MATERIALS CHEMISTRY (CHM 678)

PAST YEARS Q & A

TABLE OF CONTENTS

SYLLABUS .................................................................................................................................... 2
ASSESSMENTS ............................................................................................................................. 2
1.0 INTRODUCTION TO MATERIALS SCIENCE ............................................................... 3
2.0 ATOMIC STRUCTURE AND BONDING ........................................................................ 5
3.0 CRYSTAL AND ATOMIC STRUCTURE......................................................................... 8
4.0 CRYSTAL STRUCTURES (XRD,SEM,TEM) ................................................................ 14
5.0 CRYSTAL STRUCTURES AND DEFECTS ................................................................... 18
6.0 PHASE DIAGRAM ........................................................................................................... 25
7.0 MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF MATERIAL & METAL ALLOY APPLICATIONS
32
8.0 ANSWERS : ...................................................................................................................... 35
i. INTRODUCTION TO MATERIALS SCIENCE ............................................................. 35
ii. ATOMIC STRUCTURE AND BONDING ...................................................................... 37
iii. CRYSTAL AND ATOMIC STRUCTURE ................................................................... 47
iv. CRYSTALS STRUCTURE (XRD,SEM,TEM) ............................................................ 60
v. CRYSTAL STRUCTURE AND DEFECTS ..................................................................... 67
vi. PHASE DIAGRAM ....................................................................................................... 76
vii. MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF MATERIAL & METAL ALLOY
APPLICATIONS ...................................................................................................................... 84
9.0 APPENDIX 1 ..................................................................................................................... 93

1
SYLLABUS
Introduction to Material Chemistry
Atomic Structure
Crystalline Structure
Crystal Defects and Non-Crystalline Structure Imperfections
Solubility and Phase Diagrams Equilibrium
Mechanical Properties of Materials

ASSESSMENTS
Test 1 – 10%
Test 2 – 10%
Test 3 – 10%
Quizzes – 5%
Assignments – 15%
Final Examination – 50%

2
1.0 INTRODUCTION TO MATERIALS SCIENCE

APRIL 2010
QUESTION 1
State TWO conditions to obtain:
a) A stable ceramic compound
b) A superconducting material
(8 marks)
QUESTION 3
Name the type of fiber material that is usually used as the reinforcement phase to obtain the
following properties of a composite material:
(a) Increase toughness in brittle matrices
(b) Poor tension and shear properties
(c) High tensile strength and fairly low density (6 marks)

OCTOBER 2010
QUESTION 1
Explain the following regarding poly(vinyl chloride), PVC:
a) A transparent film can be obtained from PVC
b) PVC is used as a tubing material
c) PVC is commonly used a cable protector
d) PVC is easier to cyrstallize compared to polystyrene, PS
e) A spherullite structure is observed on a PVC film (15 marks)

QUESTION 3
State the purpose of adding the following type of fiber material that is usually used as the
reinforcement phase in a composite material:
a) Metal
b) Polymer
c) Ceramic
d) Glass
e) C-graphite (10 marks)

3
JANUARY 2012
QUESTION 6
(a) Explain why ceramic materials are more brittle than metals? (3 marks)

DECEMBER 2013
QUESTION 1
b) Advanced ceramic are widely used for high performance applications
(i) Give one example of the ceramic and its applications (2 marks)

JUNE 2014
QUESTION 1
b)State the three properties of ceramic materials (3 marks)

DECEMBER 2014
QUESTION 1
a) Silicon nitride is widely used as a material for automobile engine parts. List three major
properties of this ceramic that make it suitable for this application. (3marks)
b) Give two examples of an advanced material and state one application for each material.
(4 marks)

4
2.0 ATOMIC STRUCTURE AND BONDING

OCTOBER 2010
QUESTION 4
a) Use Appendix 1 to determine the coordination number and the coordination geometry of UO2.
[Ionic radius (A) : U4+=0.97and O2-=1.32] (7marks)
b) Determine whether UO2 is a suitable material for super conductor or not. (3marks)

APRIL 2011
QUESTION 3
a) Silica (SiO2) exhibits both ionic and covalent bonding characteristics.
Electronegativity of Si=1.8, O=3.5
i) What fraction of the bonding is covalent? (3 marks)
ii) Give one application in which silica is used (2 marks)

JANUARY 2012
QUESTION 2
Graphite and diamond are both made from carbon atoms.
a) List some of the physical characteristics of each. (4 marks)
b) Give one application for graphite and one for diamond. (4 marks)
c) If both materials are made of carbon, why does such a difference in properties exists?
d) Sketch the structure of graphite and diamond. Label all types of bonding present. (4marks)

JANUARY 2013
QUESTION 1
a) Pure aluminum is a ductile metal with low tensile strength and hardness. Its oxide Al203
(alumina) is extremely strong, hard and brittle. Explain this difference from an atomic bonding
point of view. (10 marks)
b) Explain, why many polymers and some ceramic glasses have an amorphous or semi
crystalline structure. (4marks)
c) Name two carbon allotropes and discuss their crystal structure. (6marks)

5
JUNE 2013
QUESTION 1
a) Pure aluminum is malleable metal with moderately high melting temperature. Its oxide Al203
(alumina) is extremely strong, hard and brittle with high melting point. Discuss these differences
from an atomic bonding point of view. (10 marks)
b) Explain why covalently bonded materials are generally less dense than ionically or
metallically bonded ones. (3 marks)

DECEMBER 2013
QUESTION 1
a) Diamond and graphite are allotropes of carbon.
i) Sketch the structure of graphite and diamond. Label all types of bonding present. (4marks)
ii) Explain why diamond is harder than graphite (4marks)
iii) Give one application for each graphite and diamond (2marks)
b) Explain, why ultra-rapid cooling of some metal alloys produces metallic glass? (4marks)

JUNE 2014
QUESTION 1
a) Use the electronegative value of each element to explain the type of bonding(s) that occur in
the materials below. (Electronegativity : Ga=1.8, As=2.2, Mg=1.3, O=3.5)
i) GaAs
ii) MgO

DECEMBER 2014
QUESTION 1
b) The hardness of sodium metal is lower than the hardness of magnesium. Discuss this
difference from an atomic bonding point of view. (10 marks)
c) Alumina (Al2O3) exhibits both ionic and covalent bonding characteristic. Calculate the
percentage ionic character for the compound.
(Electronegativity of Al = 1.5, O= 3.5) (3marks)

6
JUNE 2015
QUESTION 1
a) Give two properties of materials that are exclusively made up of ionic and covalent bonds.
Name a material for each type. (6marks)
b) Both K and Ca are metals. Explain the higher melting temperature of Ca to melting point of
K? (2marks)
c) Silica (SiO2) exhibits both ionic and covalent bonding characteristics.
(Electronegativity Si= 1.8, O=3.5)
i) Calculate the fraction of bonding that is covalent (4marks)
ii) Assuming that silica has 100% covalent bonding, explain with a sketch how oxygen and
silicon atoms in silica are bonded (6marks)
iii) Give the application of silica (2marks)

7
3.0 CRYSTAL AND ATOMIC STRUCTURE
OCTOBER 2010

APRIL 2011

8
JANUARY 2012

JUNE 2012

9
JUNE 2012

JANUARY 2013

10
JUNE 2013

11
DECEMBER 2013

JUNE 2014

12
DECEMBER 2014

JUNE 2015

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4.0 CRYSTAL STRUCTURES (XRD,SEM,TEM)

APRIL 2010
A. The first five peaks of a metal powder occur at diffraction angle 2θ= 32.5°, 37.25°, 54.3°,
63.0° and 65.75° when monochromatic x-radiation having a wavelength of 0.00711 nm is
used. Given that the lattice constant of the metal is 4.9489 . [Assume first order diffraction].
Determine:
a) The crystal structure of the metal. (5 marks)
b) The interplanar spacing for the second set of the diffracted planes.(3 marks)
c) Diffraction angel at (331) plane. (3 marks)

B. State the most suitable instrumentation technique in the following characterization of a

titanium alloy:
a) To determine only the surface structure of the alloy.
b) To study the dislocation that occurs in the metal alloy.
c) To determine the concentration of atoms in the titanium alloy. (6marks)

APRIL 2011
X-ray diffraction (XRD), scanning electron microscope (SEM) and transmission electron
microscope (TEM) are several instruments used in characterization technique of materials.
State a suitable instrumentation technique to be used below:
i) To verify the crystal structure of a metal
ii) To observe the presence of dislocation in a crystal structure
iii) To study only the surface morphology of a metal
iv) To determine the elemental composition in metal alloy
v) To determine the interplanar spacing in crystal structure
vi) To verify the degree of crystallinity in polymer structure (6 marks)

14
JANUARY 2012
A. X-ray diffraction (XRD), scanning electron microscope (SEM) and transmission electron
microscope (TEM) are several instruments used in characterizations techniques of solid
materials. Explain sample preparation procedure for each technique. (6 marks)
B. An X-ray of Iron (Fe) which is taken using monochromatic x-radiation of wavelength 0.154
nm shows diffraction peaks at 45.0°, 65.1° and 82.8° which are identified as (110), (200)
and (211) reflection, respectively.
i. Calculate the interplanar spacing and lattice parameter of the peak at diffraction angle 45.0°.
(3 marks)
ii. Draw all three reflections within a unit cell of Fe. (6 marks)
iii. Suggest the type of crystal structure for Fe. (3 marks)
C. An unknown material is being analyzed using X-ray diffraction technique. However, the
diffraction patterns are extremely broad (no clear peaks are visible). What does this tell you
about the material? Explain you answer. (3 marks)

JUNE 2012
A sample of BCC iron was placed in an x-ray diffractometer using incoming x-rays of
wavelength,=0.1541 nm. Diffraction from the (110) plane was obtained at a diffraction angle of
44.704°. Calculate a value for the lattice constant (a) of the BCC iron (assume 1st order
diffraction). (4 marks)

JANUARY 2013
Determine the expected diffraction angle for the first order reflection from the (310) set of planes
for BCC chromium when monochromatic radiation of wavelength 0.0757 nm is used. Given lattice
constant, a = 0.28844 nm. (4 marks)

JUNE 2013
If the angle of diffraction for the (321) set of planes occurs at 27 when monochromatic x-radiation
having a wavelength of 0.071nm is used, compute the interplanar spacing for this set of planes.
(3 marks)

15
DECEMBER 2013
A. Determine the expected diffraction angle for the first order reflection from the (110) set of
planes for BCC iron when monochromatic radiation of wavelength 0.1541 nm is used. Given
lattice constant, a=0.2865 nm
B. X-ray diffraction (XRD), scanning electron microscope (SEM) and transmission electron
microscope (TEM) are several instruments used in characterizations techniques of solid
materials. Explain sample preparation procedure for each technique. (6 marks)

JUNE 2014
Explain briefly the required preparative condition when a titanium alloy structure is to be
examined for the following purposes:
i. To view the surface structure of the alloy by optical micsroscope
ii. To study the dislocation that occur in the metal alloy by transmission electron
microscope
iii. To examine the surface features of the alloy specimen by scanning electron
microscope

DECEMBER 2014
A. An X-ray diffractometer recorder chart for an element that has either the BCC or FCC
crystal structure showed diffraction peaks at the following 2θ angles : 41.069, 47.782,
69.879, and 84.396. The wavelength of the incoming radiation was 0.154 nm.
i. Determine the cubic structure of the element (3 marks)
ii. Calculate the lattice constant for the element (3 marks)

B. X-ray diffraction (XRD), scanning electron microscope (SEM) and transmission

electron microscope (TEM) are several instruments used in characterizations techniques
of solid materials. Explain sample preparation procedure for each technique.(6 marks)

16
JUNE 2015

The diffraction pattern for polycrystalline α-iron is shown below:

i) calculate the interplanar spacing and lattice parameter for each of the peaks (6 marks)
ii) From the diffraction peaks, suggest the type of crystal structure for α-Fe (2 marks)
iii) Illustrate each reflection (110), (200) and (211) within a unit cell of the metal
(6 marks)

17
5.0 CRYSTAL STRUCTURES AND DEFECTS

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20
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23
24
6.0 PHASE DIAGRAM

OCTOBER 2010

25
APRIL 2011

26
JANUARY 2012

JUN 2012

27
JUNE 2013

DECEMBER 2013
QUESTION 3

28
JUNE 2014

29
DECEMBER 2014

30
JUNE 2015

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7.0 MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF MATERIAL &
METAL ALLOY APPLICATIONS

APRIL 2010

APRIL 2011

JANUARY 2012

32
JUNE 2012

JANUARY 2013

JUNE 2013

DECEMBER 2013

33
JUNE 2014

DECEMBER 2014

JUNE 2015

34
8.0 ANSWERS :

i. INTRODUCTION TO MATERIALS SCIENCE

APRIL 2010
QUESTION 1
(a) - must be inorganic material made of metallic and nonmetallic elements that are
chemically bonded together.
- In compound, the anion surrounding a cation is all in contact with that cation.
- must possess a high melting temperature heat treatment process.
(b) - composed of one or more metallic elements for example Iron or copper.
- the material must have crystalline structure where atoms arrangement in orderly manner
so it can be rigid form to conduct electricity
QUESTION 3
(a) Polymer,(b) Ceramics,(c) Glass

OCTOBER 2010
QUESTION 1
(a) PVC is an amorphous polymer where the molecules are oriented randomly and are intertwined
produced transparent and do not exhibit any crystalline structure in X-ray.
(b) PVC is resistance to corrosion which can withstand environmental attack and decay, low
densities, great strength and ductility and can be converted to flexible form by adding plasticizer.
(c) Polymer is poor conductors of electricity because it has covalent bond mostly noncrystalline
and therefore the suitable material to use for cable protector.
(d) PVC is a linear polymer that has small side groups such as chlorine atom, which are not too
long so easier to form crystalline regions than Polysytrene that present with bulky side groups such
as benzene ring.
(e) The spherullite structure on PVC is associated with crystallization of polymer from the melt
that due to partial alignment of their molecular chains where the chain fold together and is
controlled by several parameter such as number of nucleation sites, cooling rate and structure of
polymer molecule.

35
QUESTION 3
(a) Metallic fibers have high strengths but since there density is very high they are of little use in
weight critical applications.

(b) The strong covalent bonds of polymers can lead to impressive properties when aligned along
the fiber axis of high molecular weight chains. It’s have high stiffness and very strong in tension.
Increase toughness in brittle matrices.

(c) Ceramic fibers have very high temperature application for example Alumina and Silicon
carbide. Ceramics have poor properties in tension and shear, so most applications as reinforcement
are in the particulate form.

(d) Usually used as reinforcement of polymer matrices because it has high tensile strength and
fairly low density besides inexpensive fiber.

(e) Carbon graphite is a very light element and its stiffness is considerable higher than glass.
Carbon fibers can have up to 3 times the stiffness of steel and up to 15 times the strength of
construction steel.

JANUARY 2012

QUESTION 6

(a) (i) ceramic materials is made of metallic and nonmetallic element while metal is composed
of one or more metallic elements.
(ii) ceramic materials have stronger bond which consists of ionic and covalent that make
ceramic become hard and brittle while metal have weaker bond than ceramic which allow
electron to move freely between atoms where metal can easily bent without breaking.

DECEMBER 2013
QUESTION3
(b)(i) Silicon nitride. Use as a material for automobile engine parts.

36
 JUNE 2014
QUESTION 1
(b) - high melting point
- low density and very high elastic modulus
- unreactive and brittle

DECEMBER 2014
QUESTION 1
(a) – high strength over a wide temperature range
– good thermal shock resistance
– high fracture toughness
(b) (i) piezoelectric materials: produce electric field when exposed to force and vice versa. A
form of sensor. Used in actuators and vibration reducers.

(ii) shape memory alloys: strained material reverts back to its original shape above a critical
temperature. Used in heart valves and to expand arteries.

ii. ATOMIC STRUCTURE AND BONDING

OCTOBER 2010

QUESTION 4

i. The radius ratio for UO2 is

𝑟(𝑈 4+ )
=
𝑅 (O2− )

0.97
= 1.32

= 0.7348

= According to Appendix 1, the cation-anion radius ratio is between 0.732-1.0, so the UO2
should show coordination number = 8, and show cubic geometry

ii. - UO2 is suitable material for super conductor because it has larger coordination number means that it
have larger cation.

- As the atom size increases, it becomes possible to pack more and more atom around it.

- Large cation can carry large electrical charge.

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APRIL 2011

QUESTION 3

(𝑋𝐴 −𝑋𝐵) 2
− 𝑋 100 %
a) .i) % ionic character = 1 - 𝑒 4

(3.5−1.8)2
− 𝑋 100 %
=1- 𝑒 4

= 38.74 %

% covalent character = 100 – 38.74

= 61.26 %

ii) Silica is used in making glass and ceramic.

JANUARY 2012

QUESTION 2

a) Graphite Diamond
Has soft, slippery feel and brittle. Very hard and strong. Because a lot of
Because weak intermolecular forces energy required to break the strong
between layer cannot prevent them carbon-carbon covalent bond
sliding over each other
Can conduct electricity. Because each Do not conduct electricity. No ion or free
carbon atom has one electron that is not electron to move to conduct electricity
used in bonding. This free electron are because outer electron are held tightly
free to move throughout the layer, so between atoms (held in covalent bond)
able to conduct electricity

b) Graphite Diamond
Used as pencil lead and also lubricant Used in cutting other hard solid. Example
diamond used to cut rock

38
iii. The properties are difference for both of material that made up from carbon due to the
arrangement of carbon are different.
For diamond, the arrangement of carbon in 3D giant covalent network of carbon atom. Each
carbon is joined to four other carbon atoms by strong covalent bond.

For graphite, the arrangement of carbon in 2D parallel layer of carbon atom. Each carbon
atoms is joined to 3 other carbon atom by strong covalent bond

d) Diamond Graphite

Strong covalent
bond

Weak
intermolecular
forces

Strong covalent bond

JUNE 2012

Question 1.b).

i. Volume of copper cylinder = πr2h

= π(0.25)2(2)
= 0.3927 cm3
Mass of sample = density x volume
= 8.93 g/cm3 x 0.3927 cm3
= 3.5068 g
6.023 x 1023 atoms / mol
The number of copper atom present = 3.5068 g x
63.5 g/mol

= 3.326 x 1022 atoms

39
 ii.
Ion core of copper
Sea electrons
Ion core of copper

iii. Cu2+ = 1s2 , 2s2 , 2p6, 3s2, 3p6, 3d9

iv. Bonding in copper is non-directional. Because it form metallic bond which valence
electron are not bound to any particular atom and free to move throughout the entire
metal forming sea of electron.
v. CuSO4 cannot conduct electricity because bonding in CuSO4 is directional. CuSO4 form
covalent bond. There no free moving ion. The interaction may exist only in the direction
between one atom and another

JANUARY 2013
QUESTION 1
a)
 Pure aluminium is a metal with mostly metallic bonds. Alumina (Al2O3) is a
ceramic mostly ionic bonds.
 The strength of the ionic bond is significantly higher than the metallic bonds.
Thus, more energy is required to break the bonds between Al and O compare
between Al and Al.
 Alumina are strong, hard and brittle due to strong electrostatic forces that hold
ions together.
Pure aluminium (metallic bond)

Ion core
Sea of electron

Alumina (ionic bond)

Electronic configuration of aluminium = 1s2 , 2s2 , 2p6, 3s2, 3p1
Electronic configuration of oxygen = 1s2 , 2s2 , 2p4

40
b) - Material have an amorphous or semi-crystalline structure because they lack long-
range order in their atomic structure. Atoms in amorphous materials are bonded in a
disordered manner because of factors that inhibit the formation of a periodic
arrangement.
- In polymers, the secondary bonds among molecules do not allow for the formation of
parallel and tightly packed chains during solidification.
- In ceramic glass, the modest cooling rate suppresses the formation of crystal
structure and tetrahedral join corner to corner to form a network lacking in long-range
order
c) - Diamond and graphite are two carbon allotropes.
- For diamond, the arrangement of carbon in 3D giant covalent network of carbon atom.
Each carbon is joined to four other carbon atoms by strong covalent bond.

- For graphite, the arrangement of carbon in 2D parallel layer of carbon atom. Each
carbon atoms is joined to 3 other carbon atom by strong covalent bond

Diamond Graphite

Strong covalent
bond

Weak
intermolecular
forces

Strong covalent bond

41
JUNE 2013
Question 1

a) - Pure aluminium is a metal with mostly metallic bonds. Alumina (Al2O3) is a ceramic
mostly ionic bonds.
- The strength of the ionic bond is significantly higher than the metallic bonds. Thus,
more energy is required to break the bonds between Al and O compare between Al
and Al.
- Alumina are strong, hard and brittle due to strong electrostatic forces that hold ions
together.
Pure aluminium (metallic bond)

Ion core
Sea of electron

Alumina (ionic bond)

Electronic configuration of aluminium = 1s2 , 2s2 , 2p6, 3s2, 3p1
Electronic configuration of oxygen = 1s2 , 2s2 , 2p4

b) Covalently bonded materials are less dense than metallic or ionically bonded ones
because covalent bonds are directional in nature whereas metallic and ionic are non-
directional. When bonds are directional, the atoms cannot pack together in as dense a
manner, yielding a lower mass density.

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DECEMBER 2013

Question 1

a) .i) Diamond Graphite

Strong covalent
bond

Weak
intermolecular
forces

Strong covalent bond

ii) - Diamond is harder than graphite because diamond has the arrangement of carbon in
3D giant covalent network of carbon atom. So, a lot of energy required to break the
strong carbon-carbon covalent bond
- But graphite is soft because of the arrangement of carbon in 2D parallel layer of
carbon atom. So, weak intermolecular forces between layer cannot prevent them
sliding over each other
iii) Graphite Diamond

Used as pencil lead and also lubricant Used in cutting other hard solid. Example
diamond used to cut rock

c) - At ultra-rapid cooling, the atoms do not have enough time to form crystalline
structure, so the atoms form a metal with amorphous structure, that is highly
disordered.
- In theory, any crystalline material can form a non-crystalline structure (metallic glass)
if solidified rapidly enough from a molten state.

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JUNE 2014
Question 1
a).i) GaAs
(𝑋𝐴 −𝑋𝐵) 2
− 𝑋 100 %
% ionic character = 1 - 𝑒 4

(2.2−1.8)2
− 𝑋 100 %
= 1- 𝑒 4

= 0.0392 x 100%
= 3.92%
% covalent character = 100 – 3.92
= 96.08 %
So, the type of bonding that occur in the GaAs is covalent bond.
ii) MgO
(𝑋𝐴 −𝑋𝐵) 2
− 𝑋 100 %
% ionic character = 1 - 𝑒 4

(1.3−0.5)2
− 𝑋 100 %
= 1- 𝑒 4

= 0.1478 x 100%
= 14.78 %
% covalent character = 100 – 14.78
= 85.22 % , So, the type of bonding that occur in the MgO is covalent bond

DECEMBER 2014

Question 1

c) - Metallic bonding in magnesium is stronger than in sodium because in magnesium,

each atom has donated two electron to the cloud.
- The greater the electron density held the ions together more stronger
- Magnesium has the outer electronic structure 3s2. Both of these electrons become
delocalised, so the "sea" has twice the electron density as it does in sodium.
- Each magnesium atom has 12 protons in the nucleus compared with sodium's 11.

44
 - That means that there will be a net pull from the magnesium nucleus of 2+, but only
1+ from the sodium nucleus.
- So not only will there be a greater number of delocalised electrons in magnesium, but
there will also be a greater attraction for them from the magnesium nuclei.
- Magnesium atoms also have a slightly smaller radius than sodium atoms, and so the
delocalised electrons are closer to the nuclei. Each magnesium atom also has 12 near
neighbours rather than sodium has 8 neighbour. Both of these factors increase the
strength of the bond still further.

Magnesium
Sodium
m

(𝑋𝐴 −𝑋𝐵) 2
− 𝑋 100 %
c) % ionic character = 1 - 𝑒 4

(3.5−1.5)2
− 𝑋 100 %
= 1- 𝑒 4

= 0.6321 x 100%
= 63.21 %
% covalent character = 100 – 63.21

= 36.79 %

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JUNE 2015

Question 1

a) Ionic Covalent
Properties: Properties:
- Can conduct electricity - Cannot conduct electricity
- Have high melting and boiling - Have low melting and boiling
point point
- Hard, strong, stiff and brittle - Hard, strong, stiff and brittle
Example : Example :
- MgO - Quartz
- CsCl - Diamond
b) Metal Ca melts at higher temperature than metal K which precedes it in the periodic
table. Metals tend to have high melting points suggest the strong bond between the atoms.
(𝑋𝐴 −𝑋𝐵) 2
− 𝑋 100 %
c).i) % ionic character = 1 – 𝑒 4

(3.5−1.8)2
− 𝑋 100 %
= 1- 𝑒 4

= 0.5145 x 100%
= 51.45 %
% covalent character = 100 – 51.45
= 48.55 %
ii) Silicon has a valence of four and shares electrons with four oxygen atoms, thus giving
a total of eight electrons for each silicon atom. However, oxygen has a valence of six
and shares electrons with two silicon atoms, giving oxygen a total of eight electrons

-
iii) Silica is use to made glass and ceramic

46
iii. CRYSTAL AND ATOMIC STRUCTURE

OCTOBER 2010

QUESTION 2

r = 0.132
a = 3.0278

a = 4r
√3
= 4(0.132)
√3
= 0.3048

APF = (no. of atom) (volume of atom)

Volume of unit cell
= (1/8 x 8 + 1) [4/3 π (√3a / 4)3]
a3
= (2) [4.189 (√3 (0.3048) / 4)3]
(0.3048)3
= 0.0192
0.0283
= 0.676 / 0.68 – BCC

* The crystal structure of vanadium is BCC

a)

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 b)
a b c
Miller (2 -1 3)
Reduction -2 1 -3
Reciprocal -1/2 1 -1/3
intercept -1/2 1 -1/3

a b c
Intercept 1/2 -1 1/2
Reciprocal 2 -1 2
Reduction -2 1 -2
miller (-2 1 -2)
c)

APRIL 2011
a) sketch
i.

x y z
Intercept 1/3 1/2 0
Reciproc 3 2 ꝏ
al
Reductio 3/2 1 0
n
Miller (620)

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 ii.
direction
Indices [320]
h 3
k 2
l 0
Clear /3
fraction
h 1
k 2/3
l ꝏ
Head [320]
tail [000]

iii.
x y z
Miller (320)
Reduction 3/2 1 0
Reciprocal 2/3 1 ꝏ
intercept 2/3 1 ꝏ

b) FCC metals tend to have more slip systems, i.e. slip directions and slip planes than BCC.
Yes the APF is important, the atomic packing factor that is the reason FCC has more slip
systems, because of the way the atoms are arranged in the crystal. Thus FCC metals deform
easier than BCC metals and thus they are more ductile. BCC metals are in fact stronger than
FCC metals.

JANUARY 2012
a) Coordination number is the number of equidistant nearest neighbors to an atom or ion in
a unit cell of a crystal structure.
b) Coordination number
i. 12

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 ii. 8
c)

d) Actually, the unit is more than a unit cell. The centre of the atoms (or spheres) represent
the corners of the unit cell, and each of these atoms are shared by 8 unit cells. There is a
whole atom located in the centre of the unit cell.
e) = 1 + (1/8 x 8 corner)
f) = 1 + 1
g) = 2

JUNE 2012
QUESTION 1
a) Unit cell
i. tetragonal system
ii. body-centered cubic
iii. ρ = (atom per unit cell) (atomic weight)
(volume unit cell) (Avogadro)
ρ = (2) (141)
(5.5125 x 10-9) (6.023 x 10-23)
ρ = 282
3.32 x 10-31
ρ = 8.49 x 1032 g/cm3

50
QUESTION 5.a

i.
direction
Indices [1̅10]
h -1
k 1
l 0
Clear fraction -
h -1
k 1
l 0
Head [100]
tail [010]

ii.

direction
Indices [313]
h 3
k 1
l 3
Clear fraction /3
h 1
k 1/3
l 1
Head [000]
tail [313]

JANUARY 2013

QUESTION 2
a) sketch
i. [04̅1]

51
 ii. (04̅1)

̅̅̅̅1]
b) Direction = [[21
Plane = (121)

c) r = 1.246 x 10-8 cm
r = √2a
4
a = 4r
√2
a = 4 (1.246 x 10-8)
√2
a = 3.52 x 10-8
ρp = no of atom
√2a2
ρp = (2)
√2 (1.246 x 10-8)2
ρp = 2
2.1955 x 10-16
ρp = 9.1097 x 1015 atom/cm2

d) ρl = no of atom
√2a
ρl = (2)
√2 (1.246 x 10-8)
ρp = 2
1.7621 x 10-8
ρp = 1.1350 x 109 atom/cm

52
JUNE 2013

QUESTION 2

a) Sketch
i.
direction
Indices [3̅21]
h -3
k 2
l 1
Clear fraction / -3
h 1
k -2/3
l -1/3
Head [011]
tail [312]

ii) x y z
Miller (221)
Reducti 2 2 2
on
Recipro 1/2 1/2 1
cal
Intercep 1/2 1/2 1
t

b) x y z Head [010]
Intercept ꝏ 3/4 1 Tail [04̅1]
Reciproc 0 4/3 1 h 0
al k -1
Reductio 0 4/3 1 l 1/4
n Clear fraction X4
Miller (043) h 0
k -4
l 1
c) ρp = no. of atom indices [04̅1]
√2a2
=4x¼
√2 (0.2866)2
=1
0.1162
= 8.6086 atom/nm2

53
DECEMBER 2013
QUESTION 2
a) i) [12̅3]

1 −2 3
3 3 3
1 −2 1
3 3

ii) [321]

3 2 1
3 3 3
1 2 1
3 3

b) A: x y z
Intercept 1 −1 1
3 2
Reciprocal 1 1 1
1/3 −1/2 1
3 -2 1
Reduction 3 -2 1
Miller indices (32̅1)
B:
x y z
Intercept 1 ∞ −1
2
Reciprocal 1 1 1
1 ∞ −1/2
1 0 -2

54
 Reduction 1 0 -2
Miller indices (102̅)
c) For FCC,
atoms per unit cell
[100] Planar density for FCC =
area of plane

4
=
a2
4
=
0.40792
atoms
= 24.04
nm2

JUNE 2014

QUESTION 1

c)
Lattice points are located only at the corners of the cube
The number of atoms per unit cell:
8 corners (1/8) = 1

In a BCC unit cells, lattice points are located at the corners and
the center of the cube.
The number of atoms per unit cell:
8 corners (1/8) + 1 = 2

In a FCC unit cells, lattice points are located at the corners and
the faces of the cube
The number of atoms per unit cell:
8 corners (1/8) + 6 faces (1/2) = 4

55
d) Packing factor for FCC unit cell

Length; 4r = √2a
r = (√2a)/4
√2a
Unit cell contains; natoms = (6 x ½) + (8 x 1/8)
= 4 atoms/unit cell
a

Volume of atoms in unit cell

APF =
Volume of unit cell

natom × Vatom
=
Voloverall

natom × (4/3 πr3 )

=
a3

3
4 × (4/3 π (√2a/4) )
=
a3

= 0.74

QUESTION 2

a) Sketch 1 – Crystal planes

Sketch 2 – Crystal directions

b) Sketch 1
x y z
Intercept 1 1 ∞
Reciprocal 1 1 1
1 1 ∞
1 1 0
Reduction 1 1 0
Miller indices (110)

56
 Sketch 2 – [110]
c)
nA
ρ = 4R
Vc NA a =
√2
n × 232
11.72 = 4R
a3 × 6.023 ×1023 4.036 x 10-8 =
√2
[(2 × 1/2) + (4 × 1/4)] × 232
11.72 = 23
R = 1.427 x 10-8 cm
a3 × 6.023 ×10

2 × 232
11.72 =
a3 × 6.023 ×1023

a3 = 6.576 x 10-23

a = 4.036 x 10-8 cm/unit cell

Lattice parameter is 4.036 x 10-8 cm/unit cell

Atomic radius is 1.427 x 10-8 cm

d) (i) [320

(ii) (320)

57
 x y z
Reduction 3 2 0
Reciprocal 1 1 1
3 2 0 DECEMBER 2014
1 1 ∞
QUESTION 2
3 2
Intercept 1 1 ∞ a) i) [21̅2]
3 2
2 −1 2
2 2 2
1 −1 1
2

ii) [23̅3]

2 −3 3
3 3 3
2 -1 1
3

b) i) (½, 0, ½); (0, 0 ,1); (1, 1, 1)

A - (½, 0, ½)
B
B - (0, 0 ,1) •
C - (1, 1, 1)
A
D - (1, 0, 0)

D
•

58
 ii) (0, 0, ½); (1, 0, 0); (½, ¼, 0)

A - (0, 0, ½)
B - (1, 0 ,0)
C - (½, ¼, 0)
A
D - (0, 1, 0) •

x y z
-1 1 -1 •
C•
Reciprocal 1 1 1 B• D
−1 1 −1
-1 1 -1
Reduction −1 1 −1
−1 −1 −1
1 -1 1
Miller indices: (1, -1, 1)

JUNE 2015
QUESTION 2
For FCC,
4r
a= √2
4 ×0.128
= √2

x y z = 0.362 nm
1 1 1 2
[110] Linear density for FCC = √2a
Reciprocal 1 1 1
1 1 1 =
2
1 1 1 √2×0.362

Reduction 1 1 1
=
1 1 1 atoms
3.91
1 1 1 nm

Miller indices: (1, 1, 1)

59
iv. CRYSTALS STRUCTURE (XRD,SEM,TEM)

APRIL 2010

Peaks 2Ɵ Sin2 Ɵ Sin2 Ɵ Sin2 Ɵ Sin2 Ɵ h2 + hkl Ǻ(α)

a) 1x Sin2 Ɵ 2xSin2 Ɵ 3xSin2 Ɵ
k2+ l2
1 32.5 0.0783 1.000 2.000 3.000 3 111 0.220
2 37.25 0.1019 1.301 2.603 3.904 4 200 0.223
3 54.3 0.2082 2.659 5.318 7.977 8 220 0.220
4 63.0 0.2730 3.486 6.973 10.46 10 310 0.215
5 65.75 0.2946 3.762 7.525 11.29 11 … 0.217

√(𝜆2 )(ℎ2 +𝑘 2 +𝑙 2 )
a =
4 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 Ɵ

(0.07112 )(3)
=√
4(0.0783)

= 0.220 Ǻ
Confirmation crystal structure :
1.000
= 0.77 ~ nearly -0.75 that approve it is FCC crystal structure.
1.301

b) The interplanar spacing for the second set of the diffracted planes. (3 marks)
α
dhkl =
√ℎ2 +𝑘 2 + 𝑙 2

4.9489
=
√32 +4 2 + 82

= 0.5246 Ǻ / 0.05246 nm
c) Diffraction angel at (331) plane.(3 marks)
α
dhkl =
√ℎ2 +𝑘 2 + 𝑙 2
4.9489
=
√32 +32 + 12
= 1.1354 Ǻ / 0.11354 nm
𝑛𝜆
Sin Ɵ =
2𝑑ℎ𝑘𝑙
(1)(0.00711𝑛𝑚)
=
(2)(0.11354𝑛𝑚)

= 0.0313
60
 Ɵ = 𝑠𝑖𝑛−1 (0.0313)
= 1.794ᵒ
2Ɵ = (2) (1.794ᵒ)
= 3.588ᵒ
B. a) Scanning Electron Microscope (SEM). Electron source generates electrons which produced
secondary electrons that produce the signal to create the image. The surface must be electrically
conductive by coting it with gold or platinum.
b) Transmission Electron Microscope (TEM). The image seen is formed by an electron beam that
passes through the specimen and then will projected to a viewable screen for observations and it
magnification can approaching 1,000,000x.
c) Optical microscopy where this type of microscopy use light to view and lens for magnification.
Metallographic scopes often use polarized light to increase contrast

APRIL 2011
i. X-ray diffraction (XRD)
ii. Transmission Electron Microscope (TEM)
iii. Scanning Electron Microscope (SEM)
iv. Optical microscopy
v. X-ray diffraction (XRD)
vi. Optical micsroscopy

JANUARY 2012
A. i) XRD – The tungsten filament of cathode is heated, electron are released by thermionic
emission and accelerated through the vacuum by large voltage and strike the sample. The
sample is pressed into a sample holder so that the samples have a smooth flat surface.

ii) SEM - the sample will be put on photographic film and the electron will generates secondary
electron to create the signal which use to produce the image of sample. The surface of sample
must be electrically conductive by coting it with platinum or gold.

61
B.i)
 = 2dhkl sin θ
 0.154
d110 = =
2 sin 𝜃 2(sin 22.5)

= 0.2012 nm
a = dhkl √ℎ2 + 𝑘 2 + 𝑙 2
a(Fe) = d110 √12 + 12 + 02
a(Fe) = (0.2012)(1.4142)
a(Fe) = 0.2845 nm

ii) Peaks 2Ɵ Sin2 Ɵ 1x 𝐒𝐢𝐧𝟐 Ɵ

𝐒𝐢𝐧𝟐 Ɵ
1 45.0 0.1464 1.0000
2 65.1 0.2895 1.9774
3 82.8 0.4373 2.9870

1.0000
= 0.50 indicates that it is BCC crystal structure
1.9774

iii)

C) We can say that the material is an amorphous materials which do not possess the periodicity
and atom are randomly distributed. X-ray will be scattered in many direction leading to a large
bump and distributed in a wide range instead of high intensity peaks. On the other hand,

62
 crystalline materials are characterized by the orderly periodic arrangements of atoms and have
a sharp peaks.

JUNE 2012
2θ=44.704
Θ = 22.352
Sin2θ=0.1446
0.15412
Sin2θ = ( )(12+12+02)
4𝑎2
0.15412
0.1446 = ( )(12+12+02)
4𝑎2
a = 0.1549 nm

JANUARY 2013
0.07572
Sin2θ = (4(0.28844)2 )(32+12+02)

Sin2θ = 0.1722
Sin θ = √0.1722
Sin θ = 0.41497
θ = sin−1 0.41497
θ = 24.52
Diffraction angle, 2θ = 49.04

JUNE 2013
 = 2dhkl sin θ
 0.071
d321 = 2 sin 𝜃 = 2(sin 27)

= 0.0782 nm

DECEMBER 2013
0.15412
A. Sin2θ = (4(0.2865)2 )(12+12+02)

Sin2θ = 0.1446

63
 Sin θ = √0.1446
Sin θ = 0.3803
θ = sin−1 0.3803
θ = 22.35
Diffraction angle, 2θ = 44.70

B. XRD – The tungsten filament of cathode is heated, electron are released by thermionic
emission and accelerated through the vacuum by large voltage and strike the sample. The
sample is pressed into a sample holder so that the samples have a smooth flat surface.
SEM - the sample will be put on photographic film and the electron will generates
secondary electron to create the signal which use to produce the image of sample. The
surface of sample must be electrically conductive by coting it with platinum or gold.

TEM – the heated tungsten filament will produce electron beam which passes through very
thin foil specimen(3000 – 500 µm) to permit transmission and bulky material is highly
absorptive to electron.

JUNE 2014
i. Optical microscopy use light to view and lens for magnification where the titanium
alloy must in transparent form. The light source from the top of titanium alloy
flatform for solid sample specimens.

ii. The titanium alloy must be prepared in very thin foil specimen to permit transmission
of electron beam produced by heated tungsten filament before projected to a viewable
screen for observation because bulky solid material is highly absorptive to electron
beams.
iii. The surface of titanium alloy must be electrically conductive by coting it with
platinum or gold so the electron can generates secondary electron to produces the
signal which use to create the image of sample.

64
DECEMBER 2014
A. i)
Peaks 2Ɵ Sin2 Ɵ Sin2 Ɵ Sin2 Ɵ Sin2 Ɵ 2
1x Sin2 Ɵ 2xSin2 Ɵ 3xSin2 Ɵ h2 2 + a(nm)
k +l
1 41.069 0.1230 1.000 2.000 3.000 3 0.3802
2 47.782 0.1640 1.333 2.666 3.999 4 0.3802
3 69.879 0.3280 2.667 5.334 8.001 8 0.3803
4 84.396 0.4512 3.668 7.336 11.00 11 0.3802

1.000
=0.75 indicates that this value is for FCC crystal structure
1.333

B. i) XRD – The tungsten filament of cathode is heated, electron are released by

thermionic emission and accelerated through the vacuum by large voltage and strike
the sample. The sample is pressed into a sample holder so that the samples have a
smooth flat surface.

ii) SEM - the sample will be put on photographic film and the electron will generates
secondary electron to create the signal which use to produce the image of sample.
The surface of sample must be electrically conductive by coting it with platinum or
gold.
iii) TEM – the heated tungsten filament will produce electron beam which passes
through very thin foil specimen(3000 – 500 µm) to permit transmission and bulky
material is highly absorptive to electron.

JUNE 2015

i)  = 2dhkl sin θ
 0.154
d110 = =
2 sin 𝜃 2(sin 22.5 )

= 0.2012 nm
a = dhkl √ℎ2 + 𝑘 2 + 𝑙 2
a(Fe) = d110 √12 + 12 + 02
a(Fe) = (0.2012)(1.4142)
a(Fe) = 0.2845 nm

65
 2θ=65.1
 = 2dhkl sin θ
 0.154
d200 = =
2 sin 𝜃 2(sin32.55 )

= 0.1431 nm
a = dhkl √ℎ2 + 𝑘 2 + 𝑙 2
a(Fe) = d200 √22 + 02 + 02
a(Fe) = (0.1431)(2)
a(Fe) = 0.2862 nm

2θ=82.8
 = 2dhkl sin θ
 0.154
D211 = =
2 sin 𝜃 2(sin 41.4)

= 0.1164 nm
a = dhkl √ℎ2 + 𝑘 2 + 𝑙 2
a(Fe) = d211 √22 + 12 + 12
a(Fe) = (0.1164)(2.4495)
a(Fe) = 0.2852 nm

ii) Peaks 2Ɵ Sin2 Ɵ Sin2 Ɵ

1x
Sin2 Ɵ
1 45.0 0.1464 1.0000
2 65.1 0.2895 1.9774
3 82.8 0.4373 2.9870

1.0000
= 0.50 indicates that it is BCC crystal structure
1.9774

66
iii)

v. CRYSTAL STRUCTURE AND DEFECTS

OCTOBER 2012
QUESTION 5

APRIL 2011
QUESTION 3

67
QUESTION 4
b)

JANUARY 2012
QUESTION 5

68
JUNE 2012
QUESTION 4
a)

b)

c)

d.i)

ii)

69
JANUARY 2013

QUESTION 3

c.i)

ii)

QUESTION 5

a)

b)

70
c.i)
ii)

d)

JUNE 2013
QUESTION 3
a.i)

QUESTION 4
a.

b.

71
c)

DECEMBER 2013
QUESTION 4
a)

b)

d.i)

ii)

QUESTION 3
a.i)

72
b)

73
c)

DECEMBER 2014
QUESTION 4
a)

b.i) Cu metal
ii)

74
JUNE 2015
QUESTION 4
a)

b)

c.i)

ii)

75
vi. PHASE DIAGRAM

OCTOBER 2010
QUESTION 3

76
APRIL 2011

77
JANUARY 2012
QUESTION 3

78
JUNE 2013
QUESTION 3.b

79
JUNE 2014
QUESTION 4

80
DECEMBER 2014
QUESTION 3

81
JUNE 2015

82
83
vii. MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF MATERIAL & METAL ALLOY
APPLICATIONS

APRIL 2010
QUESTION 1
a) Application of heat upon processed clays and others raws materials to form rigid product.
Formation ceramic into desired shape by addition of water or additives.

b) Superconducting materials need to be cooled to cryogenic temperatures in order to exhibit

the property of superconductivity.

QUESTION 3
a) Atactic polystyrene

b) Silicate glasses

c) Carbon fibers from two sources which are polyacrylonitrile (PAN) and pitch.

QUESTION 4
a) Polystryrene contain a very bulky side groups, or side groups that vary in an irregular way,
thus cause the chains have a hard time organizing into an ordered, crystalline solid.

b) Rubber is high molecular weight polymer. Rubber is the long polymer chains usually
having hard time crystallizing, however, since the individual chains get tangled up and
need to untangle to make a regular crystalline array.

c) Thermoplastics polymers are easier to be recycled because it contain polymer that are cross
link together when curing process to form the irreversible chemical bond. This cross
linking process eliminates the risk of the product remelting when heat is applied.

84
APRIL 2011

QUESTION 5

a) I) Ductility is the ability of material to stretch under the applications of tensile load and
retained the deformed shape on the removal load. Malleability is the permanent
deformation of materials under applications of a compressive load.

II) Elasticity is the material ability to deform under load and return to its original shape
and size when load is removed. Plasticity is the ability of material to deform permanently
under the application of load.

b) Two advantages of hardness test are these tests are simple, nondestructive and
inexpensive. It also provides estimation for other mechanical properties such as tensile
strength.

QUESTION 7

a) Carbon steel usually contains high carbon contents and also known as alloying addictive.
Carbon steel is known to have low tensile strength, low cost, malleability and it is neither
brittle nor ductile.

b) YBCO is important due to its stability and relatively simple atomic structure. Due to its
high value of its critical temperature and critical current density, YBCO is promising in
development of superconducting electronic devices.

c) Crystallinity of polymer affects mechanical properties, process ability and durability.

Annealing can cause crystalline regions to grows, thus increasing the percentage of
crystallinity. Annealing is a process of exposing materials to heating at suitable
temperature for an extended period of time and the cooling. Annealing are known to be
able to alter microstructure of the materials.

QUESTION 8

a) I) Annealing is a process of exposing materials to heating at suitable temperature for an

extended period of time and the cooling.

II) Quenching refer to the rapid cooling, which are done to prevent low temperature
processes such as phase transformations from occurring by only providing a narrow
window time in which the reaction is both thermodynamically favourable and kinetically
accessible.

85
 b) I) Co-Ni are the substitutional solution with complete solubility because both atoms have
the same valency which are +2, the atomic radius are not more than 15% which are -
0.558%. The differences in electronegativity are not bigger which are equal to 0.1.

II) Co-C would make an interstitial solutions since the carbon atomic have smaller atomic
radius compared to the cobalt atoms. Thus, carbon atom able to place itself in between the
cobalt atom.

JANUARY 2012

QUESTION 7

a) Two disadvantages of ferrous materials are they are known to have relatively high density
and poor corrosion resistance.

b) Vulcanization is the chemical process by which polymer molecules are joined together by
cross linking into larger molecules to restrict molecular movement. This molecular
movement then can cause plastics deformation.

c) i) Sintering is the process which small particles are bonded together by solid state diffusion.
This heat treatment is useful for clay and non-clay compositions.

ii) Calcinations is a high temperature reaction whereby one solid materials dissociates to form
gas and another solid. It is one step in production of cement.

JUNE 2012
a) I) Cu-Sn elements would form substitutional alloys because it follows Hume Rothery
Rules. According to the Hume Rothery Rules, the diameters of the atoms do not differ by
more than about 15%, have same valency and crystal structure of the same two elements.

II) Ti-H would form interstitial alloys due to radius of the H is smaller which are 0.046
compare to the Ti which are 0.147. Thus, H are able to place itself in between the Ti atoms.

86
 QUESTION 3

a) I) polypropylene, Ce02, Ta, Fe. The atomic numbers are increasing thus the strength of the
materials or compounds are also increasing.

II)

b) I) Drying is the process to remove water and carried out at or below 100˚C layer size and
spacing decreases.

II) Sintering is the process by which small particles are bonded together by solid state
diffusions, useful for both clay and non-clay compositions.

III) Firing is the high temperature heat that increases the densityand strength of the ceramic
piece.

IV) Calcinations are the high temperature reaction whereby one solid materials dissociates
to form gas and another solid.

JANUARY 2013
i) Vulcanization
Vulcanization cause the material to increase in strength and restrict the molecular
movement. By vulcanizing the material, it could not change shape when force is applied to
it, thus retaining the original shape.
ii) Refractory
Increase porosity, increase thermal insulation. When the porosity increases, there will be
air entrapped in the pore, the air will act as non-heat conducting material. Thus, increasing
the thermal insulation.

JUNE 2013
QUESTION 5
a) By reducing the porosity of ceramic, the strength of the ceramic can be increase.
Unfortunately, it could not absorb stress as good as metal. Less pore available also
decreases the amount of stress absorb into the ceramic materials. This is because, pores in
brittle ceramic materials are region where stress concentrate. By reducing the number of
pore, the less stress will be absorbed.

87
 b) A measure of the resistance of metal to permanent (plastic) deformation. This is the
property of a material to withstand indentation and surface abrasion (stratch) by another
ard object. The hardness test is measured by forcing an indenter into its surface. The
indenter material is usually a ball, pyramid, or cone made of a material much harder than
the material being tested. After indentation has been made, the indenter is removed from
the surface. An empirical hardness number is calculated based on the cross-sectional area
or depth of the impression. Polymer has the lowest hardness, followed by ceramic, as it is
a brittle material. Metal has the highest hardness among them.

c) Diamond > steel > copper > aluminum. Diamond has the highest elasticity because as
the stress is applied, the strain on diamond is also increasing. Diamond has high elasticity
because as stress is applied to it, the strain is increasing until one point after elastic
deformation the diamond will fracture.

True. Brittle is a condition when a material is stretch, it will eventually break. Elastic is the
ability of a material to deform under load and return to its original size and shape when the load
is removed. A brittle substance rupture after elastic deformation occur.

DECEMBER 2013
QUESTION 5
a) When a piece of metal undergoes uniaxial tensile force, deformation of metal occured.
Elastic deformation is a condition when a metal returns to its original dimensions when
the force is removed. While plastic deformation is a condition when a metal deformed
and it could not fully recover its original dimension. During plastic deformation, metal
atoms are permanently displaced from their original positions and take up new positions.
The ability of some material to plastically deformed without fracture is one of the most
useful engineering properties of metals.

b) FCC is a close-packed structure while BCC is not a close-packed structure. Slip is

favored in the close-packed structure (FCC) because lower shear stress for atomic
displacement is required compare to less dense packed planes. Close-packed structure can
easily slip due to less energy is required to move the atoms from one position to another
since the atoms are close together.

c) i) Material Hardness

A measure of the resistance of metal to permanent (plastic) deformation. This is the

property of a material to withstand indentation and surface abrasion (stratch) by another
ard object.
ii) Procedure of Hardness Test

88
 The hardness test is measured by forcing an indenter into its surface. The indenter
material is usually a ball, pyramid, or cone made of a material much harder than the
material being tested. After indentation has been made, the indenter is removed from the
surface. An empirical hardness number is calculated based on the cross-sectional area or
depth of the impression.
iii) Metal> Ceramic > Polymer
d) i) Annealing

A process of exposing material to heating at suitable temperature for an extended period

of time, and then undergoes cooling process. It is a heat treatment that altered the
microstructure of a material causing changes in properties such as STRENGTH and
HARDNESS. Annealing is used to induce softness, relieve internal stresses, refine the
structure and improve cold working properties.
ii) Quenching
Quenching is known as rapid cooling. It is done to prevent low-temperature processes
such as phase transformations from occuring by only providing a narrow window of time
which the reaction is both thermodynamically favorable and kinetically accessible. It is
use to harden steel by introducing martensite (metastable compound), in which the steel
must be rapidly cooled through its eutectoid point. Tempering is done after that to
improve toughness.

JUNE 2014
QUESTION 5
a) Solid lubricant is use to control friction and wear. Solid lubricants can be dispersed in
water, oils, and greases to achieve improved friction and wear properties under conditions
of extreme pressures and/or temperatures. Graphite powder act well as solid lubricant due
to the presence of graphene layers. The layers of grapheme are far apart and bond by the
Van Der Waals force which is a weak bond. Thus, the layer can be slide easily and
providing low friction. In addition,strong interatomic bonding and packing in each layer
is thought to help reduce wear damage.

b) Ductility is the ability of a material to stretch under the application of tensile load and
retain the deformed shape on the removal of the load. Metal have high ductility compare
to alloy. This is because, the atom of the metal can easily move when force is applied
while the atom in alloy does not move easily.

c) Low conductivity, high density and poor corrosion resistance.

89
 d) i) Titanium Alloys
 Reactive at high temperature
 Light metal
 High strength
 Corrosion resistance to chemical environment such as chlorine and inorganic
chloride solution

ii) Magnesium Alloys

 Low density metal
 Low strength and poor resistance to creep, fatigue and wear.
 Difficult to cast because in molten state it burns in air

DECEMBER 2014
QUESTION 5
a) Thermoplastic is a plastic material that requires heat to deform andd will retain it shape
upon cooling. It can be softened repeatedly when heated and hardened when cooled.
Example of thermoplastic are polyethylenes, vinyls, acrylics, cellulosics and nylon.

Thermosetting is a plastic material that has undergone a chemical reaction by the action
of heat or catalyse. Thermoset plastic cannot be re-melted and re-processed since they
will decompose and degrade when heated. Example of thermoset plastic are phenolics,
unsaturated polyester and epoxies.
b) i) Vickers method

Diamond pyramid indenter with 136° angle

ii) Brinell method
10 mm sphere of steel or tungsten carbide

c) Performance of refractory ceramic is based on porosity. By reducing the porosity, it will

increase the strength, have higher load bearing capacity, and it will increase the resistivity
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 towards corrosive material. By increasing the porosity, it will increase the thermal
insulation of the ceramic and will also increase the resistivity towards thermal shock.

d) i) Sintering

A process which small particles are bonded together by solid state diffusion. It is useful
for both clay and non clay composition. The ceramic or glass particles are produce by
grinding. The particles is place in mold and press at elevated temperature o reduce the
pore size.
ii) Quenching
Quenching is known as rapid cooling. It is done to prevent low-temperature processes
such as phase transformations from occuring by only providing a narrow window of time
which the reaction is both thermodynamically favorable and kinetically accessible. It is
use to harden steel by introducing martensite (metastable compound), in which the steel
must be rapidly cooled through its eutectoid point. Tempering is done after that to
improve toughness.

JUNE 2015
QUESTION 5
a) I) Fe3O4 are act as the metal coating to protect the surfaces of the magnetic strips from
undergoing rusting or metal corrosions. It acts as the thin coating to separate the corrosive
environment from the metal.

II) Silicon carbide is composed of tetrahedra of carbon and silicon atoms with strong bonds
in the crystal lattice. This produces a very hard and strong material. Besides that, it composed
of 89% of covalent character which made its stronger.

b) Refractory ceramics are types of ceramics that able to retain its physical shape and
chemical identity when subjected to the high temperature. For an example, ceramic
materials to use in high temperature and Silica or Alumina system. The performance of the
refractory ceramic depends on porosity. If the porosity are reduced cause higher strength,
higher load bearing capacity, resistance to attack by corrosive materials, meanwhile
increase porosity can increase thermal insulations characteristics and increase resistance to
thermal shock.

c) High temperature superconductors are ceramic materials consisting of complex ionic

oxides that become superconducting when cooled by liquid nitrogen. That is, they lose all
resistance to electrical current. One example is the material YBa 2 Cu 3 O7− x , which
crystallizes to form "sheets" of copper and oxygen atoms that can carry electrical current
in the planes of the sheets.

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d) Vulcanization is the chemical process by which polymer molecules are joined together by
cross linking into larger molecules to restrict molecular movement. This molecular
movement then can cause plastics deformation.

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9.0 APPENDIX 1

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