CHEMICAL FOUNDATIONS

1.1 ATOMS AND THE PERIODIC TABLE

Atom – made up of protons, neutrons, and electrons;
indivisible
HISTORY
400 BC:
- Greeks proposed that matter is made of four CHEMICAL AND PHYSICAL PROPERTIES
elements: earth, wind, fire, water 1. Physical Properties - readily observable/
- Demokritos (mentor) and Leucippos (student) measurable without altering the composition or
used the term atomos (meaning indivisible) identity of a substance
1500s: o Something that can be observed with
- Bauer developed a system of metallurgy the senses
(extraction of ores) – determine what kind based o Matter – makes up anything that takes
on its reaction to heat up space
- Paracelsus developed medicinal application of o density, color, temperature, size, shape,
minerals texture, sound, hardness, flavor,
1600s: temperature, mass, volume, melting
- Boyle was the “first” chemist to perform point
quantitative (measurement, used relationship) 2. Chemical Properties – observed only after a
experiments chemical change has occurred
o P1V1=P2V2 (Boyle’s law) o Any characteristic of a substance that
- Stahl studied combustion can be observed ONLY when the
1869: identity of the substance is CHANGED;
- Mendeleev developed the can’t recover
periodic table of elements o rusting or oxidation, chemical reactions,
➢ Matter is made up of atoms of different elements reactivity with other chemicals, toxicity,
➢ An atom consist of protons, neutrons and electrons flammability, oxidation states,
➢ Atoms of different elements differ from one another, combustibility
particularly in the number of protons (stays in EXTENSIVE AND INTENSIVE PROPERTIES
space because of electrons) 1. Extensive Properties – depend on quantity,
o Lithium, Sodium, Potassium + water = seen by the eye
strong bases o mass, volume, size, weight, length
➢ The periodic table is already filled with 118 2. Intensive Properties – do not depend on
elements, with the last few officially named just quantity
recently o density, color, boiling point, temperature,
luster, hardness
THE CLASSIFICATION OF MATTER

THE THREE STATES OF MATTER

1. Solid – Strong intermolecular force
2. Liquid – weaker intermolecular force, higher Mixtures – have variable composition
kinetic energy - Heterogeneous – have visibly distinguishable
3. Gas – weakest to no intermolecular force, exert parts
pressure, highly compressible, move away from - Homogeneous – don’t have visibly
each other distinguishable parts
Pure Substances – don’t have variable composition
- Elements – doesn’t contain various types of
atoms (chemical method)
o Atoms
- Compounds – contains various types of atoms
(chemical method)
Elements combine to form compounds:
1.2 FUNDAMENTAL CHEMICAL LAWS
THEORY VS LAW
Theory - tries to provide the most logical explanation
Some elements combine with the same element to about why things happen as they do.
form molecules: - proposes why, needs more evidence
Law - predicts the results of certain initial conditions.
- predicts what happens, proven

1. Law of Conservation of Mass – mass is

neither created nor destroyed in a chemical
They are all pure substances.
reaction.
o Antoine Lavoisier, “Father of
DIFFERENT TECHNIQUES TO SEPARATE THE
Chemistry” - He developed the modern
COMPONENTS OF A MIXTURE
system of naming chemical substances
What is this set-up called? Distillation
and has been called the “father of
What can this set-up separate?
modern chemistry” for his emphasis on
- “Separate liquids from nonvolatile solids, as
careful experimentation (Britannica,
in the separation of alcoholic liquors from
2024).
fermented materials, or in the separation of two
o Same mass just in different forms
or more liquids having different boiling
points, as in the separation of gasoline,
kerosene, and lubricating oil from crude oil”
(Britannica, 2024).

2. Law of Definite Proportion – a given

compound always contains exactly the same
proportion of elements by mass.
o Joseph Proust
o Water: 11% H and 89 % O by mass
Carbon dioxide: 27 % C and 73 % O by
mass
o Amount of lead sulfide remains the
same because of definite proportion
What can this techniques separate?
- “Paper chromatography is a technique used to
separate and analyze a mixture. Simple paper
chromatography, for example, can be used to
separate a color mixture. The stationary phase
is formed by the filter paper, which has a thin
layer of water trapped on it. The solvent is
referred to as the mobile phase or eluant”
(Tantray et al., 2023).
3. Law of Multiple Proportions – when two
elements form a series of compounds, the ratios
of the masses of the second element that
 combine with 1 gram of the first element can given compound always has the same relative
always be reduced to small whole numbers. numbers and types of atoms.
o John Dalton 4. Chemical reactions involve reorganization of
o They are different because their ratios the atoms—changes in the way they are bound
are different together.
5. The atoms themselves are not changed in a
chemical reaction.

STRUCTURE OF THE ATOM

THE ELECTRON - CATHODE-RAY TUBE (1898-1903)

4. Law of Conservations of Energy – energy

cannot be created nor destroyed in a chemical
reaction or in a physical change. It can only be
converted from one form to another.
- J.J. Thomson
How did Thomson discover the electron from the
cathode ray?
5. Law of Conservations of Mass and Energy – - “To test the properties of the particles, Thomson
The combined amount of matter and energy in placed two oppositely-charged electric plates
the universe is fixed. around the cathode ray. The cathode ray was
o From Einstein’s Theory of Relativity: deflected away from the negatively-charged
E=mc2 electric plate and towards the positively-charged
plate. This indicated that the cathode ray was
1.3 ATOMIC STRUCTURE composed of negatively-charged particles”
(Khan Academy, n.d.).
Do you know what a CRT is?
- “A cathode-ray tube (CRT) is a specialized
vacuum tube in which images are produced
when an electron beam strikes a
phosphorescent surface” (TechTarget, 2024).

OIL-DROP EXPERIMENT (1909)

DALTON’S ATOMIC THEORY (1808)

1. Each element is made up of tiny particles called - Robert Millikan
atoms. - charge of the electron: 1.6 x 10-19 C
2. The atoms of a given element are identical; the - mass of the electron: 9.11 x 10-27 g Structure of
atoms of different elements are different in some the Atom
fundamental way or ways.
3. Chemical compounds are formed when atoms Which one did Millikan discover?
of different elements combine with each other. A
 - “The oil drop experiment allowed Millikan to - Have you been subjected to x-ray? Did you feel
determine the charge on the electron. He later anything? “You can't feel an X-ray” (Mayo
used this data to determine the mass of the Clinic, 2024).
electron” (Chemistry LibreTexts, n.d.).

THE PLUM PUDDING MODEL

- With the discovery of the electron, Thomson
came up with a model for the atom similar to a
plum-pudding.
THE NUCLEUS (1910)
WHAT IS RADIATION? - Ernest Rutherford
Radiation – the emission and transmission of energy THIN GOLD FOIL EXPERIMENT
through space in the form of waves
Radioactivity – the spontaneous emission of particles
and/or radiation

How did Rutherford discover the nucleus with this

experiment?
- “The Rutherford gold foil experiment worked by
firing positively charged alpha particles
through gold foil and observing where they
ended up. To make their observations,
- Antoine Becquerel – Radioactivity was Rutherford and his students used
discovered by Becquerel in the element phosphorescent screens which emitted light
uranium when impacted by alpha particles” (Comunale,
2023).
How does this observation prove the existence of a
nucleus?
- “Rutherford's gold foil experiment showed that
atoms are mostly empty space, with the positive
charge concentrated in a nucleus. He realized
- Marie and Pierre Curie – worked on radioactive
this because most of the alpha particles
elements Ra and Po
passed straight through the piece of gold
foil, with just a few deflected at huge angles”
(Comunale, 2023).

TYPES OF RADIATION
1. alpha () rays – consist of positively charged
particles WHO DISCOVERED THE PROTON?
2. beta () rays – negatively charged particles Eugene Goldstein (1886) – postulated the existence of
3. gamma () rays – neutral high energy radiation a positive fundamental particle called the “proton”.
similar to x-ray - Rutherford was credited for the proton after the
discovery of the nucleus.
WHAT TYPE OF RADIATION IS X-RAY?
Wilhelm Röntgen – highly energetic radiation that
penetrates matter and darkens photographic plates
- not charged, not deflected by magnet
 - atomic number = number of protons in the 1.4 AVERAGE ATOMIC MASS
nucleus
o elements differ from each other by the
number of protons in the nucleus;
hence, elements differ by atomic
number
o the number of electrons in a neutral
atom is also equal to the atomic number WHAT ARE ISOTOPES?
o H.G.J. Moseley (1913) Isotopes – atoms of the same element but differ in
number of neutrons (or mass numbers)
WHO DISCOVERED THE NEUTRON?
- James Chadwick (1932)

- mass of the neutron: 1.67493 x 10-24g

SOLAR SYSTEM MODEL OF THE ATOM

- with the discovery of the nucleus came the solar
system model of the Atom

ATOMIC MASS AND ISOTOPIC ABUNDANCES

These are the naturally occurring isotopes of
carbon:

SO, WHAT DOES AN ATOM LOOK LIKE?

- The atom consists of a very tiny nucleus at the
center of a big empty space where the electrons Elements occur in nature as mixtures of isotopes.
move around

Basis for atomic masses:

C-12 isotope assigned as 12.00 amu

The average atomic mass is computed from the atomic

masses of the stable isotopes:
98.89% of 12 amu + 1.11% of 13.0034 amu =
(0.9889)(12 amu) + (0.0111)(13.0034 amu) =
12.01 amu
Atomic Mass Unit o Na+, Cl-, Ca2+, O2-, Al3+
1 amu = 1.66 x 10-24 g - polyatomic ion – contains more than one atom
1 g = 6.02 x 1023 amu o OH-, CN-, NH4+, NO3-, AsO43-, CrO42

WHAT ARE MOLECULES?

Molecules – an aggregate of two or more atoms
in a definite arrangement held together by
chemical bonds

- diatomic molecule – contains only two atoms

o H2, N2, O2, Br2, HCl, CO
- polyatomic molecule – contains more than two
atoms
o O3, H2O, NH3, C6H12O6
1.5 UNIT MOLE AND MOLAR MASS
WHAT ARE IONS?
Ions – an atom or group of atoms that possess an
electrical charge
- Cation: positive ion

WHAT ARE COMPOUNDS?

Compounds – combination of two or more different
elements
Covalent (or Molecular) Compounds – formed by
more than one kind of non-metal
- a chemical bond is formed by sharing of
electrons between atoms

- Anion: negative ion

Ionic Compounds – a chemical bond is formed as a
result of an attraction between a cation and an anion

- monatomic ion – contains only one atom

WHAT IS A CHEMICAL FORMULA? AVOGADRO’S NUMBER
Chemical Formula – shows the chemical composition - 1 mole = 6.022 x 1023 or
and ratio of the elements present in the molecule or 602,213,673,600,000,000,000,000
compound
- C6H12O6
TYPES OF CHEMICAL FORMULAS
molecular formula – shows the exact number of atoms
of each element in the smallest unit of a substance.

- One mole of each element; they differ in mass

and appearance but contain the same number of
atoms: 602,213,673,600,000,000,000,000
empirical formula – shows the simplest whole-number - One mole of marbles would cover the entire
ratio of the atoms in a substance. Earth (oceans included) for a depth of three
miles.

structural formula – shows the bond patterns between

atoms.

Formula Mass (Molecular Mass) – total mass of all

the elements in the formula (amu)
Molar Mass – mass in grams of one mole of a
substance (g/mol)
condensed structural formula – shows the bond
patterns between atoms. MOLAR MASS
1 mol of C = 12.01 g/mol
1 mol of Na = 23.00 g/mol
1 mol of H2O = 18.02 g/mol
1 mol of NaCl = 58.45 g/mol
1 mol of C6H12O6 = 180.16 g/mol

HOW DO YOU COMPUTE FOR THE MOLAR MASS?

MOLE CONCEPT
WHAT IS A MOLE, CHEMICALLY?
➢ a number of atoms, ions, or molecules that is
large enough to see and handle
➢ the number equal to the number of
carbon atoms in exactly 12 grams
of pure 12C
➢ 1 mole of anything = 6.022 x 1023
units of that thing (Avogadro’s number)
➢ 1 mole C = 6.022 x 1023 C atoms = 12.01 g C
CHAPTER 2: PART 1 – QUANTUM THEORY
AND THE ELECTRONIC STRUCTURE OF
ATOMS
2.1 Electromagnetic Spectrum
2.2 Quantum Theory
2.3 Atomic Spectrum

ELECTROMAGNETIC RADIATION (EMR)

James Maxwell – proposed that visible light consist of
electromagnetic waves (1873)

Isaac Newton – showed that visible light can be

separated into different colors using a prism

- wavelength () THE QUANTUM THEORY (1900):

- frequency () - energy can be gained or lost by matter only in
multiples of the quantity
-  = c - Max Planck
- h E = h
o where h is the Planck’s constant, 6.626
x 10-34 J.s
o “energy is quantized”

- Just like in screens, the high-resolution picture

looks “continuous”, but is actually composed of
pixels (quantized)

Some basic physics concepts…

ELECTROMAGNETIC RADIATION (EMR) SPECTRUM

- The small visible region allows us to see
everything with all the colors around
THE PHOTOELECTRIC EFFECT (1905):
- light exists as stream of particles called photons
(dual nature of light)
- continuous →

- quantized →

- Einstein

- the energy of a photon is a quantum

o Ephoton = hc / 
- photons of sufficient energy cause electrons to
be ejected from the surface of a meat

THE ATOMIC SPECTRUM

continuous spectrum – results when white light (like
from heated solids) is passed through a prism
line (atomic) spectrum – results when light emitted by
atoms in the gaseous phase is passed through a prism
➢ solid elements emit continuous light when
heated
CHAPTER 2: PART 2 – QUANTUM THEORY
AND THE ELECTRONIC STRUCTURE OF
ATOMS
2.4 Bohr Model of the Atom
2.5 Quantum Mechanics

THE ATOMIC SPECTRUM

WHAT IS THE SIGNIFICANCE OF THE LINE
SPECTRUM OF HYDROGEN?
- only certain energies are allowed for the electron
in the hydrogen atom (not continuous)
➢ elements in gaseous form emit line spectrum
when heated

The Atomic Spectrum of Hydrogen

➢ these are some line spectra of different

elements
➢ gaseous sodium emits yellow light
THE BOHR MODEL (1913):
- how electrons are arranged in an atom Notes:
- the electron in the atom moves around the Aufbau’s Equation: 2n2 = # of electrons in each energy
nucleus only in certain circular orbits level
- when an electron absorbs energy, it is promoted Energy cell:
to an “excited state” (can go to the highest 1 = 2(1)2 = 2
unoccupied orbital) 2 = 2(2)2 = 8
- an electron releases energy (light) when it falls 3 = 2(3)2 = 18
back to the ground state (lowest unoccupied 4 = 2(4)2 = 32
orbital)
- Electron is outside and moves around in a - measure the energy that the electron gives up
circular orbit, no fixed position, moving around when it moves back to its orbit
the nucleus - highest occupied orbital, lowest occupied orbital
o Why does it move? There is energy - electron distribution - how electrons are
involved, also has a relationship with distributed around the nucleus
how the energy is close to the nucleus

- Niels Bohr
- each line (color) in the spectrum corresponds to
an energy difference between orbits QUANTUM MECHANICS
The Wave Nature of the Electron (1923):
- If light, which is a wave, also exists as particles
called photons, then a subatomic particle like an
electron can also have wave properties.
- de Broglie equation:
o m = h / v
o Louis de Broglie

- the atomic line spectrum shows that there are

energy levels (orbits) around the nucleus where
the electrons are found

- the model was perfect for hydrogen

- the model, however, fails for systems with many
electrons
 - Closer to nucleus, denser
- Farther - the lesser energy

Radial Probability Distribution:

- but the electron cannot be inside the nucleus
- Bohr radius – there is just a maximum
probability close to the nucleus corresponding to
the Bohr radius (orbit)

The Uncertainty Principle (1926):

- there is fundamental limitation to how precisely
both the position and momentum of a particle
can be known at a given time
- Werner Heisenberg
o x.(m) ≥ h/4
CHAPTER 2: PART 3 – QUANTUM THEORY
AND THE ELECTRONIC STRUCTURE OF
ATOMS
2.5 Atomic Orbitals
2.6 Quantum Numbers

ATOMIC ORBITALS
The Schrödinger Equation (1926):
Atomic Orbitals – regions of space where the
- a specific wave function is
probability of finding an electron about an atom is
called an orbital
highest.
- idea that you can measure
- space where you can most likely find an
the position of the electrons
electron, probability that you can find an electron
- Erwin Schrödinger
is high
- Orbital – region where you can find electrons
Orbital Representations – boundary surface diagrams
(90% probability)

The Born Interpretation:

- the physical meaning of the
wave function Notes:
- the square of the wave function gives the - S orbital
probability of finding an electron near a - P orbital
particular point in space (like a nucleus) - D orbital
- region where you can find electrons - F orbital
- Max Born o px, py, pz (to provide the 3D structure)
o Px2y2
o Unattracted - moves away from nucleus
Each orbital can accommodate a certain amount of
electrons
Probability Distribution: 1 S -> 2e
- the probability of finding the 3 P -> 6e
electron is highest close to 4 D -> 10e
the nucleus 5 F -> 14e
- the probability decreases
away from the nucleus
s orbital: f orbital:
- there are spaces (nodes) between orbitals
- notice the dense color? it indicates highest
probability of finding an electron. it also
corresponds to the Bohr orbit
- imagine the 1s inside the 2s, inside the 3s

p orbital: COMBINING ALL THE ORBITALS

d orbital:
 principal quantum number, n – has integral values: 1,
2, 3, …
- Refers to the ENERGY LEVEL
- related to the size and energy of the orbital
- as n increases, the orbital becomes larger and
the energy is also higher

angular momentum quantum number, l - has integral

values from 0 to n-1, for each n
- related to the SHAPE of the orbital

magnetic quantum number, ml – has integral values

from -l to +l, for each ml
- related ORIENTATION of the orbitals in space
- magnetic

QUANTUM NUMBERS
Quantum Numbers – many wave functions (orbitals)
satisfy the Schrödinger equation
- each of these orbitals are characterized by
quantum numbers
Notes:
- ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES - allows atomic
orbitals to quantify energy because it has waves
and photons
- Less energy near the nucleus
- If the electron moves away from the nucleus, it electron spin quantum number, ms – value is either
has higher energy +½ or -½
- Each orbital is characterized by quantum
numbers (quantifying the energy)
Pauli Exclusion Principle – only a maximum PAULI EXCLUSION PRINCIPLE
of 2 electrons can occupy an orbital and they Exclusion Principle – only a maximum of two electrons
must have opposite spins may occupy an orbital, and they must have opposite
- Wolfgang Pauli spins (no 2 electrons in an atom can have the same set
of QN)
AUFBAU (BUILDING-UP) PRINCIPLE
Aufbau (Building-up) Principle – as protons are added
one by one to the nucleus to build up the elements,
electrons are similarly added to hydrogen-like orbitals
- Example: An oxygen atom has an electron
arrangement of two electrons in the 1s subshell,
two electrons in the 2s subshell, and four
electrons in the 2p subshell
- O: 1s2 2s2 2p4
- You start to fill up the orbital with lower energy

This is how the quantum numbers are related to the

ELECTRON CONFIGURATION
position of the elements in the periodic table Electron Configuration – describes how electrons are
distributed among various orbitals
- However, when you start to fill up the orbitals
with electrons, this cause the subshells to have
different energies due to their shapes
- The subshells become “non-degenerate”
HUND’S RULE
Hund’s Rule – in a given sublevel,
electrons occupy each orbital singly with
parallel spins
- Unpaired electrons are
represented as having parallel spins

How do we distribute
the 8 electrons of
CHAPTER 2: PART 5 – QUANTUM THEORY oxygen?
AND THE ELECTRONIC STRUCTURE OF O: 1s2 2s2 2p4
ATOMS
2.8 Electron Configuration
VALENCE ELECTRONS Notice there is no d4 and d9?
Valence Electrons – These are electrons in the
outermost principal quantum level of an atom
- The elements in the same group on the
periodic table have the same valence electron
configuration and display similar chemical
behavior
o Example: For the sodium atom, the
valence electron is that in the 3s
orbital
o Inner electrons are termed core
electrons
THE PERIODIC TABLE AND ELECTRON
CONFIGURATION

Instead of a d4, an electron from the low-lying 4s is

transferred to the 3d for a half-filled d5 configuration

Instead of a d10, an electron from the low-lying 4s is

transferred to the 3d for a fully-filled d10 configuration

There are also exceptions in the f series. Can you

discern the pattern?

Look at the patterns in the electronic configuration:

Let’s have an example:

S: 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p4 or [Ne] 3s2 3p4

Give the electron configurations for sulfur (S)

Now try cadmium:

Cd: 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 4s2 3d10 4p6 5s2 4d10 or [Kr]
5s2 4d10
- Give the electron configurations for cadmium
(Cd)