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About Education Events USS Pampanito Support Visit

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CHAPTER XVI

HULL STRENGTH

16-1. Foreword. Cruisers, destroyers and 16-3. Ship in seaway. A ship in a seaway can
auxiliaries have been lost by breaking in two be considered similar to a beam with supports
as a result of impaired structural strength. and distributed loads. The supports are
After serious underwater explosion, buoyant forces of the water and the loads are
considerable buckling and tearing of the weight of the ship's structure and material
structure takes place (see Chapt. XV). When within, such as fuel, water, ammunition, etc.
the main structural members are ruptured or The worst condition of loading and support
wrinkled the vessel may break up in a for a ship occurs when it heads into or away
seaway. The importance of these facts is from the sea, with waves approximately as
obvious. Accordingly, the ensuing long as the length of the ship. A quartering sea
discussion is concerned with strength can also produce this condition if the ship's
features built into a ship and how they are bow and stern either are in troughs or crests at
affected when the ship is damaged. the same time (see fig. 16-2 and fig. 16-3).

16-2. Beam theory. An elementary 16-4. Sagging stresses. The ship shown in fig.
knowledge of structural theory is necessary 16-2 is supported by waves, with the bow and
to our proposed study. stern riding crests and the midship region in
the trough. This ship will bend with
If a simple beam is supported at its two ends compression at the top and tension at the
and various vertical loads are applied over bottom. The ship is said to be sagging, and in
the center of the span, the beam will bend this condition the weather deck tends to
(see fig. 16-1). As the beam bends the upper buckle due to compressive stress, while the
section of the beam will compress and the bottom plating tends to stretch due to tensile
lower part will stretch. Somewhere between stress.
the top and bottom of the beam there will be
a section which will neither be in 16-5. Hogging stresses. When the ship shown
compression nor tension; that part we term in figure 16-2 advances half a wave length, so
the neutral axis. The greatest stresses in that the crest is at midship and the bow and
tension and compression occur about half stern are over troughs, as in figure 16-3, the
way between the supports, or near the stresses are reversed. The weather deck is in
middle of the beam's length. In the case of tension and the bottom plating is in
an I-beam, the greater mass of structural compression, and the ship is said to be
material is placed in the upper and lower hogging.
flanges to resist the compression and
tension. Very little material is placed in the 16-6. Ship girder. In its resistance to hogging
web which is near the neutral axis because and sagging stresses, the main body of the
the web takes little of the tension or ship can be likened to a long beam,
compression stresses; however, it does take resembling a box girder. Therefore, it is often
care of shearing stresses. The latter are referred to as the hull girder or
sizeable near the supports.

Figure 16-1. Diagram to show the effect of load placed over the center of a beam, and cross
section of an I-beam.

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ship girder. Its principal strength members buckling when under compression. The
are at the top and bottom, where the greatest stanchions throughout the ship also serve to
stresses occur, and these top and bottom brace and stiffen the hull girder and tend to
flanges are joined together by side webs. hold deck plating in position. On auxiliaries
The top flange consists of the main deck the transverses are major strength members.
plating, especially the deck stringers, the The longitudinal strength of a merchant-type
sheer vessel is taken up by the plating of the shell
and decks, which need stiffeners of
considerable size to prevent buckling.

16-8. Plating in compression. Both the top

and bottom flanges of the ship girder must
take compressive stresses as the ship
alternately sags and hogs. Unstiffened plating
can take very little compression. A plate will
buckle in compression at a small fraction of
the load that it can withstand in tension.
Therefore, the plating making up both the top
Figure 16-2. Diagram to show tension and and bottom flanges of the ship girder is
compression when a ship is in a sagging stiffened by having shapes welded or riveted
condition. to it. The stiffening members include shapes
such as I-beams, tees, channels, angles, and
the like. They may run either longitudinally or
transversely. The best system is to have the
stiffeners run both ways to form a cellular
web structure.

16-9. The strength deck. The term strength

deck is generally applied to the deck which
acts as the top flange of the hull girder. It is
the highest continuous deck, usually the main
Figure 16-3. Diagram to show tension and or weather deck. On a merchant-type or
compression when a ship is in a hogging destroyer-type ship, where the main deck is
condition. the only continuous high deck, it is the only
strength deck.
strakes of the side plating, and any
continuous deck girders. The bottom flange 16-10. Lower strength decks. If the second
consists of the bottom plating, including the (or third) deck is continuously and integrally
flat keel, garboard strakes, "B" strakes, bilge built into the vessel's structure, it will take
strakes, etc., plus the vertical keel and any some of the stress, although not as great a
continuous longitudinal girders in way of share as the main deck. These stresses are
the bottom. If an inner bottom is fitted, it considered in the design of lower continuous
also contributes to the lower flange. The side decks, and the function of such decks should
webs of the ship girder are composed of the not be overlooked after severe structural
side plating, supported to some extent by damage. If the main deck is destroyed, the
any long continuous fore-and-aft bulkheads. second deck becomes the strength deck, and
These side webs take up the shearing will actually be subjected to higher unit
stresses which usually are greatest at the stresses than the main deck was for a given
quarter-length points of the ship. hogging or sagging condition. (A similar
situation arises if the bottom is destroyed.
The major strength members of a destroyer Intensified stresses are placed upon the next
hull girder are indicated in figure 16-4. higher structure that takes the load.)

16-7. Transverse framing. Transverse 16-11. Upper decks and superstructure. The
frames and continuous transverse bulkheads decks above the main deck usually are not
contribute greatly to the strength of the hull strength decks, and do not contribute to the
girder by tying its various members together, strength of the hull girder. These upper decks
stiffening them, and preventing must be interrupted at intervals down the
length of the ship by expansion joints.
Otherwise they will tend to take up some of
the load of the strength deck and probably will
fail. Cracking and buckling of deck houses

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and superstructure results

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Figure 16-4. Diagram to show major strength members of a destroyer's hull girder.

if this principle is neglected. The flight are now placed upon the bulkheads of the
decks of most carriers are not strength decks. flooded compartments. This is why bulkheads
They are, therefore, interrupted with require stiffeners to prevent them from
expansion joints. These upper decks and bulging, and why bulkheads that are farther
houses carry the gravity loads above them below the waterline are thicker, require more
and on them down to the hull of the ship. stiffening, and are given higher test pressures.
Flooding water will exert a considerable
16-12. Local strength. The structure of a upward pressure against the overhead deck of
ship is called upon to resist three types of a flooded compartment if the deck in question
local stresses, in addition to those of the ship is some distance below the waterline. This
girder. They are as follows: pressure will be undiminished if there is an air
bubble trapped above the flooding water.
1. Hydrostatic pressures. Therefore, some thought must be given to the
2. Solid weight loads. problem of shoring weakened decks
3. Dynamic loading. downward as well as upward, and to the
consequences of opening a hatch, scuttle, or
16-13. Hydrostatic pressures. The pressure
manhole over a flooded compartment.
on a submerged body is proportional to its Hydrostatic pressures also are imposed upon
depth in the liquid, and acts at right angles to bulkheads and decks by the contents of intact
the surface of the object. Each square foot of fuel and water tanks.
shell surface is subject to a pressure of 1/35
of a ton for every foot of depth of liquid (or 16-15. Solid weight loads. The weight of
64 pounds per foot of depth). The water every object on the ship, solid or liquid, rests
pressure is applied to the shell and at some point on a deck (or bulkhead).
transmitted through the frames, decks and Included are fixed weights such as guns,
bulkheads. Although the horizontal barbettes, boilers, turbines, and steel of the
pressures of water exerted on each side of structure itself. The crew and the consumables
the ship cancel each other, the force still acts aboard ship also must be provided for. The
upon the hull. The decks, transverse load from these various items must be
framing, and bulkheads prevent lateral supported and transmitted to the shell of the
crushing of the hull by the horizontal ship, where it is resisted by the hydrostatic
pressure of the water. pressure.
16-14. Pressures due to flooding. If the To prevent a concentration and possible
shell of the ship is ruptured and flooding excessive stress, large loads such as guns,
follows, the hydrostatic pressures formerly turrets, barbettes, and handling equipment are
exerted on the shell plating distributed over a wide area by means of
structural bulkheads and girders.

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16-16. Bottom framing. The bottom shapes and plates are also considerably
framing, in which floors and keel are heavier and are more numerous than in the
integrated, forms a rigid cellular case of a small ship. The chances of serious
construction. It is to this bottom framing that structural failure on a large ship due to a given
loads of great magnitude are brought, by underwater explosion or bomb hit are small.
stanchions, or in the case of temporary
loads, by shoring. It is sometimes necessary 16-20. Underwater explosion damage-small
to shore all the way down from the main ships. In the case of auxiliaries, cruisers,
deck in cases of unusual topside cargo. destroyers and other small ships, underwater
Other heavy loads, like the ship's main explosions in the midship region have
propulsion machinery, are bolted to ruptured a large proportion of the principal
foundations which are built directly on top strength members. Following extensive
of the bottom framing. damage to the major strength members ships
of this type may break up, unless the strength
16-17. Dynamic loading. In addition to of fractured members can be replaced before
local stresses due to the above loads which the vessel is subjected to the action of heavy
are static in nature, the various members of a seas.
ship's structure may be subjected to dynamic
loads of unpredictable intensity and If the structural damage is severe, partial
duration. Pitching and pounding, wind restoration of the main strength members may
pressures, collisions, the recoil of gunfire, be necessary before proceeding far (and then
turning forces, inertia due to changes of only at reduced speeds) even with a calm sea
motion, and blast effect from the bursting of and when destination is not too far away. Such
enemy shells, bombs, or torpedoes, all repairs if not practicable underway can
impose dynamic stresses of varying frequently be accomplished at advanced
magnitude and time on the inner and outer bases.
portions of the ship. If plates are turned out
from a torpedo hit, the resulting scoop action 16-21. Explosions at bow or stern of small
may build up a greater pressure in the ships. Underwater explosions at either the
flooded compartment than would be caused bow or stern of a slender, small ship, such as a
by the hydrostatic head alone. It is difficult destroyer or destroyer escort, usually cause
to estimate the size of structure necessary to local destruction which is intense, but neither
withstand some of these impulses, and they widespread nor particularly serious. However,
are allowed for on the basis of experience, the effect of such an explosion is to shake this
plus liberal safety actors in designing for type of vessel like a whip. Waves of flexural
static loads plus some dynamic toad. For this vibration pass down the length of the hull,
reason there is a considerable excess of producing stresses like those in hogging and
strength built into Naval ships. sagging but of shorter duration and of greater
intensity. The result, although not usually
16-18. Panning. Panting is the term applied obvious, can be serious. It consists of
to the action of a section of plating when it compression failures in the midship region,
pulsates in and out under the influence of evident in wrinkled deck plating, wrinkled
waves or dynamic impulses. To overcome shell plating, buckled longitudinal girders, and
this tendency additional members are either buckling, laying over of flanges,
provided in the region of dynamic loads. The wrinkling, or other failure of any of the
panting frames or breast plates in the fore members in the waist of the ship that
peak are an example. A tendency of plating contribute to her longitudinal strength. Such
to pant can be overcome temporarily by failures may be hidden from sight below the
shoring. waterline, under boilers, behind stores and
equipment, or beneath the surface of
16-19. Underwater explosion damage- subsequent leakage water. It is a feature of
large ships. Underwater explosion damage compression members that once buckled they
impairs the strength of a ship in two ways. can never again develop even a fraction of
Structural strength members are damaged by their original strength. Attempted
being ruptured or buckled. Flooding of straightening is of no avail; the only effective
compartments also takes place, thus measures are replacement or duplication.
increasing the loading on the previously
damaged ship girder (see Chapt. XV). 16-22. Flooding and the ship girder. The
load on the ship girder is increased by the
A given underwater explosion frequently entrance of damage water. The increase in
opens a bigger hole in the shell of a large stresses due to this augmented load depends
vessel. The large ship, on the other hand, is both on the amount and on the location of the

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better able than a small one to withstand the flooding.

destruction and loss of structure, inasmuch
as only a small proportion of the main
structural members will be damaged. These
main structural

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Damage and consequent flooding in the stiffeners in the vicinity. As many as possible
middle length increases sagging stresses. should be tied into intact stiffeners. In placing
This means increased tension at the bottom stiffeners on plating they should be spaced not
and compression at the top. Measures to more than 100 times the plating thickness, or
correct trim caused by damage in the middle stiffener thickness, whichever is smaller. If
length should be of a nature to reduce possible, this distance should be reduced to
sagging stresses. This may be accomplished about 60 times the smaller thickness.
by any or all of three methods, as follows: Compression failures (buckling or wrinkling)
in the midship region are just as dangerous as
1. Pump liquid in the midship region complete rupture of structure. A member
overboard (either damage water or which has failed in compression by buckling
liquid in intact tanks; consider stability retains only a very small part of its former
before pumping intact tanks strength. Wrinkled shell and deck plating must
overboard). be replaced, not straightened, for the
restoration of strength. Buckled or ruptured
2. Move liquids from midship region to longitudinal beams must be replaced with
ends of the ship. shapes of greater cross-sectional area. The
new shapes should be welded to the intact
3. Counterflood the high end of the sections of the original longitudinals. Lengths
ship. of these new members should be from 20 to
30 feet; they may have to be provided by
welding short pieces together. The material
Flooding at the ends after damage produces for these repairs can, if necessary, come from
trim and increases hogging stresses. This the structure of the upper decks and
will increase the tension at the top and superstructure which do not add to the
compression at the bottom. In this condition structural strength of the ship girder. In any
the correction of trim (which at the same case, emergency repairs must afford a
time would reduce hogging stresses) is as considerable lap at each end where new
follows: material is anchored.
1. Shift liquids toward midships. Wrinkled bulkheads and stanchions divert
their share of load to some other part of the
2. Pump liquid near damage overboard ship. To prevent further failures by the
(damage water or liquid in intact tanks; overstressing of these other parts of the ship,
check stability before pumping intact the overhead which the damaged supports
tanks). carried should be shored. Ruptured side
plating near the quarter length points should
be repaired, to carry the heavy shearing
When a ship is severely damaged so that
stresses.
bow or stern is likely to break off, the
correction of trim by other than methods 16-24. Summary. After damage, both time
prescribed above may cause loss of the bow and material will be limited. An
or the stern. understanding of what members carry the
major part of the stress will permit application
16-23. Repairs. Repairs to main strength
of available energy and efforts toward
members (top or bottom) must take into
restoration of the principal strength members,
account both tension and compression
and the reduction of stresses in the most
stresses. For tension it is necessary to
effective manner.
provide sufficient cross-sectional area of
material, whether this be plating or shapes.
Compressive stresses require more cross-
sectional area and in the form of either
shapes, or plates with stiffeners. Stiffeners
on plating should run parallel to the other
intact

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CHAPTER XVII

ESTIMATE OF THE DAMAGED SHIP'S SITUATION

17-1. An intelligent estimate as a basis for measures. Other steps including the plugging
action after damage. and patching of holes, and the removal of
damage water with the available capacity of
"ASIDE FROM CASES INVOLVING undamaged pumping and drainage equipment.
LOSS FROM FIRES OR STRUCTURAL The presence of fires may, of course, hinder
FAILURES, WAR EXPERIENCE HAS parties to such an extent that it becomes
DEMONSTRATED THAT NO MATTER impossible to establish flooding boundaries,
WHAT THE LIST OR TRIM, IF THE SHIP or rid the ship of the water. In other cases
DOES NOT SINK WITHIN A VERY FEW immediate corrective measures may be largely
MINUTES AFTER DAMAGE, THERE IS or wholly effective.
A GOOD CHANCE OF SAVING HER BY
PROPER DAMAGE-CONTROL 17-5. Transverse stability after damage.
MEASURES. THE CASES OF LOSS BY Except in the case of ships with torpedo-
BODILY SINKAGE, PLUNGING, OR protection systems, a substantial underwater
CAPSIZING SEVERAL HOURS AFTER explosion usually results in the entrance of a
DAMAGE HAVE BEEN ENTIRELY great mass of water with extensive free
ATTRIBUTABLE TO PROGRESSIVE surface, the combined result of which is a
FLOODING." reduction of stability. The seriousness of
stability loss can be gauged by the extent of
In order to make the most of these chances the free surface, and by the behavior of the
proper and prompt measures are necessary. ship with respect to list and tenderness. List,
The need for an intelligent estimate as a or capsizing in the ultimate case, is due to
basis for action is obvious. Such an estimate negative GM, or unsymmetrical flooding, or a
will involve a consideration of four major combination of both. Whatever the cause, list
factors, as follows: is undesirable. List acts to reduce stability, as
well as to make it more difficult to fight the
1. Ability to keep the ship afloat. ship.
2. Ability to control and extinguish fires.
3. Ability to stay in action or repel attack. In the case of battleships and large aircraft
4. Ability to reach a safe haven. carriers high original GM practically assures
positive GM after damage. List may result
17-2. Ability to keep the ship afloat. The from flooding of voids in the torpedo-defense
following factors have an important bearing system. One torpedo hit may cause a list as
upon the ship's ability to stay afloat: large as 10°.
1. Whether or not flooding is progressing. Other ships may develop very small, or even
2. Effectiveness of immediate corrective negative GM. Negative GM is rare if liquid
measures. ballasting instructions are followed, but the
3. Transverse stability. possibility must not be overlooked after
4. Reserve buoyancy. damage. The following facts should be given
5. Longitudinal stability. particular attention:
6. Structural strength.
1. GM usually is positive if flooding is limited
17-3. Determination of whether flooding is to one main compartment.
progressing. The first step to be taken is to
determine whether or not flooding is 2. In the case of cruisers, destroyers, and
progressing. This can only be. done by a similar types negative GM may result if more
careful survey, including observations to than two main engineering compartments are
determine the rate of increase of list, trim, partially flooded, or if there is extensive
and bodily sinkage. Repair parties should be partial flooding in wide compartments on
trained in the rapid collection of information decks near the waterline. In these ships
on the extent of flooding, and in the making loginess or extreme tenderness is a danger
of prompt, accurate reports back to damage- sign, whether accompanied by list or not. (A
control station. logy ship has an extremely long or
indeterminate period of roll.)
17-4. Effectiveness of immediate
corrective

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Figure 17-A. In this case wooden plugs, mattresses and pillows were shored in place to keep the sea out.

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3. Escort carriers, large auxiliaries, and In this example the angle of permanent list,
similar types may develop negative GM if 22°, is equal to one-half the angle at which the
two or more main compartments are maximum righting arm occurs on the intact
partially flooded, or if there is extensive stability curve. The shaded area represents the
partial flooding high in the ship. Loginess or residual dynamic stability. It should be noted
extreme tenderness is a danger sign when in that this residual dynamic stability is much
combination with considerable list. If there less than half the original total dynamic
is little or no list and the ship is logy, stability. In addition, if the list had been due to
stability characteristics probably will be off-center flooding, the combined effects of
satisfactory if remaining freeboard is large. added weight, free surface, and free
communication would normally have resulted
4. Calculation of GM by timing the period of in a smaller stability curve than the original
roll after damage is not reliable. In a seaway intact one. The residual dynamic stability due
or after damage there is no definite to flooding, therefore, would be even less than
relationship between GM and the period of that resulting from moving a weight off center
roll. to produce an equal permanent list.
5. An enlarged copy of the flooding effect 17-6. Reserve buoyancy after damage.
diagram in damage-control headquarters will Battleships and large aircraft carriers have
facilitate taking proper action. If the flooded great resistance to above-water damage due to
areas are marked on the diagram, the their construction. Armored sides and decks,
damage control officer will have a visual in conjunction with minute subdivision,
picture of the extent of flooding. In addition, restrict the extent of damage to reserve
as explained in Chapter IX, he can read off buoyancy resulting from any single hit.
the list that would result from filling various Although large carriers have relatively light

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off-center spaces with the ship intact (the armor, subdivision between hangar deck and
values of list on the diagram are calculated waterline is minute, with accompanying
for a certain displacement and intact GM). beneficial effect on damage resistance.
Subdivision will limit the extent and severity
6. If the flooding is unsymmetrical, it is safe of any progressive flooding.
to assume that GM is positive when the list
is not out of all proportion with the flooding Underwater damage to these larger ships is
effect diagram. likely to be extensive as a result of the heavy
explosive charges used. Flooding will be
7. If the flooding is known to be symmetrical restricted by good subdivision and watertight
and there is an appreciable list, the situation integrity. Vital areas should not be flooded,
will be definitely identified as one of but may be. In the case of older battleships,
negative GM. If the list is small, the ship loss of reserve buoyancy may be a deciding
will loll (roll with a slow, "undecided" factor after several underwater hits.
motion) from side to side under the
influence of a small disturbing force such as Ships other than battleships and carriers are
waves, weight movements, or rudder forces. likely to have reserve buoyancy seriously
If the list is large, the lolling tendency may impaired as a result of direct hits by bombs
be obscured by lack of sufficient disturbing and shell fire, or due to near miss bombs.
force; and the ship will not even feel logy. Within the ship, decks and bulkheads will be
pierced by fragment holes, and closures such
8. If the flooding is unsymmetrical and if as doors and hatches may be blown open by
there is extensive free surface, negative GM blast. If the ship's side above the waterline is
should be suspected when the list is out of holed, some flooding may take place as the
all proportion to that indicated by the ship rolls. Reserve buoyancy as well as other
flooding effect diagram. The ship may not stability characteristics will suffer. A heavy
be logy or extremely tender if the list is underwater explosion will result in the
large. entrance of a great mass of water. Flooding
will be limited by subdivision, dependent
9. In order to visualize the dynamic stability upon the type and complexity of the ship.
still remaining after off-center flooding has
caused the ship to list, refer to figure 17-1. In any case the relative amount of freeboard
In this figure we have a static stability curve remaining after damage will be a good
for the intact ship, the angle of maximum indication of the residual reserve buoyancy.
righting arm being 44°. Superimposed on This assumes, of course, that repair parties are
this is the inclining-moment curve due to successfully patching and
moving a weight off-center.

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Figure 17-1.

plugging holes, that opened closures are corrective measures employed to keep the ship
being forced back into place, and that afloat. Also, such fires may lead to gasoline or
weakened flooding boundaries can be magazine explosions. Damaged fire-fighting
successfully shored. equipment or ruptured fire mains may make
fire fighting exceedingly difficult. Ships were
17-7. Longitudinal stability after damage. lost early in this war because of such reasons.
The freeboard remaining at the ends of the Subsequent development of firefighting

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ship may be used as a measure of the methods, material, and training has resulted in
residual longitudinal stability. Trim is not far better potential control.
apt to be fatal unless the sea is washing over
the weather deck. In fact, ships have 17-10. The ability to stay in action or repel
steamed long distances with their sterns attack. The ability to stay in action or repel
submerged. attack depends on a number of factors,
including the following:
17-8. Structural strength. Large size and
presence of heavy plating, bulkheads, decks, 1. The ability to stay afloat.
and framing permits battleships and large
carriers to take a considerable number of 2. The ability to control and extinguish fires.
hits without danger of structural failure. On
other ships underwater explosions in the 3. List and trim. These may be so affected that
successful gunnery and aircraft operations are
midship region have ruptured principal
strength members, causing some losses due not possible.
to breaking in two. Destroyers have been 4. Restoration of vital systems and services,
prone to this casualty after midship torpedo
Loss of power arid damage to vital equipment
hits. Explosions at the ends have broken off may make accurate gunfire impossible.
the bow or stern, in addition to causing
compression failures in the midship region 5. Mobility and maneuverability. This includes
due to flexural vibration. Flooding in the speed available, fuel remaining in intact tanks,
middle length increases sagging stresses, possible use of propellers to steer if steering
while flooding at the ends increases hogging gear is damaged, and the state of
stresses. If the ship does not break in two communications for ship control.
immediately, a prompt, careful examination
should be made of the principal strength 6. Present weather and weather forecast. In
members (main deck, stringer plate, sheer her damaged condition the ship may have to
strake, bilge strake, and keel). Shoring of avoid heavy weather in order to keep afloat.
decks and bulkheads may be beneficial if
stanchions have been disrupted. 7. Tactical situation. Further action may be
forced on the ship by the enemy, the ship may
17-9. The ability to control and extinguish be needed to bolster depleted forces, or it may
fires. Explosions, often are followed by fires be
which hinder

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permitted to leave for an advanced repair The decision with respect to such matters rests
base, depending on the tactical situation. with the OTC.

17-11. The ability to seek a safe haven. If 8. Seamanship to safeguard impaired

the ship is unable to remain in action or if structural strength. If the ship is in danger of
the tactical situation permits it to leave, the breaking up, maneuverability must be such as
next problem to be faced is whether or not it to permit avoiding head seas. Likewise,
can reach a safe haven. This will depend towing operations will have to be conducted
upon: on the same basis.

1. The ability to stay afloat. 17-12. Function of a salvage party. If, after
all efforts, it appears that a damaged ship will
2. The ability to control and extinguish fires. not remain afloat, the personnel not required
in the salvage party should abandon first. The
3. The course and distance to the nearest salvage party should remain on board to
haven. continue their efforts to keep the ship afloat as
long as a vestige of hope remains. The salvage
4. Possibility of beaching. This should detail will be under the supervision of the
always be considered when the ship would damage control officer and the engineer
otherwise be lost by progressive flooding, officer, and can be composed of all personnel
structural failure, or uncontrollable fires.
in repair parties (including engineering). A
There have been numerous cases wherein certain number of men in the gunnery
ships that were deliberately beached to save department should be retained to man
them were eventually repaired and put back available antiaircraft and secondary battery
in service.
guns.
5. Present weather and weather forecast. 17-13. Making a decision. The advice that the
damage control officer gives to the

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Commanding Officer should be based on a

6. Towing vessel. If the ship has lost careful consideration of all of the factors
mobility and maneuverability, it may still be discussed in the preceding pages. It should be
possible to save her by towing. This understood that conditions with respect to
assumes that a towing vessel is available. most items will not remain static. Revised
estimates are required as the situation
7. Tactical situation. The tactical situation improves or becomes worse.
may be such that efforts to save the ship
would endanger not only the men aboard her
but also endanger rescue vessels standing
by. This may well be true in submarine
waters, or when enemy aircraft are near,
based either on carriers or ashore.

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CHAPTER XVIII

CORRECTIVE MEASURES AVAILABLE

18-1. The basis for analysis. Certain immediately. Minor leakage will be
corrective measures are undertaken unimportant if it can be held under control.
immediately in all cases of damage. These The boundaries chosen should be as near the
include emergency measures to halt damage as possible, but the first consideration
progressive flooding, to control and is to locate them so that a successful effort to
extinguish fires, and to restore vital limit the flooding can be made.
functions. The choice of others will be based
upon the estimate of the situation, and Compartments near the damage must not be
depend upon both the type of ship and the opened up for inspection until it is certain that
type of damage. Unless corrective steps are there is no water against the opposite side of
selected to suit the individual case, matters the closure. Investigate the presence of
may be made worse rather than better. flooding by use of sounding tubes, by trying
Proper action taken promptly may mean the air-test fittings, or even by drilling small
difference between saving the ship and her holes, - not by opening doors, manholes, or
crew and losing them. Therefore, the other large closures. When using sounding
damage control officer must have a thorough tubes, etc., it must be kept in mind that the
understanding of the effects of the various escape of air is an indication of partial
available corrective measures on transverse flooding. Release of the air bubble may result
stability, reserve buoyancy, longitudinal in complete flooding of a partially flooded
stability, and hull strength. compartment.

18-2. Types of corrective measures In addition to the foregoing, a number of other

available for restoring seaworthiness. factors should be considered. If the ship is
Corrective measures available for restoring listing, inspections made along the high side
seaworthiness include the following: are less hazardous than those made along the
low side, but are not so apt to reveal danger
1. Determination and establishment of spots. Activity carried on in the vicinity of the
flooding boundaries. damage should not be allowed to result in
doors and hatches being left open
2. Suppression of free surface (including unnecessarily. Plugging and patching fragment
removal of damage water). holes must follow closely behind the
inspections. It must be remembered that
3. Weight removals (including removal of serious leaks may exist through channels that
damage water). are not readily detected; among these
possibilities are the following:
4. Weight transfers (usually transfers of
liquids). 1. Piping systems having openings in spaces
remote from the damage. Drains of all types
5. Weight additions. should be under suspicion.
6. Restoration of vital functions (including
2. Piping systems under pressure, such as the
power, mobility and maneuverability). fire main, may be ruptured.
18-3. Determination and establishment of
3. Ventilation ducts. Closures should be
flooding boundaries. Immediately after

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being hit, steps should be taken to determine inspected.

and establish flooding boundaries. This is
the process of selecting and making tight the 4. Electric cables, through which water may
boundaries at which the stand to arrest and pass to points distant from the damage.
confine the flooding will be made. Adjacent
to the spaces which flood almost 5. Cable stuffing boxes.
immediately after damage there are apt to be
a number of spaces which will flood more or 6. Leaks near the bottom of spaces such as
less slowly. Considering the pumping open drains, and leaks at bounding angles
facilities, the ability to plug leaks, and the which may soon be covered by the flooding,
making their detection difficult.
importance and size of the compartments
concerned, it may be deemed inadvisable to
deal with all of them

152

Bulkheads subjected to water pressure on with respect to the ship's fore-and-aft

one side must be closely watched and shored centerline to prevent adding more weight on
if necessary. Experience in the present war one side than the other. Such action:
has shown that welded bulkheads, unless
actually damaged by the explosion, will take 1. Improves GM and stability characteristics
appreciable deflections, such as may be due to suppression of free surface.
expected with the greatest amount of
flooding on one side, without danger of 2. Improves GM and stability characteristics
rupture or serious leakage. In the case of due to lowering of weight within the ship. The
riveted bulkheads it may be necessary to tanks from which liquid is to be taken should
resort to shoring if the bulkhead deflection be selected with care, in view of the danger of
appears excessive and riveted joints begin to additional free surface during the transfer. In
leak seriously. Shoring may also be cases wherein the stability after damage is
necessary to support riveted decks, doors, critical, and when flooding in large
and hatches. The load on the bulkheads may compartments has been retarded a few feet
be increased when the ship has way on, due below the overhead, it may be advantageous
to the dynamic pressure of the water. This is to permit solid flooding to the overhead. This,
more apt to be serious when the ship has lost of course, requires that there be adequate
her bow, or when a side tank is open with reserve buoyancy.
the side flared out, acting as a scoop.
18-5. Weight removals. The restoration of
A second line of defense behind the selected seaworthiness through removal of weight from
flooding boundaries should be designated, the ship may be accomplished either by
and prepared for establishment in case the throwing solid material overboard or by
original boundaries fail. pumping liquids overside from intact tanks
and damaged compartments. The primary
18-4. Suppression of free surface. The objective of such efforts usually is either to
most effective step is to rid the ship of as improve GM or to correct off-center weight.
much of the flooding water as possible. The Important secondary effects usually are
means by which this may be accomplished evident in the case of trim, reserve buoyancy,
are discussed in Chapter XXIX, and include: and stresses in the ship girder. If the primary
objective is the improvement of a critically
1. Use of ship's drainage systems. reduced GM, the methods resorted to are (1)
suppression of free surface (which has already
2. Use of portable submersible pumps or been discussed in Article 8-4), and (2)
gasoline handy billies. jettisoning of topside weights.
3. Draining into engineering spaces below. Jettisoning topside weights involves casting
loose and dropping overside such items as
4. Jury-rig suctions to ship's drainage boats, anchors, loading machines, ready
systems. lockers, fire-control gear, depth charge and
torpedo equipment, superstructure, guns, and
5. Bucket brigades. gun mounts. Such weights usually are
The effects of such removal on jettisoned from the centerline and/or from the
port and starboard side symmetrically, to
seaworthiness are as follows:
avoid creating off-center weight. The
1. Improves GM and stability characteristics symmetrical removal of high weights lowers
by removal of free surface. the center of gravity, thus improving GM and

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stability characteristics. If damage has

2. Improves reserve buoyancy. rendered GM negative, jettisoning topside
weight is especially beneficial in removing the
3. If flooding is high, improves GM and attendant list, and will bring the vessel upright
stability characteristics by removal of high if G is lowered enough to restore positive GM.
added weight. If damage has introduced off-center weight,
the improvement in GM will diminish the size
4. Improves stability characteristics by of the list due to this given amount of off-
removal of list and trim. center weight.
5. Improves GM and stability characteristics Jettisoning from the centerline to improve GM
by increasing freeboard. cannot completely remove a list which is due
in part to off-center weight. Hence, it may be
6. The improvement is greater for spaces
wide in athwartship direction, or when the desirable to remove a certain amount of high
space is high in the ship. weight from the

7. Reduces sagging stresses if flooding was

in the middle length.

8. Reduces hogging stresses if flooding was

at the ends.

Another way of suppressing free surface is

to press full wide slack double-bottom tanks
(intact) from higher wing tanks. This should
be done symmetrically

153

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Figure 18-A. Portable electric submersible pump about to be lowered through the scuttle

154

listed side only, in order to bring the ship's stability characteristics. Removal of as much
center of gravity back into the centerline of the flooding water as possible is the first
plane. Jettisoning topside weight from the consideration, with priority of removal based
"down" side improves GM and corrects off- upon precautions cited above. Pumping oil or
center weight simultaneously. Extreme fresh water over the side may involve the loss
caution is necessary not to over-correct the of badly needed fuel, feed water, or potable
listing moment; there must be no guessing water. Fuel oil, Diesel oil, or gasoline should
as to the magnitude of such moments. never be pumped over the side where they will
contribute to burning oil slicks around a ship
Like any weight removal, jettisoning which is dead in the water.
improves reserve buoyancy and freeboard.
This in turn has a beneficial effect on Trim can be effectively improved by pumping
stability characteristics. Although it is out flooding from the ends of the ship, or by
probable that little can be done to improve emptying the contents of undamaged peak
trim or hull strength through jettisoning, tanks. This may reduce stability characteristics
care should be exercised to avoid slightly due to removal of low weight, but the

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aggravating these factors further. gain which results from correction of a severe
trim mitigates this loss. Other benefits of trim
The primary objective of the weight removal correction are better propulsion, better
may be correction of off-center weight, maneuverability, a drier weather-deck, and
rather than to improve GM. In this case the hence a more seaworthy vessel.
most effective measure -obviously-is to
remove the off-center weight itself. If the The additional stresses imposed on a damage-
latter happens to be damage water, pumping weakened hull girder by flooding water are
it over the side is dependent on the ability to ameliorated by removal of the damage water.
first plug the holes through which it entered The pumping out of intact tanks in the
the ship. If the off-center flooding water is neighborhood of the flooding also helps, but
loose, stability is improved both by the list low weight removals for this purpose may
correction and by removal of the free reduce stability. Flooding amidship heightens
surface. If the off-center flooding is solid sagging stresses; in such case avoid trim
(no free surface) stability is improved by correction by means of removing weight from
correction of the list, but inevitably there is a the ends of the ship as this tends to further
temporary creation of free surface effect aggravate the sagging stresses.
during the process. This is unimportant if
the compartment is less than one-half the If a ship has a considerable list but the
beam of the ship. flooding is known to be symmetrical, special
care must be taken to prevent creation of a
Care should be exercised in pumping out transverse moment, which can produce larger
solid flooding to avoid further reduction of a list on the opposite side, or result in capsizing.
critically small GM by removal of low
weight. In unwatering the ship, priority 18-6. Weight transfers. Shifting solid objects
should be given to the removal of loose aboard a large ship to correct list and trim is
water and high flooding ahead of solid filled not practicable; not only would it be too slow,
compartments, leaving to the last any but watertight integrity also would be
compartments that are low in the ship. endangered. Either sluicing or pumping fuel
oil or ballast water from one tank to another
If flooding boundaries cannot be restored are the only feasible methods of rapidly
sufficiently to permit removal of off-center shifting large weights.
flooding, list correction can be effected by
pumping liquid (oil or water) overside from Sluicing involves opening valves and letting
undamaged wing tanks. The general result liquid run by hydrostatic head from one tank
of this is to improve stability characteristics to another. It may be used to correct list where
by removal of off-center weight, while power for pumping is not available, or to
causing a loss of GM due to removal of low move liquids to tanks with pumping
weight. The reduction of GM becomes connections if the liquid levels are such that
marked in the case of bottom side-tanks. the flow will be toward the high side.
Avoid pumping out double-bottom tanks Sluicing, in itself, is detrimental to
after damage. This combines the harmful seaworthiness if the flow is toward the low
effects of broad free surface and removal of side or after the levels are equalized. It has
low weight. small effect on trim, but can cause a serious
reduction in GM and stability due to creation
Removal of liquid from normally filled wing of increased free surface. Accordingly, sluice
tanks diminishes torpedo protection. In valves should
battleships and large aircraft carriers it is
advisable to retain at least one liquid-filled
layer in the torpedo-defense system.

Pumping liquids over the side improves

reserve buoyancy and freeboard, and this in
turn improves

155

be closed at all times except under the one 3. Peak tank to peak tank at other end.
special condition described above. An open
sluice valve connecting two adjacent tanks a. Does not affect GM or reserve
divided by a centerline bulkhead creates the buoyancy.
same free surface effect that would exist if
the two tanks were one large compartment. b. Improves propulsion, seaworthiness,
and maneuverability by removal of trim.
On a listed ship, sluicing athwartship usually

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aggravates the list (the liquid runs down

hill). Before sluicing, a careful check should c. May be some additional free surface
be made to insure that the liquid will flow during transfer.
away from the down side. Sluicing may be
effective, however, in draining liquid from a d. Possible effect on longitudinal
higher level to a lower level. Thus, a high strength must be considered.
wing tank on the listed side might be sluiced
into a bottom centerline tank to remove list
and improve GM. Sluicing should be 18-7. Weight additions (or counterflooding).
controlled carefully, with valves locked shut The term counterflooding refers to the practice
as soon as the transfer is completed. of deliberately taking sea water aboard in
Normally, it should only be done when it is tanks or compartments opposite to the
necessary to move liquids to where they can damaged tanks or compartments to reduce
be pumped. both list and trim simultaneously. For
example, after damage on the starboard
Liquids available for pumping include fuel quarter, counterflooding may be undertaken
oil, ballast water, and to a much smaller forward and to port. The disadvantage of
extent reserve feed water and potable water. further loss in reserve buoyancy should be
Pumps used include fuel-oil transfer, fire overcome, as soon as possible, by transferring
and bilge (ballast system) and emergency liquids to correct list and trim, and pumping
feed. Systems employed are fuel-oil filling overboard the water taken in for counter-
and transfer, fuel-oil tank drain and ballast, flooding.
reserve feed transfer, fuel-oil service
(rarely), and freshwater service (ineffective). All ships can counterflood peak tanks for
In ships having torpedo-protection systems, correction of trim. In the case of vessels
one liquid layer should always be retained possessing torpedo-protection systems,
for protective purposes if this is at all counterflooding is the most rapid means of
possible. The effects of liquid transfers may correcting list. Other ships are not designed
be tabulated as follows: for counterflooding through sea valves. On
occasions when counterflooding may be
1. Wing tank to diagonally opposite wing necessary, use may be made of hose
tank on the same level. connections to the fire main. This, however,
normally is a slow process.
a. No effect on GM or reserve
buoyancy. When counterflooding, certain precautions
should be observed, as follows:
b. Improves stability characteristics by
removing list (if GM is not negative). 1. Keep air escapes open to permit the spaces
to be filled solidly.
c. Creates small additional free surface
during transfer; thereafter, free surface 2. Close counterflooding valves after use to
is the same. prevent free communication with the sea.

d. Improves stability, propulsion, The effects of counterflooding may be

seaworthiness, and maneuverability by analyzed as follows:
removal of list and trim.
1. On ships having torpedo-protection
systems, the counterflooding of voids (in
2. High wing tank on listed side to low protective layer) which are opposite the
bottom tank on centerline or opposite side. flooded area results in:

a. Improves GM and stability a. Rapid removal of list (makes possible

characteristics by lowering weight. maintenance of maximum speed,
maneuverability, and resistance to
b. Does not affect reserve buoyancy. damage, and provides a level deck for
gunnery and aircraft operations).
c. Improves stability characteristics by
removing list. b. Improvement of stability
characteristics due to removal of list.
d. May be some additional free surface
during transfer. c. Loss of reserve buoyancy due to
reduction of freeboard.
e. May be used to correct trim.

2. Counterflooding off-center tanks diagonally

opposite flooded compartments on smaller
vessels (this usually is neither possible nor

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156

a. Improved stability characteristics trim and the remainder of the list. This
due to removal of list. requires establishment, prior to action, of a
counterflooding doctrine, to meet an
b. Loss of freeboard and reserve anticipated list of 7 - 8°. When the damage
buoyancy. control officer issues the order "counter-flood
port" (or starboard, as the case may be), the
c. Some correction of trim. appropriate repair party promptly opens
counterflood valves to a pre-designated group
d. Introduction of added free surface of voids in the waist of the ship, thus taking
during counterflooding (important if action to remove a 7 - 8° list. As more exact
tanks are wide). information on the location of the hit is
received and analyzed, secondary orders are
issued to counterflood additional wing voids
3. Counterflooding low centerline spaces to near the undamaged end of the ship, to
improve GM (ballasting). compensate for damaged trim and the
remainder of the list. The net result is
a. Possible use in cases of lolling (DD, compensation for both list and trim, with
DE, CVE, etc.). minimum confusion in communications
(generated by lengthy orders involving the
b. Loss of reserve buoyancy and
numbers of all voids to be flooded), and
freeboard.
initiation of list removal without loss of time
c. Transient free surface. in damage-control headquarters. Upon receipt
of exact information, original orders can be
modified, and the extent of counterflooding
4. Counterflooding peak tanks to correct adjusted. But the major objective-prompt
trim. removal of list and trim, is attained with
minimum possibility of confusion and
a. Slight loss of reserve buoyancy. minimum loss of time.

b. Slight transient free surface. A well-understood counterflooding policy as

part of damage-control doctrine is absolutely
c. Improved propulsion, seaworthiness, necessary. Responsible personnel of every
and maneuverability. ship should be well aware of all possible
applications and their associated effects.
d. Reduction of hogging stresses if ship
is damaged in the middle length. 18-8. Restoration of vital functions.
Damaged pumps and ruptured piping will
Large shifts or changes in weight cause have to be repaired. If the ship is to continue
relatively small changes in trim. It is in action or repel attack, it is essential that
axiomatic that full correction of large trim power, mobility, and maneuverability be
after damage is impossible except by restored as soon as possible. These functions
pumping out the flooded spaces. Freeboard will likewise be required if the ship has to
at the damaged end of the ship cannot be seek a safe haven and towing is not
materially increased by counterflooding. practicable.
Moreover, counterflooding is accompanied
by increased mean draft and loss of reserve
buoyancy. Except when steps to correct list
can be selected to correct trim also, it will
usually be advisable to delay complete
correction of trim until flooding boundaries
have been established, which will permit
pumping out flooded spaces.

Therefore, some large ships have adopted

the "waist" principle of counterflooding in
two steps: first for most of the list,-the major
menace, then for

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157

CHAPTER XIX

RESTORING SEAWORTHINESS

GENERAL MEASURES Information received in the damage-control

station, including reports of immediate
19-1. Fundamental approach to the corrective measures instituted by repair party
problem. When a ship incurs damage the groups, are collated and evaluated there in
first step is for repair parties to take action arriving at the estimate of the situation.
automatically to arrest flooding, put out
fires and initiate generally those emergency 19-3. Restoring seaworthiness. Since the
measures which are dictated by the estimate of the situation has been discussed in
exigencies of the situation. Organized Chapter XVII, no further mention of this topic
measures fall naturally into four consecutive will be made here. A few general items with
steps: respect to the restoration of seaworthiness
may, however, be noted. In every case of
1. Determination of the extent of damage. flooding, regardless of the type or size of the
2. Estimate of the situation. ship, two of the corrective measures discussed
3. Restoration of seaworthiness. in the preceding chapter can and should be
4. Restoration of fire power and offensive instituted without delay. Flooding boundaries
functions. must be determined and established, and steps
must be started to remove damage water.
With respect to the first two measures it may Quoting from FTP-170B, with regard to
be stated that haphazard and unsound damage-control measures after flooding:
decisions based on incomplete, inaccurate
information have done more harm than "THE MOST EFFECTIVE STEP IS TO RID
good. Misapplication of energy and loss of THE SHIP OF AS MUCH OF THE
valuable time inevitably result unless a well- FLOODING WATER AS POSSIBLE."
organized plan of action is conceived and
followed. In selecting proper corrective Until the ingress of water has been halted or
measures there is no substitute for sound slowed, efforts to effect its removal are apt to
judgment, based on accurate information. be unavailing. Hence, on-the-spot efforts of
investigating parties and ship's personnel in
19-2. Determination of the extent of the affected area immediately after damage,
damage. It is necessary that the damage including the temporary plugging of holes, are
control officer receive prompt, complete, of vital importance in establishing flooding
and accurate information as to the extent of boundaries. Attention should also be given to
damage. This information will flow in to the the fact that doors and hatches left open by
damage-control station not only from repair escaping personnel at the time of the
parties, but also from other activities in or explosion must be closed and dogged.
near the affected areas, as well as from
observers topside. The latter frequently are Methods of ridding the ship of damage water,
in a better position to tell where the bomb, by use of built-in drainage and piping systems,
torpedo, or shell exploded, since below-deck portable pumps, sluicing to low spaces, and
personnel on the spot often are wiped out or the like, are discussed in Chapter XXIX and
injured by the casualty, and since elsewhere.
communications from the affected area are
likely to be disrupted. 19-4. Fire fighting. Inasmuch as most
explosions are accompanied by incendiary
However, the primary source of information effects, ship's personnel frequently must fight
will be the repair parties, which have sent fires while investigating damage and
out investigating teams, sounding groups, establishing flooding boundaries, or must
and so on. The facts to be determined carry on fire fighting simultaneously with
include the following: these and other measures. Actual cases are on
record wherein crews have conducted long
1. Flooding-its extent and progress. and successful battles against fires, meanwhile
2. Fire-areas affected, and types of fire. being forced to control flooding. The
3. Structural damage.
4. Impairment of vital systems and
equipment.

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158

danger of internal flooding from water used will adversely affect speed and
to fight fires, with accompanying free maneuverability. In addition, list imposes
surface effect, must be kept in mind in all difficulties in ammunition transfer and
such incidents. loading, and in operation of main and
antiaircraft batteries.
19-5. Restoration of vital functions.
Seaworthiness requires that the ship be 3. Reserve buoyancy. The loss of reserve
capable of moving under her own power, buoyancy should not be of serious
and of being steered. Hence, steering control consequence.
and main propulsion must be restored as
soon as possible after damage. In addition, 4. Trim. Increased trim by the stern will be
further action may impend, so it is always unimportant. Trim by the head may slow the
important to restore fire-control circuits, ship slightly, and increase steering difficulties.
ammunition supply, and other impaired
facilities associated with the maintenance of 5. Structural strength. As discussed in Chapter
fire power. XVII, this will probably be a minor
consideration in the case of battleships.
SHIPS WITH TORPEDO-PROTECTION
SYSTEMS 19-7. Corrective measures after underwater
damage. It is apparent, then, that the only
19-6. Probable situation after damage. additional corrective measures necessary are
Assume that a large combatant ship with a those employed to combat list. Three methods
torpedo-protection system receives damage. are available: counter-flooding, internal
The corrective measures discussed in the transfer of liquids across the ship, and
first section of this Chapter will be initiated. pumping liquid overboard from the damaged
But in addition, certain other measures side.
probably will be appropriate.
If the tactical situation requires immediate use
Above-water damage in these ships will not of maximum speed and maneuverability, and
affect stability seriously, and reserve optimum fire power, counterflooding should
buoyancy should not suffer greatly. Some be begun without delay. The loss in reserve
vital functions may be impaired. For buoyancy is recognized and accepted under
example, fire-control circuits from directors these conditions, on the basis that it will be
may be destroyed. Generally speaking, restored by further corrective measures. Time
however, underwater damage will be more and situation permitting, list can be removed
troublesome. A typical estimate of the by transfer of fuel or ballast water from intact
situation after a torpedo hit on a battleship tanks on the damaged side to voids on the
would show the following: other side. In any case, this measure should be
instituted along with counterflooding, and the
1. Extent of flooding. In all probability good counterflooding water pumped out as transfer
watertight subdivision will act to limit the continues to compensate for the list. Thus
flooding. Depending upon the exact location reserve buoyancy is improved.
of the torpedo hit, there may be some
flooding of vital areas inboard the holding A similar corrective moment is obtained by
bulkhead, but distribution and segregation pumping ballast water or fuel overboard from
will operate to minimize loss of fighting intact tanks on the damaged side. If some of
efficiency from this cause. Flooding will be the damaged area can be patched, removal of
progressing slowly through the fringes of damage water will accomplish the same end;
the damaged area. There will be a hole in the obviously, however, there will be a
third deck, through which some flooding considerable area where destruction of
will take place, aggravated by the list which structure and dimensions of damage will make
follows the hit. The damage water will be this impossible.
mixed with fuel oil from breached tanks.
When counterflooding, the 'waist" principle
2. Stability and list. As a result of off-center mentioned in Article 18-7 can be used to good
flooding, the ship will list immediately to advantage, since time is of the essence. The
the damaged side, to an angle of from 5° to other measures described should be so
10°, depending upon the location and extent planned as to leave one liquid layer
of damage. Inasmuch as broad free surface everywhere ,on the damaged side, for torpedo
is not extensive, flooding is low in the ship, defense. Bottom tanks should not be pumped
and GM was originally large, the loss in GM out, since reserve buoyancy has not been
will not be of consequence. The same may critically diminished. If fuel is pumped
be said of decrease in stability due to the list. overside from wing tanks, the loss in cruising

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The list, in conjunction with damaged, radius must be recognized.

projecting shell plating,
SHIPS WITHOUT MAJOR TORPEDO
PROTECTION

19-8. Probable situation after damage. After

159

attack by bombs, shell fire, or shallow from a combination of these circumstances.

torpedo, cruisers, auxiliaries, and smaller Loginess, or extreme tenderness is a danger
ships suffer serious loss of reserve buoyancy signal, whether accompanied by list or not.
as a result of fragment holes and destruction The same holds true for escort carriers, large
of watertight structure above the waterline. auxiliaries, and similar types, except that
If the ship is holed, water will enter during loginess or extreme tenderness is a danger
the roll, and the flooding effects will be akin signal only when in combination with a list. If
to those resulting from underwater damage. there is little or no list and the ship is logy,
They will, in fact, reduce stability even stability probably will prove to be satisfactory
more, since the added weight of flooding if remaining freeboard is considerable. In the
water is high in the ship, and the case of destroyer escort vessels and the new
opportunities for broad areas of free surface flush-deck and 2,100 ton destroyers negative
are more extensive. Furthermore, GM after damage is less likely to occur
impairment of vital circuits may be of severe because intact GM is large and main
consequence due to lack of splinter compartments are relatively small. High
protection and little duplication of original freeboard also increases the stability
structures. In most instances, underwater of these ships.
damage, be it from a torpedo or bomb, will
be accompanied by above-water damage, Heavy trim will develop if the ship is hit near
and the effects will be additive. one end. Trim by the stern will not be so
troublesome as trim by the bow, which
Flooding due to a torpedo hit is apt to be of decreases stability (usually), speed, and
more grave consequence as the size of the maneuverability. In addition, boarding seas
ship decreases, since the lack of major forward may destroy or interfere with the use
torpedo protection places the task of of the forward battery.
restricting flooding on the major transverse
watertight bulkheads. In any event, a part or The lack of longitudinal subdivision and
all of vital spaces will be flooded. Flooding maintenance of liquid in wing or side tanks
will progress more or less rapidly around the decreases the chances of developing heavy list
damaged area. The decks over the site of the after damage; however, some list usually
explosion will be destroyed, and bulkheads results due to off-center flooding, or in some
in the vicinity will be disrupted. Fuel oil cases, dislocation of heavy weights such as
may be mixed with the flooding water. In machinery. The ill effects of list on mobility,
the case of aircraft carriers or tenders, and maneuverability and fire power have been
ships carrying aircraft, free gasoline may be discussed. In addition, list seriously decreases
present. stability, ship's seaworthiness, and resistance
to further damage.
The impairment of reserve buoyancy usually
will be of considerable consequence, so The possible combinations of list and stability
much so that deliberate admission of have been described in Chapter XIV. They
additional water to the ship are:
(counterflooding) to compensate for list or
trim usually is fraught with danger. 1. Unsymmetrical flooding with positive
Freeboard may be dangerously small, GM. If list checks reasonably well with
particularly if the ship is listing. In fact, the that indicated in the flooding-effect
ship's survival, if heavy weather is diagrams, this is probably the situation
impending, may depend upon whether that exists.
reserve buoyancy and freeboard can be
regained in part. 2. Unsymmetrical flooding with negative
GM. If the ship is logy, and list is badly
Explosions which destroy portions of the disproportionate to that indicated by the
ship girder, such as the main deck, stringer flooding-effect diagram, this
plate, sheer strake, garboard strake, or keel, combination should be assumed to
will reduce longitudinal strength. Incorrect represent the situation.
measures or improper ship handling may
increase stresses sufficiently to cause the 3. Symmetrical flooding, with negative

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ship to break up. GM. If flooding is known to be

symmetrical and list is appreciable this
The GM of most ships will be positive if the condition prevails.
flooding is limited to one main
compartment. However, extensive
underwater damage will result in a greater 19-9. Corrective measures for
degree of flooding in most cases. In the case unsymmetrical flooding with assured
of cruisers and destroyers negative GM may positive GM. In addition to the measures
be developed if more than two main described (Articles 19-1 through 19-5 above)
engineering spaces are partially flooded, or pump liquid overboard from intact, narrow,
if there is extensive partial flooding in wide deep side tanks (not bottom tanks) on the low
compartments on decks near the waterline side. This entails decreased protection in the
(as may result from riddling of the ship's areas inboard of such tanks, and, if fuel is
side), or pumped overboard, a loss of cruising radius.
Jettisoning topside weights from

160

the damaged side of destroyers and other as GM increases. Never pump out low or
small ships will serve to reduce list. This bottom tanks.
latter expedient usually is not of value in the
case of large ships. 19-11. Corrective measures for symmetrical
flooding with suspected negative GM. When
Liquid in intact wing or side tanks on the broad areas of free surface exist and flooding
low side should be transferred to partially is extensive, the measures noted in Articles
full tanks on the other side, and the latter 19-1 to 19-5 must be augmented to improve
pressed full. If there are any empty tanks on GM. Measures for improvement of GM listed
the high side, they may be filled similarly. in Article 19-10 (last paragraph) are
However, existing ballasting instructions applicable. In addition, when reserve
call for keeping wing tanks ballasted to the buoyancy is adequate, it may be desirable to
waterline, hence they will not normally be allow partially flooded large compartments,
empty. If heavy trim exists, the peak tank at such as engineering spaces, to flood solid,
the high end may be filled with liquid from under control, by venting the air bubble.
the low end of the ship; with due Jettisoning will be of positive value on smaller
consideration to longitudinal strength (see ships, but care must be taken to jettison equal
Chapt. XVI). weights from both sides, or centerline weights.

Counterflooding for list is not often 19-12. Shoring for seaworthiness. Shoring
practicable, since there normally are no methods are discussed comprehensively in
empty wing tanks. Off-center compartments Chapter XXXVI. The applicability of shoring
could be flooded by use of the fire main; can, however, be considered in connection
however, the corrective moment usually will with restoring seaworthiness. In the case of
not be large, since the lever arm of the added welded ship construction, bulkheads are not
weight is not great. The additional free apt to fail under the hydrostatic pressure of
surface involved during the counterflooding flooding water unless they have been badly
operation is undesirable, the time required is distorted by explosion, or unless exposed to
lengthy, and the sacrifice in reserve heavy dynamic loading by entering seas, as is
buoyancy may be of major importance. the case when the bow of a ship has been lost.
In such event the foremost bulkhead and the
19-10. Corrective measures for next aft should be shored. Similarly, if the side
unsymmetrical flooding with suspected of a ship is damaged by explosion and flared
negative GM. Since the list should be out, the scoop effect when the ship is
reduced as rapidly as possible, corrective underway increases the load on the first intact
moments can be and should be applied watertight bulkhead aft, which may require
somewhat less than the known inclining shoring.
moment. The latter can be estimated as
follows: Estimate the weight of water in Decks will not always withstand hydrostatic
each flooded off-center compartment, and head. Therefore, decks over flooded low
the distance of its center of gravity from the compartments should be carefully watched,
ship's centerline. In each case w times the and shored if they show signs of excessive
distance from the centerline gives the deflection, or incipient leakage due to local
inclining moment. The total of the inclining failures. Hatches require the same careful
moment for all flooded off-center tanks is inspection.
obtained by adding the individual inclining

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moments.
19-13. Judicious ship handling. The chances
All the corrective measures described in of survival and return to port can be materially
Articles 19-1, 19-2, 19-3, 19-4, 19-5 and enhanced by careful ship handling and good
19-9 are applicable. When using those seamanship. For example, if stability is poor,
described in Article 19-9 care must be taken, or if the ship has a heavy permanent list,
as stated above, that the total restoring courses selected should not parallel the trough
moment resulting from jettisoning, pumping of the sea. If the bow structure is damaged,
liquids overboard, or transferring liquids is speed should be lessened. With heavy bow
somewhat less than the known total trim, head seas should be avoided.
inclining moment.
19-14. Longitudinal strength
In addition, measures to improve GM should considerations. In the selection of corrective
go forward concurrently. These include measures possible increase of longitudinal
pressing full any slack bottom tanks, stresses and suspected or known impairment
sluicing liquid from wing tanks on both of the ship's longitudinal strength must be
sides to empty centerline low spaces, and taken into account. The strength of smaller
jettisoning topside weights symmetrically on ships may be impaired by the whip or flexural
smaller ships, such as destroyers. If reserve vibration following an underwater explosion
buoyancy remaining permits, GM can be at one end. In any of the
improved by flooding low centerline spaces
from the sea, one at a time, taking care that
they are filled completely. Improvement of
GM will also act to reduce list, since
righting arms increase

161

ships under consideration here, strength is When impairment of strength is known or

impaired by destruction of a portion of any suspected to exist, the ship can be handled to
strength member, as stated in Article 19-8. reduce hogging or sagging stresses in the
seaway. Speed should be slow, the ship should
Flooding usually accompanies such damage, not meet long swells or large waves head on,
and the weight of the flooding water and should not be exposed in a quartering sea
increases the stresses in hogging or sagging, to waves with trough-to-trough distance
depending upon whether it is near one end approximately the ship's length.
or the waist of the ship. Fortunately, stresses
are relieved somewhat by the removal of It is rarely possible to restore lost strength
damage water, or liquid from intact tanks in while the ship is at sea, but upon reaching
the area, both of which are measures haven, repairs must be undertaken to achieve
indicated for restoration of stability and this purpose before beginning voyages of
removal of list. If trim is heavy after considerable. length. Heavy welded plate with
damage, stresses will not be so dangerously lengthy laps beyond the damaged area must be
increased if trim correction is undertaken by installed over gaps or ruptures in strength
transfer of liquids along the ship, rather than members. Buckled material has little
by counterflooding peak tanks. compressive strength, and must be reinforced
similarly.

162

CHAPTER XX

STRANDING

20-1. Foreword. There are three important Thus, instead of following the natural desire to
points to keep in mind in case of stranding. lighten ship, "weigh it down" by flooding
These are: holds, low tanks, etc. Then, when salvage
operations are attempted, it is a relatively easy
1. The necessity of keeping the ship from matter to lighten the ship and pull the vessel
going farther aground or broaching to the off with the aid of beach gear.
sea, which make it more difficult to salvage.
20-3. The effect on stability. Only rarely have

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vessels capsized after going aground.

2. The possible loss of stability due to However, there are a number of factors having
grounding, especially in connection with an influence on stability characteristics which
large changes of tide. should be considered in any case of
grounding. These include the form and texture
3. The structural strength of the ship, and the of the beach or object upon which the vessel
possibility that it may break up. has grounded, the location of the force exerted
upward against the ship, the shape of the hull,
20-2. Procedure when stranded. When a the range of the tide, and the state of the wind
ship goes aground, it is the natural desire of and sea.
the Commanding Officer to attempt getting
her off under her own power. In an effort to Relatively soft beach material will tend to
accomplish this, he usually desires to lighten assume the shape of the ship's bottom and
ship, thus reducing mean draft. There is, thereby act to prevent capsizing. This is
however, danger that the ship will only work particularly true where the portion of the ship
farther toward the beach if this is done, thus resting on the bottom is wide. If the ship is on
complicating future salvage operations. a pinnacle or narrow ledge along the
There is also possibility of the ship centerline, a large fall of tide may result in
broaching to the sea and being subjected to capsizing. If the pinnacle or narrow ledge is
pounding of the waves. off-center, an upsetting moment may
accompany a drop in tide. Unfavorable winds
The following procedure is recommended in and seas may increase the transverse upsetting
most stranding cases to minimize the force.
dangers indicated above:
In order to make the ship as stable as possible,
1. No attempt should be made to refloat the any free surface should be eliminated. If
vessel under her own power if wind and sea available, some barges may be brought
conditions indicate the possibility of the
alongside to act as sponsons, or outriggers.
vessel working harder aground, pounding, or Soundings should be taken around the ship.
broaching to the sea. The information obtained may be plotted
2. Kedge anchors to seaward should be laid relative to a transverse sectional view of the
as quickly as possible to prevent the vessel ship's bottom to show whether the bottom will
from working farther ashore, and/or exert pressure against the ground to resist
capsizing. In the past, vessels have developed
broaching to.
lists varying from 1° or 2° up to 20°. Often
3. The vessel should be weighed down-not this has been due as much to the contour of
lightened-in an effort to keep from working the ground as to reduction in stability.
harder and higher on the beach, and to
prevent damage caused by working and
pounding of the vessel on the bottom.

163

CHAPTER XXI

PREPARATIONS TO RESIST DAMAGE

21-1. Importance of adequate determination of minimum liquids to be

preparatory measures. Adequate carried may be summarized briefly, as
preparatory measures are of great follows:
importance for a number of reasons,
including the following: 1. In practically all types of ships, side tanks
(including wing tanks) should be kept filled to
1. They tend to keep the ship effective as a the waterline, or filled to the top (95% full in
fighting unit by maintaining the ship's case of oil) if the top is below the waterline, in
qualities of resistance to damage. accordance with instructions furnished to the
ship, in order to minimize the angle of heel
2. They protect the lives of the crew. after underwater damage.
3. They tend to insure the future tactical 2. In some types of ships, tanks low in the ship
usefulness of the ship. are required to be kept full, or ballasted, to
insure adequate stability by keeping the center
4. They provide a sound background for of gravity down.
proper decisions as to which corrective

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measures will save the ship after damage.

3. In ships possessing torpedo-protection
21-2. Factors to be safeguarded and systems, the liquid loading prescribed is based
measures employed. The factors which on requirements for minimizing structural
preparatory measures are designed to damage and consequent flooding, and to
safeguard, insofar as the ship is concerned, minimize angle of heel after damage.
are as follows:
4. In ships having wing tanks, liquids in wing
1. Transverse stability characteristics in tanks abreast vitals serve another important
general. function. They reduce the velocity of
fragments resulting from torpedo hits, which
2. Reserve buoyancy. otherwise might cause serious damage.
3. Resistance to damage by fragments, flash, Liquid loading prescribed for battle. "The
and fire. optimum battle condition loading prescribed
for ships incorporating torpedo-protection
4. Armored freeboard. systems includes the liquid required in the
torpedo-protection system. Additional liquid
5. Absence of trim.
is of no advantage from the standpoint of
6. Absence of list. protection. Additional liquid increases
displacement and the corresponding loss of
7. Structural strength. freeboard is disadvantageous. In these ships
the optimum liquid loading specified for each
In safeguarding the foregoing factors, the ship should be reached as soon as possible
damage control officer should employ the after leaving port."
following measures:
"Cruisers and light carriers (CVL's) present a
1. Maintain strict adherence to specified different problem. In addition to the liquid
liquid loading procedure. required in side tanks for fragment protection
and wing tanks for avoidance of large heeling
2. Weight control. moments, some liquid is required in bottom
tanks purely for stability. The liquid in the
3. Maintain watertight integrity and minimum service condition is based on all
watertight integrity discipline. three factors and is the least amount
satisfactory. Stability is improved rapidly by
4. Have adequate equipment in proper carrying more than this minimum amount.
operating condition. There is, however, an upper
5. Assure thorough organization and training
of personnel.

21-3. Strict adherence to correct liquid

loading procedure.

Minimum liquids. For all combatant ships,

and most auxiliary types, specific
instructions have been issued as to the
minimum liquid loading for war service.
The considerations governing the

164

limit where the gain is not worth the adverse time, the Bureau of Ships or Type
effects of loss of freeboard, as discussed Commanders may issue special directives
later. In these ships there is an advantage in modifying liquid loading instructions. A
carrying somewhat more than the minimum damage control officer reporting to a newly
service condition liquids." constructed ship should check on this item. In
all cases ship's personnel should adhere
"For certain cruisers, destroyers, and closely to the liquid loading instructions.
destroyer escort vessels, light service
displacement is the term which has been 21-4. Limiting displacements. Problems
adopted for the condition in which minimum involved in weight control are (1) limiting
liquids are carried. The term covers a displacements, (2) maximum stability, (3)
condition corresponding to the minimum optimum trim, and (4) minimum list.
service condition described above.

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Minimum service condition and light service

displacement have the same meaning." The Bureau of Ships has, on many occasions,
-FTP-170B. issued warnings and instructions against
overloading - in general and specific terms.
In order to assist in maintaining the most Operating at excessively heavy displacement
satisfactory distribution of liquids from the has several very important disadvantages
standpoint of torpedo protection, use is which may be briefly summarized, as follows:
made of a fuel-oil sequence table. This table
gives the order in which oil in the fuel tanks 1. Adverse effects on intact ship:
should be burned. The usual tank sequence
calls for using the fuel-oil void tanks first, a. Speed reduction. The effect of increased
before starting on the fuel-oil ballast group. displacement is most pronounced in light,
Thus, tanks not absolutely necessary for high speed ships like destroyers, but is also
adequate stability and torpedo protection can very noticeable in cruisers, and to a lesser
be emptied first in the interest of reserve degree in battleships and large aircraft
buoyancy and adequate freeboard. A fuel-oil carriers. (Increased propulsion resistance due
sequence table is frequently given in the to the deeper draft cuts down maximum speed,
Damage Control Book, usually on the besides increasing the power required at a
flooding effect diagram. Sometimes a Type given speed.)
Commander will issue special directives
b. Cruising radius reduction. Increased
concerning this sequence, and occasionally
ships must make up their own tables. displacement, of itself, by increasing the
power required for a given speed, reduces
The Booklet of Inclining Experiment Data cruising radius. Of course, if the overload
for all recent combatant ships gives loading consists largely of oil, increased radius will be
and stability information for the conditions achieved, but at the expense of reduced
discussed above, as follows: economy. If the overload consists of items
other than oil, a definite reduction in radius
BB's, CVB's, and CV's - optimum battle will result.
condition.
CB's, CA's, CL's, CVL's, c. Seaworthiness. Overloading will reduce
DD's, and DE's-either minimum service freeboard to the weather deck and thus give a
condition or light service condition. wetter and less efficient ship in rough weather,
even when the ship is intact.
The loading for these conditions is, or will
be, set forth also in the Damage Control d. Reduction of reserve buoyancy.
Book for each ship. It should be emphasized
here that the primary purpose in setting up e. Range of stability. A ship may have
these conditions is to establish minimum excellent initial stability (high GM), but so
liquid loading for the purposes of little freeboard due to overloading that its
range of stability is reduced.
underwater protection, stability, and general
ability to survive damage. In battleships and f. Reduction of armored freeboard.
large cruisers this minimum is also the
optimum liquid loading: it should be reached g. Strength. Overloading increases the
as soon as possible, and wherever possible longitudinal stresses imposed on the ship.
should not be exceeded. In smaller ships the Extreme overloading, coupled with heavy
minimum liquids may be exceeded weather, may lead to structural distress or
somewhat, if desired, by keeping certain even failure.
bottom tanks filled for improving stability.
2. Study of the foregoing items makes it
Damage Control Books for certain classes of obvious
auxiliaries likewise include liquid loading
instructions for the best protection against
damage. From time to

165

that further adverse effects due to damage may be summarized briefly, as follows: For
are likely to result in loss of the ship. each combatant ship, the minimum liquid
loading is specified. This, together with the
"The adverse effects of overloading, as other consumable loads necessary for any
discussed above, have long been recognized particular expedition, will establish the
with respect to merchant ships as well as minimum displacement the ship should have
warships. In the case of merchant ships, on leaving port. There will also be specified
definite limitations are placed on an upper limiting displacement for guidance.

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displacement, with some variations for the Those responsible for loading should,
zone of operations and the time of year. The therefore, endeavor to keep their ships at
limiting displacements are indicated by operating displacements somewhere between
Plimsoll marks on the sides of the ships, these two figures, insofar as compatible with
showing the limiting drafts or "load lines" the requirements of the mission in hand.
under the various conditions specified. Adherence to this policy will pay dividends in
Many merchant ships converted for Naval improved ability to withstand damage, in
use are required to keep within the limiting simplifying the damage-control problems after
loads represented by their original Plimsoll damage, and, in extreme cases, will result in
marks. Limiting loads have also been saving some ships which might otherwise be
prescribed for a certain few Navy-built ships lost.''-FTP-170B.
where special considerations made this
advisable. In extension of this principle, the 21-5. Maximum transverse stability. In
Commander-in-Chief, U. S. Fleet, has order to maintain maximum transverse
approved a recommendation of the Bureau stability, it is necessary to carry out proper
of Ships that limiting displacements be liquid loading, as discussed in Article 21-3,
established for all combatant ships, and be cruise with a maximum freeboard (see Article
promulgated for the guidance of the forces 21-4), and prevent the accumulation of large
afloat, with the full understanding that these unusual weights high in the ship. When the
displacements may be exceeded on the loading is increased by bringing expendables
authority of responsible commanders where aboard, it is not only in the weight of such
circumstances warrant the acceptance of the material but also its height above the base line
additional risks involved. The Bureau of which establishes the final stability. Stability
Ships has already issued this information to will be enhanced by stowing and removing in
the forces afloat for some classes of a sequence of locations that tends toward the
destroyers. Limiting displacements are being addition of low weights and the removal of
determined for other combatant types and high weights. It is also wise to enlist the
will be promulgated for guidance as soon as assistance of the entire ship's company in
practicable. Eventually, the limiting keeping weights stowed in their proper places.
displacements and corresponding drafts will Types of unusual weights high in the ship may
be stated in the Damage Control Book for be:
the guidance of each ship."
1. Large quantities of stores and provisions.
"Increments of displacement resulting from 2. Emergency cargo.
many items of load in excess of 3. Extensive icing.
requirements remain with the ship 4. Large numbers of survivors.
throughout an expedition and thus exact a
penalty on power of survival. Reference is In addition to the foregoing requirements it is
made to the practice of loading ships to the necessary to conduct a routine removal of
limit of their capacity as regards space in accumulated bilge water in machinery spaces.
order to provide provisions, stores, The free surface effect is the same as though
ammunition, etc., for possible contingencies the spaces were flooded to an equal level.
of service. Logistic planning should place
21-6. Optimum trim. Most ships are
less emphasis on the endurance of
combatant ships now that the system of designed to operate with no trim. Others, such
advanced bases and additional supply ships as LST's and certain cargo ships, are designed
with a drag. In all cases, cruising at the
allows more frequent opportunity for
replenishing supplies. Supplies in excess of designed trim results in increased speed,
probable requirements for specific missions increased economy of fuel-oil consumption,
should be carried in auxiliaries rather than in and less danger of loss by plunging if
damaged. Control of trim is obtained by
combatant ships. Alterations involving the
addition of heavy weights to the ship should proper ballasting, and by proper distribution
he compensated for, when possible, by the of weights taken aboard.
removal of ^equal amounts of weight at the
21-7. Minimum list. Every ship is designed to
same height above the keel."

"The situation with regard to loading

instructions

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Figure 21-A. Adequate materials must be provided for damage control operations. In this picture shores are being passed
down a scuttle.

167

operate without a list. This is necessary in question. If the ship has taken on a list, they
order to permit the most effective gunnery should also indicate where their sounding (or
and aircraft operations, increased speed, estimated depth) was taken. Information on
proper operation of machinery, and list, trim, and draft during and after damage
maximum fuel economy. In addition, list on will be necessary. Personnel on the topside
a ship always has a detrimental effect on the should report the freeboard on the listed side.
morale of the crew. More complete discussion of organization and
training will be found in Chapters XXIII,
Excessive listing can normally be avoided XXIV, XXV, XXVI, and XXVII. Needless to
by cooperating with the gunnery, supply, and say, it is a very important subject, and should
engineering departments in the preparation receive special attention.
of a definite sequence in which to stow and
remove the contents of magazines, 21-11. Officer-in-charge of damage-control
storerooms, and fuel tanks. The engineer station. On some ships damage-control
department will always be ready to shift organization places an assistant in charge of
liquids in those tanks not required to be damage-control station. In such event it is
ballasted for torpedo protection and recommended that this assistant be assigned
adequate stability. In fact, the "oil king" definite duties in liquid loading, weight, and
probably will do this of his own volition, stability control. This assistant at the damage-
since the power plant operates better when control station in battle acts as an aide to the
there is no list. The flooding effect diagram damage control officer in matters regarding:
gives figures for the undamaged ship which
will be useful in estimating the heel 1. Coordinating the engineering activities of
involved in shifting oil from one side of the the "oil king" with regard to distribution of
ship to the other. liquid loading.

21-8. Maintenance of watertight integrity. 2. Insuring the readiness of damage-control

Each undamaged tank or compartment must diagrams, charts, publications, bills, data, etc.,
for use during and after damage. In the

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be kept watertight if flooding is not to be preparation of the jettison ship bill the effect
progressive. Watertightness may be lost by: on GM of each item jettisoned may well be
pre-calculated and entered on the bill.
1. Corrosion.
3. During and after damage coordinating and
2. Loosening of boundaries or joints. This charting reports of damage sustained, as sent
may result in leakage in void' compartments, in from the repair stations.
cofferdams, non-frequented storerooms, etc.
This officer is thus made responsible to the
3. Defective closures or fittings. damage control officer for most of the detail
work involved. He also be, the coordinator of
4. Lack of care in making alterations. the work of the damage-control station,
inasmuch as the senior assisting damage
5. Failure to secure access closures. control officer should be stationed elsewhere
A detailed discussion of upkeep will be in the interest of "spreading the risk." If it
becomes necessary for the damage control
found in Chapter XXX.
officer to leave the damage-control station, the
21-9. Adequate equipment. It is absolutely assistant is well fitted to supervise its
necessary that sufficient equipment, in good activities during the absence of his senior.
operating condition, be kept available at all
times to handle flooding and other damage. If the ship is large enough to provide a
commissioned officer of the watch in damage-
Equipment on hand will include that
required to control station during cruising conditions, the
officer-in-charge may advantageously be
1. Pump out damage water. placed on this watch bill as the senior watch-
stander in damage control. His presence on
2. Plug and patch holes. watch in the damage-control station will
improve its functioning with regard to matters
3. Shore and repair structure. of organization, stability, and watertight
integrity, besides expediting his own work. On
4. Restore vital functions. smaller ships this usually will not be possible,
since the assistant probably will be
Equipment is dealt with in a number of
Chapters in this book, and the equipment of
repair parties receives special treatment in
Chapter XXXV.

21-10. Organization and training.

Personnel attached to repair parties should
be trained to report the numbers of those
compartments that are flooded, the depth (or
estimated depth) of water in each, and the
condition of boundaries (decks and
bulkheads) which surround each of the
compartments in

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Figure 21-B. Fragment damage occurs topside also.

required to stand topside watches; however, damage-control station be made responsible to

he can well be given the supervision of the the damage control officer for all detail work
ship's watertight integrity watches. which concerns the following subjects:

Because of the large amount of executive 1. Organizing and training of personnel

and administrative work which must be done assigned to damage-control station.
by the damage control officer and his senior
assistant in matters of organization, 2. Preparation of damage-control bills,
,education, training, and coordination of damage-control diagrams, etc.
damage control with other departments, it is
recommended that the officer-in-charge of 3. Custody of the damage-control
publications, in-chiding the work of keeping
them up to date.

169

CHAPTER XXII

DAMAGE-CONTROL ORGANIZATION

22-1. Purpose of damage control. The 4. Departmental organizations for the proper
objective of damage control is the maintenance of equipment vital to damage-
maintenance of the maximum offensive control procedure.
power of the ship. To achieve this purpose,
effective damage control: 5. Training and educational programs (for
officers, men, and all battle-station groups).
1. Preserves watertight integrity.
2. Preserves buoyancy and stability. 22-4. Education. The educational plan should
3. Preserves maneuverability, mobility and provide regularly scheduled programs for
seaworthiness. instructing the entire ship's personnel in:
4. Controls list and trim.

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5. Effects rapid repairs.

6. Provides adequate protection from fire. 1. Necessity for thorough application of
7. Provides protection from chemical attack. damage-control principles.
8. Facilitates care of wounded personnel.
2. Ability of ship to resist damage and remain
Accomplishment of these aims will result in afloat.
keeping the ship afloat in its best possible
condition, minimizing, or even nullifying, 3. Methods for attaining damage-control
the enemy's most destructive efforts, and efficiency.
thus maintaining the ship's maximum
offensive power. Thus damage control is an 4. Methods used by other ships in successfully
offensive function, as well as a defensive overcoming war damage.
provision.
5. Mistakes made by other ships in combating
22-2. Fundamental elements. Four war damage which should not be repeated by
fundamental elements of a successful own ship.
damage-control program on board any ship 6. Responsibility for maintenance of material
are: conditions of closure, watertight integrity, and
1. Organization. damage-control material and equipment.
2. Education. 7. Their individual damage-control duties and
3. Training.
responsibilities.
4. Maintenance.
8. Their ship's organization for attaining the
These elements are not listed in the order of
objectives of damage control.
their importance. Each is necessary to
complete the program, and all of them are 9. Knowing their ship and its systems as
essential on even the smallest of ships. A thoroughly as possible.
conscientious consideration and observance
of the principles embodied in these four 22-5. Training. The program of training
elements will enable any ship to put forth its should provide regularly scheduled instruction
maximum offensive effort. A very brief for the entire ship's personnel, in accordance
description of what each of the four with their individual damage-control duties in:
fundamental elements entails follows.
1. Proper setting of material conditions of
22-3. Organization. Organization of the closure. '2. Maintenance of the highest
ship for the purpose of controlling damage possible degree of watertight integrity.
involves establishing:
3. Proper use of interior battle
1. A battle damage-control organization. communications.
2. A war cruising damage-control 4. Proper operation, use and maintenance (for
organization. damage-control purposes) of hull and
engineering systems.
3. Departmental and divisional organizations
for. maintaining conditions of closure. 5. Proper operation, use and maintenance of
damage-control material and equipment.

6. Making emergency repairs.

170

7. Making their way about ship under condition one is general quarters-the
adverse conditions. readiness condition in which battle stations are
fully manned. Readiness conditions two and
8. Locating damage, leaks, etc., under three call for less complete manning of
adverse conditions. stations. There are many modifications of
these readiness conditions on different types
9. Fighting fire. of ships, or in different task forces, usually
indicated by adding a letter to the readiness
10. Working out type damage-control condition number.
problems.
It should be noted that many ships (DDs, DEs,
11. Overcoming attack by chemical agents. etc.) have only two conditions of readiness:
12. First aid. condition one (general quarters) and condition

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two (war cruising).

In providing this training separate programs
are necessary for officers, men, departments, 22-9. Material conditions of closure. For
division war cruising groups, battle-station damage-control purposes, ships are classified
personnel, repair-party organizations and according to the number of progressive steps
any other groups which stem from the through which they may go in effecting
general organization of the ship. These complete closure for battle. Thus there are two
programs must be further adapted to "in material condition ships using material
port" and "at sea" (war cruising) operating conditions baker and able, and three material
periods. condition ships using material conditions
x-ray, yoke and zebra. Three material
22-6. Maintenance. Regular schedules of condition ships usually are the larger types.
inspection, maintenance, repair and
replacement should be maintained in Material conditions able and zebra are the
addition to the training drills. The purpose final material conditions of closure for battle,
of these inspection, maintenance and attaining maximum material resistance to
replacement schedules is to assure (1) damage consistent with operating the ship
watertight integrity, (2) proper operation of offensively. Inasmuch as material condition
hull and engineering systems for damage- baker and material conditions x-ray and yoke
control purposes, and (3) satisfactory are considered minimum standards only,
condition of all material sand equipment Commanding Officers may establish modified
necessary to the attainment of damage- material conditions of closure to suit varying
control objectives. readiness conditions for war cruising. This
practice is more common in the case of large
22-7. Sources of information. There is a ships.
large amount of information and data
available which is essential to the FTP-170B states that material conditions
development and operation of an effective baker or yoke shall normally be maintained in
damage-control program on board ship. A port or at sea, except when manning general
list of publications available for use (most quarters stations (Chapter 11).
combatant ships) is appended to this
Chapter. Most important among these are It should be understood clearly that conditions
the following items: of readiness for action pertain to personnel
manning their stations, and that material
1Damage Control Book. conditions refer to states of closure of doors,
1General Information Book. hatches, valves, and other fittings and
Booklet of General Plans. systems. These two distinct types of
1Booklet of Inclining Experiment Data. conditions should not be confused with each
other.
FTP-170B, (Damage Control Instructions-
1944). 22-10. Classification of fittings. To permit
FTP-222, (Defensive Chemical Warfare quick and accurate setting of the proper
Manual). material condition of closure, fittings are
Fire Fighting Manual-1944 (NavShips 250- classified and marked X, Y, Z and W. This
688). system of classification is fully described in
Uses and Applications of Portable Chapters 7 and 8 of FTP-170B and includes
Emergency Pumping Equipment (NavShips designations for doors, hatches, valves, and
250-689). other fittings and systems whose proper
BuShips Hull Allowance List. operation is important in obtaining the
Engineering Casualty Control Book. designated material condition of closure.
22-8. Conditions of readiness for action. The classification of fittings with the letter X,
The existence of conditions of readiness for Y or
action is referred to here because of their
influence on material conditions of closure.

Conditions of readiness are numbered.

Readiness

1These publications are not prepared for, or issued to some auxiliaries, etc.

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Figure 22-A. The gas mask is not a substitute for the rescue breathing apparatus shown here.
The latter permits working in toxic gases against which the gas mask is valueless. The airline
hose mask also provides air from an outside source.

Z conforms with the three steps taken in 22-11. Examples of circled X, Y and Z.
closing up a three material condition ship. There are certain X and Y fittings which must
Thus: be operated or opened when proceeding to
battle stations without the usual delay in
Three Material Condition Ship obtaining permission to do so. In this category
Condition Fittings Closed are: (1) doors to magazines and handling
rooms, (2) accesses to other battle stations
X-ray X
which may have been so classified in order to
Yoke X and Y afford increased watertight integrity in
Zebra X, Y and Z material conditions baker or yoke. There are
W (opened or operating) other X and Y fittings which must be opened
Two Material Condition Ship or operated during action in order to fight the
ship. In this category are ammunition-passing
Condition Fittings Closed
scuttles and many valves. These fittings may
Baker X and Y be designated by enclosing the classification
Able X, Y and Z letter in a black circle. They shall be also
W (opened or operating) "circled" wherever they appear in
compartment check-off lists and damage-
A modified material condition zebra or able control bills.
is one in which certain doors, hatches, and
ventilation and flushing fittings are opened There are certain Z fittings which may be
or operated to provide some relief or food closed or operated in special circumstances
for a crew required to be at battle stations and in exception to rigid adherence to the
for an abnormal length of time. material condition in

172

existence. In this category are (1) access sometimes are inserted in the Damage Control
fittings opening to the weather which Book, but there is a growing tendency toward
normally are open in material condition making them up into a separate book.
baker or yoke but which must be closed at
darken ship, (2) ventilation fittings which In addition to the standard damage-control
are normally closed in material condition bills listed and described in FTP-170B,
able or zebra but which are opened or Chapter 8, (doors and hatches, ventilation,
operated upon authority of the damage drainage, fire main, etc.), a general damage-
control organization bill, introductory to the

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control officer to conduct periodic others, and a damage-control communication

ventilation of battle stations in interior bill, have been found useful in the case of
spaces, (3) cutout valves for salt-water many ships.
cooling of ice machines which are normally
closed in material condition able or zebra Other additional bills for systems or special
but which may be opened upon authority of procedures not listed in FTP-170B, Chapter 8,
the damage control officer during protracted frequently are made out by individual ships.
periods at general quarters to maintain When believed to be of value to other ships,
normal conditions in refrigerated spaces. they should be reported to the Type
These fittings may be designated by Commander and the Bureau of Ships.
enclosing the classification letter in a black
circle. They shall also be "circled" wherever 22-13. Compartment check-off lists. The
they appear in compartment check-off lists purpose of the compartment check-off list is to
and damage-control bills. provide, in each compartment, an itemized list
of all classified fittings and other facilities
It shall be distinctly understood that the employed in damage control by personnel
enclosure of a classification letter in a black responsible for setting material conditions.
circle as authorized above does not alter the
meaning of the classification letter. Circle X These lists are developed from the tables,
and circle Y fittings giving access to battle diagrams and fitting classifications listed in
stations may be opened without special the ship's Damage Control Book and damage-
authority only while proceeding to battle control bills, and are checked by careful
stations after general quarters has been inspections of the individual compartments
sounded and when proceeding from battle conducted by responsible personnel. These
stations after secure has been ordered. lists must be subjected to frequent checking
Ammunition-passing scuttles shall only be and rechecking by divisions having
open during the actual period of ammunition cognizance and by the damage-control
transfer. Circle Z fittings shall never be organization.
opened during general quarters without
special authority from damage control. The Each list should be permanently posted in its
Z is enclosed in a circle merely for the particular compartment, and should include all
classified fittings and certain other facilities
purpose of ready identification. Circle X and
circle Z classification should not be used on necessary to effective damage-control
destroyers and smaller vessels. procedure. In addition to the name and
number of the compartment, a list should
No other variations from standard show the name, number, location, purpose,
designations or markings are authorized. classification (if any), and division responsible
The practice of using various colors and for the proper operation of each fitting.
symbols on classification labels to signify Instructions contained in FTP-170B, Chapter
special variations on standard doctrine and 8, should be carefully followed in the
procedures, which seems to have been preparation of compartment check-off lists. It
adopted by a few ships, shall be immediately is important that a master copy of each list be
discontinued. These variations serve no kept on file in the damage-control office, and
useful purpose and tend to break down that it be kept corrected as changes are made.
proper damage-control doctrine. Confusion
22-14. Watertight integrity. The term
is the inevitable result when personnel are
transferred from one ship to another." - watertight integrity may be defined as the
FTP-170B. effectiveness of the subdivision (watertight
boundaries) of a vessel as measured by its
22-12. Damage-control bills. Damage- ability to limit flooding resulting from
control bills should outline the procedure for damage. This effectiveness must be
operating the various systems, in conformity maintained as nearly perfect as possible.
with the designated material conditions of
closure, so that the objectives of damage Many hull piping systems of ships are
control can best be attained. essential to the attainment of damage-control
objectives. Yet the very characteristics which
The descriptive matter, tables and diagrams make them useful create great hazards to the
contained in the ship's Damage Control maintenance of ship's essential
Book, are essential to making out damage-
control bills. These bills

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watertight integrity. Unless this is letters, general amendments, etc., from the
thoroughly understood, and the necessary Bureau of Ships to the ship concerned. The
steps taken to counteract the potential ship's supply officer can be of great service in
danger, an otherwise sound damage-control expediting the requisitioning and procurement
program may not serve to save the ship of all new material and equipment authorized
when severe damage is experienced. for damage-control purposes. Continuous
maintenance and replenishment of material
22-15. Damage-control material and and equipment already on hand is necessary.
equipment. The Bureau of Ship's hull Frequent checks of the amounts on hand is
allowance list for each ship tabulates the most desirable. Fixing of responsibility for
material and equipment allowed that ship for this in one reliable individual and requiring
damage-control purposes. The list is in a frequent reports are essential.
continual process of revision effected by
frequent

SHIP'S DAMAGE-CONTROL LIBRARY

Title Procurement Source

1. FTP-170B Reg. Pub. Iss. Office
2. FTP-222 Reg. Pub. Iss. Office
3. FTP-186 (FTP-209 for auxiliaries) Reg. Pub. Iss. Office
4. U.S. Navy Regulations BuPers
5. Fire Fighting Manual BuShips
6. Uses and Applications of Portable Emergency Pumping BuShips
Equipment (NavShips 250-689)
7. General Specifications for Building Vessels of the U.S. Navy BuShips
8. Appendices to the General Specifications BuShips
No. 4-Specification for Riveting
No. 5-Specification for Welding
No. 6-Instruction for Painting and Cementing No. 9-Gaskets and
Packing
No. 10-Nomenclature of Decks, Numbering of Watertight
Compartments, Labeling
9. BuShips Manual (including those Chapters from the C and R BuShips
Manual and M.E.I. which are still in effect)
10. Nomenclature of Naval Vessels U.S. Superintendent of
Documents
11. Gas! Know Your Chemical Warfare BuPers.
12. BuShips circular letters and bulletins in force BuShips
13. Diving Manual-1943 BuShips
14. Catalog of U.S.N. Training Films BuAer
15. Various Fleet and type directives on damage control Fleet and Type
Commanders
16. List of authorized alterations Type Commanders and
BuShips
17. Special liquid loading instructions (including ballasting) Type Commanders and
BuShips
18. Sequence table for burning fuel oil (Flooding effect diagram Type Commanders and
modified by special directives) BuShips
19. Damage Control Book BuShips or Building Yard
20. Booklet of Inclining Experiment Data BuShips or Inclining Yard
21. Booklet of General Plans BuShips or Building Yard
22. General Information Book BuShips or Building Yard
23. Schedule of watertight integrity tests and inspections BuShips or Building Yard
24. Damage-control allowance lists (Parts I, II, III) BuShips
25. BuShips hull allowance list BuShips
26. BuShips machinery allowance list BuShips
27. Hull Machinery Performance Data Book BuShips
28. Engineering Casualty Control Book Ship or Type Commander

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29. Damage-control bills Ship or precommissioning

detail

174

Title Procurement Source

30. Compartment check-off lists Ship or precommissioning detail
31. Copies of hull plans Building Yard
32. Ship's Organization Book Ship, Type Commander or
precommissioning detail
33. Book of Detail Specifications BuShips
34. War damage reports BuShips
35. Gas defense bulletins BuShips
36. First-aid bulletins BuMed
37. Enlarged copies of damage-control plates Building Yard or BuShips
and diagrams
38. Shipper's Manual (Crivelli) BuPers
39. Handbook of Damage Control BuPers

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