0.22 e0 = 1.30 m

49
PROBLEMS
γw = 10 kN / m3; γsand = 20 kN / m3; γclay = 18 kN / m3

Height of sand layer = h1 = 4 m

Height of clay layer = h2 = 1.25 m

CC = 0.22; e0 = 1.30

Additional pressure = 30 kN / m2

Pressure at the center of the clay layer = 20 * 4 + 18 * 1.25 = 102.5 kN / m2

Settlement ∆H = CC * H * log10 ((σ0’ + ∆σ’) / σ0’) / (1 + e0)

= 0.22 * 2.5 * log10 ((102.5 + 30) / 102.5) / (1 + 1.30)

= 0.0266 m = 2.66 cm
50
PROBLEMS
When soil is saturated

Pressure at the center of the clay layer = (20 – 10)*4 + (18 – 10)*1.25 = 50 kN / m2

Settlement ∆H = CC * H * log10 ((σ0’ + ∆σ’) / σ0’) / (1 + e0)

= 0.22 * 2.5 * log10 ((50 + 30) / 50) / (1 + 1.30)

= 0.0488 m = 4.88 cm

51
 A square footing is to be established in clayey
soil at a depth of 2m where water table has risen
upto ground level as shown in figure. Determine
the width of footing if its permitted to settle by
120mm for given data.

52
53
 NORMALLY AND UNDER CONSOLIDATED

 Normally consolidated- Soil that has not been subjected to a

pressure greater than the present existing pressure

 Under-consolidated- soil which is not fully consolidated under

the existing overburden pressure

 Over-consolidated- Soil that has been subjected to a pressure

greater than the present existing pressure

Maximum pressure to which the over-consolidated soil has been

subjected in the past – Preconsolidation pressure

54
DETERMINATION OF PRE-CONSOLIDATION
PRESSURE Determine the point A on
 the
curve, where the curvature is
maximum

 Draw Tangent AC at A
K
 Draw horizontal line AB at A

 Draw the bisector AD of ∟BAC

 Produce back the straight line

portion to intersect at P

 From P, draw a line perpendicular

to meet the x-axis, the pre-
consolidation pressure is given by
σp’
55
CAUSES OF PRE-CONSOLIDATION
 Demolition of buildings or other structures

 Erosion of soil mass

 Melting of glaciers

 Reduction in capillary pressure due to saturation

 During dessication of clay deposit (drying)

 Sustained seepage force causes an increase in the effective

stress- when seepage stops- soil is pre-consolidated

 Tectonic movement of earth’s crust which later became less

severe

56
Over consolidation ratio (OCR)

 Normally consolidated- OCR=1

 Under-consolidated- OCR<1
 Over-consolidated- OCR>1

57
TERZAGHI’S THEORY OF ONE-DIMENSIONAL
CONSOLIDATION
ASSUMPTIONS

 Soil is homogeneous and isotropic

 Soil is fully saturated

 Consolidation is due to expulsion of water- soil and water particles are

incompressible

 Coefficient of permeability is the same at all points of soil

 Darcy’s law is valid throughout the consolidation process

 Soil is laterally confined- axial deformation only

 Time lag of consolidation- due to low permeability of soil

58
 Differential equation for one dimensional consolidation

 Coefficient of consolidation Cv is given by,

 where u = pore water pressure; t = time; z = depth; k =

coefficient of permeability; mv = coefficient of volume change

59
 TERZAGHI’S THEORY OF ONE-DIMENSIONAL
CONSOLIDATION
 Degree of consolidation

U = Percentage of settlement at any time (t)= settlement at time (t)/ Ultimate

settlement expected

 Degree of consolidation depends on Time factor Tv

 Time factor is used to relate coefficient of consolidation (Cv), time (t) and
drainage path (d)

 Time factor 𝐶𝑣 𝑡
𝑇𝑣 = 2
𝑑

 Drainage path indicates the maximum distance that water has to reach before
reaching the free-drainage boundary

 For layers with drainage along both surfaces, Drainage path is half the thickness
and for layers with drainage along one surface, Drainage path is thickness of layer

60
DRAINAGE CONDITIONS

61
62
63
64
65
66
67
68
CASAGRANDE LOG TIME METHOD

69
CASAGRANDE LOG TIME METHOD
 This method was devised by A. Casagrande and R.E. Fadum (1939).

 Initial portion of the curve is assumed as a parabola

 Plotting is as follows

 Select two points A and B on the graphs at time t1 and t2

 t1 = 4 * t2 (usually t1 taken as 1 min and t2 taken as 15 seconds) and let the

difference between the dial gauge readings be ‘z1’

 At a distance = ‘z1’ above B draw a horizontal line. This cuts the Y axis
at R0 . This is the corrected zero reading.

 R0 is the corrected dial gauge reading- corresponding to zero primary

consolidation 70
CASAGRANDE LOG TIME METHOD
 From the final portion of the graph, draw two tangents
to intersect at M as shown in figure.

 The ordinate gives the dial gauge reading for 100%

consolidation and abscissa gives time for initial
consolidation

 The difference between the final consolidation and 100

% initial consolidation (R100) gives the secondary
consolidation

71
 Time (min)
0.1 1 10 100 1000 10000
0.065
R0
Rc
0.070
R1 ΔR, the same distance
0.075
R2 ΔR
0.080 R1 at t1
R2 at t2 (t2 = t1 x 4)
Dial Readings (in)

0.085

0.090
ΔR = R2 – R1

0.095

0.100

0.105

0.110

0.115

72
 Time (min)
0.1 1 10 100 1000 10000
0.065

0.070
Ro
0.075

0.080
Dial Readings (in)

0.085

0.090

0.095

0.100
R100
0.105

0.110

0.115

73
 Time (min)
0.1 1 10 100 1000 10000
0.065

0.070 R0
0.075

0.080

R50 = (R100-R0) / 2
Dial Readings (in)

0.085

0.090

0.095

0.100
R100
0.105
M
0.110

0.115

74
 COEFFICIENT OF CONSOLIDATION (CV)

 cv (cm2/sec)

2 Tv50 = time factor at U = 50%

Tv50  d 50


cv   d50 = height of drainage at

t 50
U = 50%

 t50 = time at U = 50%

If U = 50%, Tv50 = 0.197

CEP 701 75
76
77
SQUARE ROOT OF TIME FITTING METHOD

78
 TAYLORS SQUARE ROOT TIME
 This method has been devised by D.W. Taylor (1948). A curve is plotted
with dial gauge reading (R) as ordinate and √t as the abscissa

 The theoretical curve is characterised by straight line portion up to U =

60%

 The curve is plotted

 With the experimental curve, which is plotted in an initial curvature is often

present before the straight line portion. This curvature is attributed to
compression of air in the voids of the soil and the corrected origin is found
by backward projection of the straight line portion to zero time.

 Initial compression- AA’

79
 TAYLORS SQUARE ROOT TIME

 If another straight line is drawn such that the abscissae of this

line is 1.15 times those of the straight line portion of the
theoretical curve, it can be shown to cut the theoretical curve
at 90% consolidation.

 This characteristic is used to locate the 90% consolidation

point on the experimental curve which is plotted

80
TAYLORS SQUARE ROOT TIME
 The coefficient of consolidation for any degree of consolidation can
be obtained from the graph
 cv (cm2/sec)
 Cv = Tv * d2 / t
 Tv90 = time factor at U = 90%
 Cv = Tv90 * d2 / t90
 d90 = height of drainage at

U = 90%

 t90 = time at U = 90%

If U = 90%, Tv90 = 0.848

81
Grain size distribution
• Grain size distribution analysis is the determination of the size range
of particles present in a soil, expressed as a percentage of the total
dry weight.

• There are two methods generally used to find the particlesize distribution of soil:
(1) sieve analysis - for particle sizes larger than 0.075 mm
(2) hydrometer analysis - for particle sizes smaller
than 0.075 mm in diameter.
Procedure for grain size determination
• Sieve Analysis - used for particles > 75 mm

• Hydrometer test - used for smaller particles

• Analysis based on Stoke’s Law, velocity proportional to diameter
Sieve Analysis
• Sieve analysis consists of shaking the soil sample through a set of
sieves that have progressively smaller openings
• After the completion of the shaking period the mass of soil retained on
each sieve is determined
Calculations (Example)
Seive Size Wt Retained Percentage Retained Cumulative % Retained % Finer

mm gm % % %

4.75 0 0 0 100

2 10 2 2 98

1 155 31 33 67

0.6 112 22.4 55.4 44.6

0.3 176 35.2 90.6 9.4

0.15 35 7 97.6 2.4

0.075 12 2.4 100 0

pan 0 0 100 0

Total weight = 500gm

Grain size distribution
100

80
% Finer

60

40

20

0
0.0001 0.001 0.01 0.1 1 10 100
Particle size (mm)
10
 For coarse grained soils

D10, D30 and D60 are important

• D10 Diameter corresponding to 10 % finer

• D30 Diameter corresponding to 30 % finer

• D60 Diameter corresponding to 60 % finer

Grain size distribution
100

80
% Finer

60

40

20

0
0.0001 0.001 0.01 0.1 1 10 100
Particle size (mm)
12
• D10= 0.05 mm (10 % particles are finer than 0.05 mm)

• D30 = 0.25 mm (30 % particles are finer than 0.25 mm)

• D60 = 0.8 mm (60 % particles are finer than 0.8 mm)

Particle-Size Distribution Curve

1. Effective Size (D10)

Diameter corresponding to10% Finer

2. Uniformity Coefficient (Cu)

D 60
Cu 
D10

3. Coefficient of Gradation (Cc)

2
D30
Cc 
D60  D10
Particle-Size Distribution Curve

Criteria for Well-Graded Soil

1  C c  3 and C u  4
(for gravels)

1  Cc  3 and C u  6
(for sands)
 Grading curves
100

80

% Finer 60

40

20

0
0.0001 0.001 0.01 0.1 1 10 100
Particle size (mm)
W Well graded
U Uniformly graded
17
P Gap graded
 Particle-Size Distribution Curve

Uniformity Coefficient (Cu)

Coefficien t of uniformity
Finer

D
Cu  60  1
D10

Grain size distribution

Hydrometer Analysis

Based on the Stoke’s Law.

Stoke’s Law
(v α D)

V1 < V2
What is a Hydrometer?
• Device used to determine directly the density of a solution

• Consists of a thin glass tube closed at both ends

• Large bulb contains lead shot to cause the instrument to float upright
in liquid.
Image of hydrometer
Procedure for test
• 50 gm of dry soil taken in a beaker (0.075 passing).
• Transferred to the cup of the mixer.
• A deflocculating agent is added with water (Sodium hexametaphosphate-
33gm and Sodium carbonate 7gm) .
• Both mixed and stirred for 10 min.
• Mix is then transferred to 1000cc jar (remaining part filled with water)
• Jar is covered with membrane and turned upside down.
• Jar is then kept in vertical upright position and stop watch is started
• Hydrometer moves down as time passes.
• Take reading after regular time intervals.
• Different particles (Clay, silt) present in sample settle in different manner.
Mixing cup
Mixer
Mixer
Sedimentation – Hydrometer Method
After 67 sec
Start
After 11.6 hrs

All particles are Only Silt and Clay Only Clay

in suspension particles are particles are
in suspension in suspension
R =(Density of solution-1)*1000
 18𝜂𝐻𝑒
𝐷(𝑐𝑚) =
(𝛾𝑠 − 𝛾𝑤 )𝑡

100 ∗ 𝐺 ∗ 𝑅
𝑃𝑒𝑟𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑟 (𝑁) =
൫𝐺 − 1) ∗ 𝑊𝑠
Date Time Elapsed Hydrometer Temperature Ct R= Height 𝟏𝟖∗𝑯𝒆 % finer
Time in reading Rh Rh+Cm±Ct (He)in cm D= 𝜸𝒔−𝜸𝒘 𝒕
N=
𝟏𝟎𝟎𝑮∗𝑹
𝑮−𝟏 𝑾𝒔
min (cm) - Cd (cm)
R =(Density of solution-1)*1000
Hydrometer Correction
• Meniscus correction (Cm)
correction +ve

• Temperature correction (Ct)

t> 270 correction +ve
t<270 correction –ve

• Dispersing Agent Correction (Cd)

correction -ve
Limitation

• Falling grains are assumed to be spherical.

• Floc formation.

• Specific gravity of all particles assumed to be same.

Specific Gravity
• The ratio of weight of a given volume of soil solids at a given
temperature to the weight of an equal volume of water at that
temperature

• Temperature -27 degree celsius

• This number indicates how much heavier/lighter a material is than

water.

• Measured using a device called pycnometer

 𝑊2 − 𝑊1
𝐺 =
𝑊2 − 𝑊1 ) − (𝑊3 − 𝑊4

Pycnometer
 General Ranges of SG For Soils
• Sand 2.63 – 2.67

• Silt 2.65-2.7

• Clay & Silty Clay 2.67-2.9

• Organic Soils <2.0

SHEAR STRENGTH
 SHEAR STRENGTH

• Shear strength is the capacity to resist shear stress

• Maximum value of shear stress that can be activated within a soil

mass.

• Importance of shear strength

• Determining the stability of slopes or cuts

• Finding the bearing capacity for foundations

• Calculating the pressure exerted by a soil on a retaining wall

2
SHEAR FAILURE

3
4
KNOWLEDGE OF SHEAR STRENGTH
• Because we need to understand failure and design earth structure for
safe and satisfactory performance

5
 SHEAR FAILURE

• Soils generally fail in shear

embankment

strip footing

failure surface mobilised shear

resistance

At failure, shear stress along the failure surface reaches the shear
strength
6
SHEAR FAILURE

failure surface
The soil grains slide over each
other along the failure surface.

No crushing of individual grains.

7
 SHEAR FAILURE

At failure, shear stress along the failure surface () reaches the shear
strength (f)
8
 SHEAR FAILURE OF SOILS

Soils generally fail in shear

Retaining
wall

9
 SHEAR FAILURE OF SOILS

Soils generally fail in shear

Mobilized shear
Retaining
resistance
wall

Failure
surface

At failure, shear stress along the failure surface (mobilized shear

resistance) reaches the shear strength
10
 SHEAR STRENGTH PARAMETERS
• Factors on which shear strength depends

• Friction

Frictional resistance between the particles is represented by this

It is directly proportional to normal stress

This component is given by σ tanΦ; where Φ is the angle of internal

friction

• Cohesion

Holds the soil particles together by the force of attraction

Independent of the normal stress

Depends on adhesion with water particles, inter-molecular

11
attraction, surface tension, etc.
MOHR- COULOMB STRENGTH THEORY
• In 1910, Mohr presented a theory for rupture in materials

• The failure along a plane in a material occurs by critical

combination of normal and shear stresses, and not by normal or
shear stress alone

12
MOHR- COULOMB STRENGTH THEORY
•Coulomb defined function f(σ) as

•s = c + σ tanΦ

•where, C &Φ are called shear parameters

•C = cohesion

•Φ = angle of internal friction

•Point A will not fail, point B will fail and point c is not practical

13
MOHR-COULOMB FAILURE CRITERION


 f  c   tan 


friction angle
cohesion
f
c




f is the maximum shear stress the soil can take without failure, under
normal stress of .
14
GRAPHICAL REPRESENTATION

15
TYPICAL VALUES FOR Φ

16
MOHR STRESS CIRCLE
• Constructing a Mohr Circle
• Plot the normal stress along the x-axis and the shear stress
along the y-axis to the same scale
• We have information regarding the major principal stress
‘σ1’ and minor principal stress ‘σ3’
• Mark ‘σ1’ and ‘σ3’ on the x-axis
• Find the mid-point and with this point as center and radius
(σ1 - σ3) / 2, draw a circle

17
MOHR CIRCLES & FAILURE ENVELOPE


Failure surface
 f  c   tan 

Y
Y
X X

Soil elements at different locations

Y ~ stable
X ~ failure
DETERMINATION OF SHEAR STRENGTH PARAMETERS
OF SOILS

Laboratory tests on specimens Field tests

taken from representative
undisturbed samples

1. Vane shear test

Most common laboratory tests to
determine the shear strength 2. Pocket penetrometer
parameters are, 3. Fall cone
4. Pressure meter
1.Direct shear test 5. Static cone penetrometer
2.Triaxial shear test
6. Standard penetration test
19
DIRECT SHEAR TEST- SCHEMATIC DIAGRAM OF APPARATUS

20
DIRECT SHEAR TEST

Dial gauge to measure

Shear box
vertical displacement

Proving ring to
measure shear
Loading frame to apply force
vertical load
Dial gauge to measure
horizontal displacement

21
22
23
24
25
26
27
DIRECT SHEAR TEST ON SAND- Stress- Strain
Relationships
Dense sand/
OC clay
stress,  f
Loose sand/
f
Shear

NC clay

Shear displacement
Expansion
Change in height
of the sample

Dense sand/OC Clay

Shear displacement
Compression

Loose sand/NC Clay

28
 DIRECT SHEAR TEST ON SANDS
Shear stress, 

Normal stress = 3
Normal stress = 2
Normal stress = 1
f2 f1
f3
Shear displacement
Shear stress at failure, tf

Mohr – Coulomb failure envelope



Normal stress,  29
DIRECT SHEAR TEST
• Shear box is made up of upper and lower halves

• Upper half is fixed and the lower half is free to move

• Horizontal shear force is applied till failure

• Inner dimension of shear box- 6 cm * 6 cm and depth of 5 cm

• Plates are place at the top and bottom of the soil sample
• Porous plates- for saturated or partially saturated soils

• Metal plates- for dry soils

• Depth of soil sample- 2 cm (equal depth in each halves)

30
DIRECT SHEAR TEST

• Constant vertical load is applied and horizontal load is applied on

the upper half- Connected to proving ring to measure shear load

• Displacement produced is measured using dial gauge

• Experiment is repeated with different values of normal load

31
DIRECT SHEAR TEST

Direct shear test is most suitable for consolidated drained tests specially on
granular soils (e.g.: sand) or stiff clays
Preparation of a sand specimen

Porous plates

Components of the shear box Preparation of a sand specimen 32

DIRECT SHEAR TEST

Preparation of a sand specimen Pressure plate

Leveling the top surface of specimen Specimen preparation completed

33
DIRECT SHEAR TEST- Test Procedure
P
Steel ball
Porous plates Pressure plate

Proving ring to
measure shear
force

Step 1: Apply a vertical load to the specimen and wait for consolidation

34
DIRECT SHEAR TEST- Test Procedure
P Steel ball
Pressure plate
Porous plates

Proving ring to
measure shear
force

Step 1: Apply a vertical load to the specimen and wait for consolidation
Step 2: Lower box is subjected to a horizontal displacement at a constant rate
35
DIRECT SHEAR TEST- Analysis of Results

Normal force (P)

  Normal stress 
Area of cross section of the sample

Shear resistance developed at the sliding surface (S)

  Shear stress 
Area of cross section of the sample

Note: Cross-sectional area of the sample changes with the horizontal displacement

36
 MOHR CIRCLE- DIRECT SHEAR
TEST
F3 Φ
Shear stress at failure, f

F2

F1
Pole (P)

C
σ3 B C1 A σ1 C2 C3

Normal stress,  37
 MOHR CIRCLE- DIRECT SHEAR
TEST
• Plot normal stress on the x-axis and shear stress on the y-axis

• Normal stress and shear stress should be in the same units and scale

• Plots points F1 (σ1,τ1), F2 (σ2,τ2) and F3 (σ3,τ3)

• Draw a line through these three points

• The intercept w.r.t y-axis- cohesive strength and slope- angle of internal friction

• Draw normal lines from F1, F2 and F3 to intersect x-axis at C1, C2 and C3

• With C1, C2 and C3 as center and F1 C1, F2 C2 and F3 C3 as radius, draw circle to
intersect x-axis at (σ11, σ31), (σ12, σ32) and (σ13, σ33) respectively
38
 MOHR CIRCLE- DIRECT SHEAR
TEST
• First normal stress

• Major principal stress- σ11 Minor principal stress- σ31

• Second normal stress

• Major principal stress- σ12 Minor principal stress- σ32

• Third normal stress

• Major principal stress- σ13 Minor principal stress- σ33

• Locate pole by drawing F1P parallel to the failure plane, through F1

• Draw AP and BP to get the Major and Minor Principal planes

39
MERITS AND DEMERITS OF DIRECT SHEAR TEST
Merits

•Test is easy and quick

•Due to the smaller thickness of the sample, rapid drainage can be achieved

•Can be used to determine interface strength parameters

Demerits

•Failure occurs along a predetermined failure plane

•Area of the shearing changes as the test progresses

•Non-uniform distribution of shear stress along the failure surface

•Pore water pressure cannot be measured

40
41
42
43
44
 TRIAXIAL SHEAR TEST
• Sandy as well as Clayey soils

• Drainage conditions- all three conditions (Drained, Undrained etc.)

• Pore water pressure can be measured accurately

• Volume changes can be measured

• The failure plane is not forced

45
 TRIAXIAL SHEAR TEST

Specimen preparation (undisturbed sample)

Edges of the sample are carefully trimmed Setting up the sample in the triaxial cell

46
 TRIAXIAL SHEAR TEST

Specimen preparation (undisturbed sample)

Sample covered with rubber membrane and sealed Cell is completely filled with water
47
 TRIAXIAL SHEAR TEST- Apparatus

Piston (to apply deviatoric stress)

Failure plane
O-ring

impervious
membrane
Soil sample at Soil
failure sample Porous
Perspex stone
cell
Water

Cell pressure
Back pressure Pore pressure or
pedestal volume change

48
TRIAXIAL SHEAR TEST- Apparatus

49
TRIAXIAL SHEAR TEST

Proving ring- deviator load

Dial gauge- vertical displacement

50
TRIAXIAL SHEAR TEST

•Cylindrical specimen is used

•Specimen dimensions- usually (length/ diameter) ~ 2

Consists of 4 parts

• Triaxial cell

• Load frame

• Constant cell pressure system

• Pore water pressure measuring system

51
BASIC LAYOUT OF TRIAXIAL SHEAR TEST

52
TRIAXIAL SHEAR TEST

53
 TRIAXIAL SHEAR TEST
• Major principal stress (σ1) is applied vertically

• σ1 is varied keeping σ3 constant- till soil fails

• We can plot the Mohr circle with σ1 and σ3 (with the highest and
lowest)

• Experiment is repeated with different sets of values of σ1 and σ3

54
 TRIAXIAL SHEAR TEST
• A deviator load is applied to the sample and is measured using the
proving ring
• Deviator stress = Deviator load / cross-sectional area of sample
• Corresponding to each deviator load, the axial deformation (∆L) is noted
using the readings from the dial gauge at the top, called deformation
dial gauge
• Area of sample varies with axial deformation so corrected area is to be
used
• Corrected Area Ac = [A0 / (1 - εa)]
• where, A0 = original area of cross section εa = axial strain (∆L / L)
• σ1 = deviator stress + σ3

55
•Test Procedure
The essential steps in the conduct of the test are as follows:

(i) A saturated porous stone is placed on the pedestal and the cylindrical
soil specimen is placed on it.
(ii) The specimen is enveloped by a rubber membrane to isolate it from the
water with which the cell is to be filled later; it is sealed with the pedestal
and top cap by rubber ‘‘O’’ rings.
(iii) The cell is filled with water and pressure is applied to the water, which in
turn is transmitted to the soil specimen all-round and at top. This pressure is
called ‘cell pressure’, ‘chamber pressure’ or ‘confining pressure’.
(iv) Additional axial stress is applied while keeping the cell pressure
constant. This introduces shearing stresses on all planes
(v) The additional axial stress is continuously increased until failure of the
specimen occurs.

56
57
58
59
UNCONFINED COMPRESSION TEST

1 = 3 + D

3 = 0

Confining pressure is zero in the UC test

60
UNCONFINED COMPRESSION TEST

61
UNCONFINED COMPRESSION TEST

1 = 3 + D

3 = 0

τf = σ1/2 = qu/2 = cu
62
• The maximum value of compressive stress (deviator stress) that a
cylindrical soil sample can withstand under unconfined conditions
(Confining stress is Zero) is called unconfined compressive strength
(qu)

• Cohesion is obtained as

cu = qu/2

63
This is a special case of a triaxial compression test; the confining pressure being zero.
A cylindrical soil specimen, usually of the same standard size as that for the triaxial
compression, is loaded axially by a compressive force until failure takes place.

Since the specimen is laterally unconfined, the test is known as ‘unconfined

compression test’.

 No rubber membrane is necessary to encase the specimen. The axial or vertical

compressive stress is the major principal stress and the minor principal stress is zero.

This test may be conducted on undisturbed or remoulded cohesive soils. It cannot be

conducted on coarse-grained soils such as sands and gravels as these cannot stand
without lateral support.

The failure plane is not predetermined and failure takes place along the weakest plane.

For any vertical or axial strain, the corrected area can be computed, assuming no
change in volume.

The axial stress is got by dividing the load by the corrected area.

64
65
66
67
68
69
70
71
72
73
74
75
76
77
 DRAINAGE CONDITIONS
CONSOLIDATED UNDRAINED
UNCONSOLIDATED DRAINED TEST
TEST
UNDRAINED TEST (UU) (CD)
(CU)

Consolidated drained or slow

Quick or undrained test Consolidated quick test
test
Soil not allowed to
Soil allowed to consolidate Soil allowed to consolidate
consolidate
Soil sheared under no Soil sheared under no Soil sheared allowing free
drainage conditions drainage conditions drainage

Normal load not transferred Normal load not transferred Normal load transferred to
to soil grains to soil grains soil grains

Development of pore Development of pore All stresses at all times are

pressure pressure intergranular

Analyzing failure of earth

For analyzing short term For sands and analyzing long
dams and rapid draw down
stability of clays term stability of clays
case
78
CONSOLIDATED-UNDRAINED ANALYSIS FOR CLAYS

Rapid drawdown behind an earth dam


Core

 = Undrained shear strength of

clay core

79
 CONSOLIDATED-DRAINED ANALYSIS FOR CLAYS

Embankment constructed very slowly, in layers over a soft clay deposit

Soft clay

  = in situ drained shear

strength

80
81
 Merits of triaxial test
• Failure occurs along the weakest plane unlike along the predetermined plane in the
case of direct shear test.

• The stress distribution on the failure plane is much more uniform than it is in the
direct shear test.

• Complete control of the drainage conditions is possible with the triaxial

compression test; this would enable one to simulate the field conditions better.

• The possibility to vary the cell pressure or confining pressure also affords another
means to simulate the field conditions for the sample, so that the results are more
meaningfully interpreted.

• Precise measurements of pore water pressure and volume changes during the test are
possible.

• It provides an ingenious and a symmetrical three-dimensional stress system better

suited to simulate field conditions.

• The state of stress within the specimen is known on all planes and not only on a
predetermined failure plane as it is with direct shear tests.
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 Demerits of triaxial test

• Triaxial apparatus is expensive.

• In direct shear test, drained test takes short time whereas in the case of
triaxial test it takes long duration to conduct drained test.

• Difficulty in calculating the cross sectional area of the sample at large

strains

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SENSITIVITY

• Some soils have a high strength in their undisturbed state

• They lose strength on remoulding

• These are called sensitive soils

• Sensitivity (Sf) = Unconfined compressive strength (undisturbed)

Unconfined compressive strength (disturbed/remoulded)

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THIXOTROPY

• The regaining of lost strength in remoulding, without change

in moisture content due to re-arrangement of water molecules
within the soil mass is called Thixotropy.

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VANE SHEAR TEST

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VANE SHEAR TEST

• Apparatus consists of four thin stainless steel plates welded orthogonally to a high
tensile steel rod

• Torque measuring apparatus is attached to the rod.

• If suitable undisturbed for remoulded samples cannot be got for conducting triaxial
or unconfined compression tests, the shear strength is determined by a device
called the Shear Vane.

• The vane shear test may also conducted in the laboratory. The laboratory shear
vane will be usually smaller in size as compared to the field vane.
• In the field, a pit is dug to depth upto which the shear strength is to be tested

• Vane shear apparatus is then pushed or driven into the soil to a depth greater than
the length of the vane
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 VANE SHEAR TEST

• Torque rod is then rotated at a uniform speed (1° per min)

• Rotation is continued till failure of the soil

• Failure detected- sudden decrease in torque without back

movement

• The Torque (T) at failure is noted

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 Liquefaction

• When saturated sandy soil is subjected to earth quake loads, the pore
pressure suddenly increases and thus decreases the shear strength of
soil and it may also become Zero. The soil momentarily liquefies and
behaves like a dense fluid. This phenomena when sand loses its shear
strength is called “Liquefaction.

• This happens mainly in saturated fine sands and silts.

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