PDHonline Course M338 (5 PDH)

Fluid Power Systems (Part 3) –

Hydraulic Components

Instructor: A. Bhatia, B.E.

2020

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 NAVEDTRA 12964
Naval Education and July 1990 Training Manual
Training Command 0502-LP-213-2300 (TRAMAN)

Fluid Power

DISTRIBUTION STATEMENT A: Approved for public release; distribution is unlimited.

Nonfederal government personnel wanting a copy of this document

must use the purchasing instructions on the inside cover.
FLUID POWER

NAVEDTRA 12964

1990 Edition Prepared by

MWC Albert Beasley, Jr.
 CHAPTER 8

MEASUREMENT AND PRESSURE

CONTROL DEVICES
For safe and efficient operation, fluid power pointer. Thus, the pointer position indirectly
systems are designed to operate at a specific indicates pressure.
pressure and/or temperature, or within a pressure
and/or temperature range. The Bourdon-tube gauge is available in
You have learned that the lubricating power various tube shapes: curved or C-shaped, helical,
of hydraulic fluids varies with temperature and and spiral. The size, shape, and material of the
that excessively high temperatures reduce the life tube depend on the pressure range and the type
of hydraulic fluids. Additionally, you have of gauge desired. Low-pressure Bourdon tubes
learned that the materials, dimensions, and (pressures up to 2000 psi) are often made of
method of fabrication of fluid power components phosphor bronze. High-pressure Bourdon tubes
limit the pressure and temperature at which a (pressures above 2000 psi) are made of stainless
system operates. You have also learned of means steel or other high-strength materials. High-
of automatically controlling pressure in both pressure Bourdon tubes tend to have more circular
hydraulic and pneumatic systems. cross sections than their lower-range counterparts,
Most fluid power systems are provided with which tend to have oval cross sections. The
pressure gauges and thermometers for measuring Bourdon tube most commonly used is the
and indicating the pressure and/or the tempera- C-shaped metal tube that is sealed at one end and
ture in the system. Additionally, various tempera- open at the other (fig. 8-1).
ture and pressure switches are used to warn of an
adverse pressure or temperature condition. Some
switches will even shut the system off when an
adverse condition occurs. These devices will be
discussed in this chapter.

PRESSURE GAUGES

Many pressure-measuring instruments are

called gauges. However, this section will be
restricted to two mechanical instruments that
contain elastic elements that respond to pressures
found in fluid power systems—the Bourdon-tube
and bellows gauges.

BOURDON TUBE GAUGES

The majority of pressure gauges in use have

a Bourdon-tube as a measuring element. (The
gauge is named for its inventor, Eugene Bourdon,
a French engineer.) The Bourdon tube is a device
that senses pressure and converts the pressure to
displacement. Since the Bourdon-tube displace-
ment is a function of the pressure applied, it may
be mechanically amplified and indicated by a Figure 8-1.—Simplex Bourdon-tube pressure gauge.

8-1
C-shaped Bourdon Tube independently but with the two pointers mounted
on a common dial, the assembly is called a duplex
The C-shaped Bourdon tube has a hollow, gauge. Figure 8-2 shows a duplex gauge with views
elliptical cross section. It is closed at one end and of the dial and the operating mechanism. Note
is connected to the fluid pressure at the other end. that each Bourdon tube has its own pressure
When pressure is applied, its cross section connection and its own pointer. Duplex gauges
becomes more circular, causing the tube to are used to give a simultaneous indication of the
straighten out, like a garden hose when the water pressure from two different locations. For
is first turned on, until the force of the fluid example, it may be used to measure the inlet and
pressure is balanced by the elastic resistance of outlet pressures of a strainer to obtain the
the tube material. Since the open end of the tube differential pressure across it.
is anchored in a fixed position, changes in pressure
move the closed end. A pointer is attached to the Differential pressure may also be measured
closed end of the tube through a linkage arm and with Bourdon-tube gauges. One kind of Bourdon-
a gear and pinion assembly, which rotates the tube differential pressure gauge is shown in
pointer around a graduated scale. figure 8-3. This gauge has two Bourdon tubes
but only one pointer. The Bourdon tubes are
Bourdon-tube pressure gauges are often connected in such a way that they indicate the
classified as simplex or duplex, depending upon pressure difference, rather than either of two
whether they measure one pressure or two actual pressures.
pressures. A simplex gauge has only one Bourdon
tube and measures only one pressure. The pressure As mentioned earlier, Bourdon-tube pressure
gauge shown in figure 8-1 is a simplex gauge. A gauges are used in many hydraulic systems. In this
red hand is available on some gauges. This hand application they are usually referred to as
is manually positioned at the maximum operating hydraulic gauges. Bourdon-tube hydraulic gauges
pressure of the system or portion of the system are not particularly different from other types of
in which the gauge is installed. Bourdon-tube gauges in how they operate;
however, they do sometimes have special design
When two Bourdon tubes are mounted in features because of the extremely high system
a single case, with each mechanism acting pressures to which they may be exposed. For

Figure 8-2.—Duplex Bourdon-tube pressure gauge.

8-2
 Figure 8-4.—Spiral Bourdon tube.

section. Both were designed to provide more travel

of the tube tip, primarily for moving the recording
pen of pressure recorders.

BELLOWS ELASTIC ELEMENTS

A bellows elastic element is a convoluted unit

that expands and contracts axially with changes
in pressure. The pressure to be measured can be
applied to either the outside or the inside of the
bellows; in practice, most bellows measuring

Figure 8-3.—Bourdon-tube differential pressure gauge.

example, some hydraulic gauges have a special

type of spring-loaded linkage that is capable of
taking overpressure and underpressure without
damage to the movement and that keeps the
pointer from slamming back to zero when the
pressure is suddenly changed. A hydraulic gauge
that does not have such a device must be protected
by a suitable check valve. Some hydraulic gauges
may also have special dials that indicate both the
pressure (in psi) and the corresponding total force
being applied, for example tons of force produced
by a hydraulic press.

Spiral and Helical Bourdon Tubes

Spiral and helical Bourdon tubes (figs. 8-4 and

8-5) are made from tubing with a flattened cross Figure 8-5.—Helical Bourdon tube.

8-3
 devices have the pressure applied to the outside
of the bellows (fig. 8-6).

Simple Bellows Elements

Bellows elastic elements are made of brass,

phosphor bronze, stainless steel, beryllium-
copper, or other metal suitable for the intended
service of the gauge. Motion of the element
(bellows) is transmitted by suitable linkage and
gears to a dial pointer. Most bellows gauges are
spring-loaded—that is, a spring opposes the
bellows and thus prevents full expansion of the
bellows. Limiting the expansion of the bellows in
this way protects the bellows and prolongs its life.
Because of the elasticity in both the bellows and
the spring in a spring-loaded bellows element, the
relationship between the applied pressure and
bellows movement is linear.

Dual Bellows Indicators

Another type of bellows element is the dual-

bellows element. Figure 8-7 is a schematic diagram
of this indicator. Dual-bellows element pressure
indicators are used throughout the Navy as flow-
measuring, level-indicating, or pressure-indicating
Figure 8-6.—Simple bellows gauge. devices.

Figure 8-7.–Differential pressure sensor dual bellows.

8-4
 Figure 8-8.–Dual bellows assembly.

When in operation, the bellows will move in

proportion to the difference in pressure applied
across the bellows unit assembly. The linear
motion of the bellows is picked up by a drive arm
and transmitted as a rotary motion through a
torque tube assembly (fig. 8-8). The indicating
mechanism multiplies rotation of the torque tube
through a gear and pinion to the indicating
pointer.
Bellows elements are used in various appli-
cations where the pressure-sensitive device must
be powerful enough to operate not only the
indicating pointer but also some type of recording
device.

PRESSURE SWITCHES

Often when a measured pressure reaches a

certain maximum or minimum value, it is desir-
able to have an alarm sound a warning, a light
to give a signal, or an auxiliary control system to
energize or de-energize. A pressure switch is the
device commonly used for this purpose. Figure 8-9.—Typical pressure switch.
One of the simplest pressure switches is the
single-pole, single-throw, quick-acting type shown
in figure 8-9. This switch is contained in a metal

8-5
case that has a removable cover, an electrical
connection, and a pressure-sensing connection.
The switch contains a seamless metallic bellows
located in its housing. Changes in the measured
pressure causes the bellows to work against an
adjustable spring. This spring determines the
pressure required to actuate the switch. Through
suitable linkage, the spring causes the contacts to
open or close the electrical circuit automatically
when the operating pressure falls below or rises
above a specified value. A permanent magnet in
the switch mechanism provides a positive snap on
both the opening and closing of the contacts. The
switch is constantly energized. However, it is the
closing of the contacts that energizes the entire
electrical circuit.

Another pressure switch is an electric-

hydraulic assembly that is used for shutting off
the pump’s motor whenever the system pressure
exceeds a pre-determined maximum value (fig.
8-10). The switch is mounted on the pump housing
so that the former’s low pressure ports drain
directly into the pump housing.

This pressure switch principally consists of a

flange-mounted hydraulic valve to which is fixed
a normally closed electrical limit switch.

The valve consists of two hydraulically

interconnected components, the pilot valve sub-
assembly, which bolts on the bottom of the
body (l), functions to sense system pressure Figure 8-10.—Electric-hydraulic pressure switch.
continuously and initiates pressure switch action
whenever this pressure exceeds the adjusted setting
of the pilot adjustment. System pressure is TEMPERATURE-MEASURING
directed into the bottom port and is applied INSTRUMENTS
against the exposed tip of the pilot piston (5). This
piston is held on its seat by compression from the Temperature is the degree of hotness or
piston spring (6) which is dependent on the coldness of a substance measured on a definite
position of the adjusting screw (8). Whenever the scale. Temperature is measured when a measuring
pressure causes a force sufficiently large enough instrument, such as a thermometer, is brought
to raise the pilot piston from its seat, fluid into contact with the medium being measured.
flows through an interconnecting passage to the
actuating piston (2) chamber. The accompanying All temperature-measuring instruments use
fluid force raises the actuating piston against the some change in a material to indicate temperature.
force of spring 3 and causes depression of Some of the effects that are used to indicate
the extended switch plunger. This, in turn, temperature are changes in physical properties and
disconnects the contained electrical switch, which altered physical dimensions. One of the more
may be connected into the pump motor’s electric important physical properties used in temperature-
supply system. measuring instruments is the change in the length
of a material in the form of expansion and
Pressure switches come in many sizes and contraction.
configurations depending on how they will be Consider the uniform homogeneous bar
used. illustrated in figure 8-11. If the bar has a given

8-6
 Figure 8-11.—Expansion of a bar.

Figure 8-12.—Effect of unequal expansion of a bimetallic

length (LO) at some temperature and is heated, it strip.
will expand (Lf). The amount of expansion (AL)
is a function of the original length and the
temperature increase. The amount a material free end is connected to a pointer. The pointer
changes in length with temperature is called the actually indicates angular rotation of the helix;
linear coefficient of expansion. however, since the rotation is linear and a function
of temperature, the scale is marked in units of
The linear coefficient of expansion for a temperature.
material is a physical property of that material
and describes its behavior with respect to
temperature. DISTANT-READING THERMOMETERS

Distant-reading dial thermometers are used

BIMETALLIC EXPANSION when the indicating portion of the instrument
THERMOMETER must be placed at a distance from where the
temperature is being measured. The distant-
If two materials with different linear coef- reading thermometer has a long capillary, some
ficients are bonded together, as the temperature
changes their rate of expansion will be different.
This will cause the entire assembly to bend in an
arc as shown in figure 8-12.

When the temperature is raised, an arc is

formed around the material with the smaller
expansion coefficient. Since this assembly is
formed by joining two dissimilar materials, it is
known as a bimetallic element.

A modification of this bimetallic strip serves

as the basis for one of the simplest and most
commonly encountered temperature-measuring
instruments, the bimetallic thermometer.

Figure 8-13 shows a bimetallic thermometer.

In it, a bimetallic strip is wound in the form of
a long helix. One end of the helix is held rigid.
As the temperature varies, the helix tries to wind
or unwind. This causes the free end to rotate. The Figure 8-13.—Bimetallic thermometer.

8-7
as long as 125 feet, which separates the sensing or helix, which is connected to the actuating device
bulb from the Bourdon tube and dial (fig. 8-14). by a small tube or pipe. Figure 8-15 shows a
There are three basic types of distant-reading temperature switch and two types of sensing
thermometers: the liquid filled, the gas filled, elements.
and the combination liquid-vapor filled. The A temperature change causes a change in the
thermometers are filled with fluid (liquid or gas) volume of the sealed-in gas, which causes
at some temperature and sealed. Almost the entire movement of a bellows. The movement is
volume of the fluid is in the sensing bulb. transmitted by a plunger to the switch arm. The
As the temperature of the bulb changes, the moving contact is on the arm. A fixed contact may
volume of the fluid tries to change. Since be arranged so the switch will open or close on
the volume of the thermometer (sensing bulb, a temperature rise. This allows the switch contacts
capillary, and Bourdon tube) is constant, a to be arranged to close when the temperature
pressure change occurs within the thermometer. drops to a predetermined value and to open when
This pressure change causes the Bourdon tube to the temperature rises to the desired value. The
straighten out (with an increase in pressure), reverse action can be obtained by a change in the
working a system of levers and gears, which causes contact positions.
the thermometer pointer to move over the dial and
register temperature.
GAUGE SNUBBERS

TEMPERATURE SWITCHES The irregularity of impulses applied to the

fluid power system by some pumps or air
Temperature switches operate from tempera- compressors causes the gauge pointer to oscillate
ture changes occurring in an enclosure, or in the violently. This makes reading of the gauge not
air surrounding the temperature-sensing element. only difficult but often impossible. Pressure
The operation of the temperature switch is similar oscillations and other sudden pressure changes
to the operation of the pressure switch shown in existing in fluid power systems will also affect the
figure 8-9; both switches are operated by changes delicate internal mechanism of gauges and cause
in pressure. The temperature element is arranged either damage to or complete destruction of the
so a change in temperature causes a change in the
internal pressure of a sealed-gas or air-filled bulb

Figure 8-15.—Temperature switch with two types of sensing

Figure 8-14.—Distant-reading, Bourdon-tube thermometers. elements. A. Bulb unit. B. Helix unit.

8-8
gauge. A pressure gauge snubber is therefore
installed in the line that leads to the pressure
gauge.
The purpose of the snubber is to dampen the
oscillations and thus provide a steady reading and
protection for the gauge. The basic components
of a snubber are the housing, fitting assembly with
a fixed orifice diameter, and a pin and plunger
assembly (fig. 8-16). The snubbing action is
obtained by metering fluid through the snubber.
The fitting assembly orifice restricts the amount
of fluid that flows to the gauge, thereby snubbing
the force of a pressure surge. The pin is pushed
and pulled through the orifice of the fitting Figure 8-16.—Pressure gauge snubber.
assembly by the plunger, keeping it clean and at
a uniform size.

8-9
 CHAPTER 9

RESERVOIRS, STRAINERS, FILTERS,

AND ACCUMULATORS

Fluid power systems must have a sufficient

and continuous supply of uncontaminated fluid
to operate efficiently. As stated in chapter 3 and
emphasized throughout this manual, the fluid
must be kept free of all foreign matter.
This chapter covers hydraulic reservoirs,
various types of strainers and filters, and
accumulators installed in fluid power systems.

RESERVOIRS

A hydraulic system must have a reserve of

fluid in addition to that contained in the pumps,
actuators, pipes, and other components of the
system. This reserve fluid must be readily available
to make up losses of fluid from the system, to
make up for compression of the fluid under
pressure, and to compensate for the loss of Figure 9-1.—Nonpressurized reservoir (ground or ship
volume as the fluid cools. This extra fluid is installation).
contained in a tank usually called a reservoir. A
reservoir may sometimes be referred to as a sump
tank, service tank, operating tank, supply tank, system through the pump inlet line. This aids in
or base tank. settling the contamination and separating the air
In addition to providing storage for the reserve from the fluid.
fluid needed for the system, the reservoir acts as Large reservoirs are desirable for cooling. A
a radiator for dissipating heat from the fluid and large reservoir also reduces recirculation which
as a settling tank where heavy particles of helps settle contamination and separate air. As
contamination may settle out of the fluid and a ‘‘thumb rule,” the ideal reservoir should be two
remain harmlessly on the bottom until removed to three times the pump output per minute.
by cleaning or flushing of the reservoir. Also, the However, due to space limitations in mobile and
reservoir allows entrained air to separate from the aerospace systems, the benefits of a large reservoir
fluid. may have to be sacrificed. But, they must be large
Most reservoirs have a capped opening for enough to accommodate thermal expansion of the
filling, an air vent, an oil level indicator or dip fluid and changes in fluid level due to system
stick, a return line connection, a pump inlet or operation. Reservoirs are of two general types—
suction line connection, a drain line connection, nonpressurized and pressurized.
and a drain plug (fig. 9-1). The inside of the
reservoir generally will have baffles to prevent NONPRESSURIZED RESERVOIRS
excessive sloshing of the fluid and to put a
partition between the fluid return line and the Hydraulic systems designed to operate
pump suction or inlet line. The partition forces equipment at or near sea level are normally
the returning fluid to travel farther around the equipped with nonpressurized reservoirs. This
tank before being drawn back into the active includes the hydraulic systems of ground and ship

9-1
installations. A typical reservoir for use with The quantity of fluid in the reservoir is
ground and ship installations is shown in figure indicated by either a glass tube, a directing gauge,
9-1. This type of reservoir is made of hot rolled or a float-type rod, which is visible through a
steel plates and has welded seams. The ends extend transparent dome installed on the reservoir.
below the bottom of the reservoir and serve as
supports. The bottom of the reservoir is convex, PRESSURIZED RESERVOIRS
and a drain plug is incorporated at the lowest
point. A pressurized reservoir is required in hydraulic
Nonpressurized reservoirs are also used in systems where atmospheric pressure is insufficient
several transport-, patrol-, and utility-type to maintain a net positive suction head (NPSH)
aircraft. These aircraft are not designed for violent to the pump. There are two common types of
maneuvers and, in some cases, do not fly at high pressurized reservoirs—fluid-pressurized and
altitude. Those aircraft that have nonpressurized air-pressurized.
reservoirs installed and that fly at high altitudes
have the reservoirs installed within a pressurized Fluid-Pressurized Reservoir
area. (High altitude in this situation means an
altitude where atmospheric pressure is inadequate Some aircraft hydraulic systems use fluid
to maintain sufficient flow of fluid to the pressure for pressurizing the reservoir. The
hydraulic pumps.) reservoir shown in figure 9-3 is of this type. This
Most nonpressurized aircraft reservoirs are reservoir is divided into two chambers by a
constructed in a cylindrical shape (fig. 9-2). The floating piston. The piston is forced downward
outer housing is manufactured from a strong in the reservoir by a compression spring within
corrosion-resistant metal. Filter elements are the pressurizing cylinder and by system pressure
normally installed internally within the reservoir entering the pressurizing port of the cylinder.
to clean returning system hydraulic fluid. Some The pressurizing port is connected directly to
of the older aircraft have a filter bypass valve the pressure line. When the system is pressurized,
installed to allow fluid to bypass the filter if the pressure enters the pressure port, thus pressurizing
filter becomes clogged. Reservoirs that are filled the reservoir. This pressurizes the pump suction
by pouring fluid directly into them have a filler line and the reservoir return line to the same
(finger) strainer assembly installed in the filler well pressure.
to strain out impurities as the fluid enters the The reservoir shown in figure 9-3 has five
reservoir. ports—pump suction, return, pressurizing,
overboard drain, and bleed. Fluid is supplied to
the pump through the pump suction port. Fluid
returns to the reservoir from the system through
the return port. Pressure from the pump enters
the pressurizing cylinder in the top of the reservoir
through the pressurizing port. The overboard
drain port is used to drain the reservoir while
performing maintenance, and the bleed port is
used as an aid when servicing the reservoir.

Air-Pressurized Reservoirs

Air-pressurized reservoirs, such as the one

shown in figure 9-4, are currently used in many
high-performance naval aircraft. The reservoir is
cylindrical in shape and has a piston installed
internally to separate the air and fluid chambers.
Air pressure is usually provided by engine bleed
air. The piston rod end protrudes through the
reservoir end cap and indicates the fluid quantity.
The quantity indication may be seen by inspecting
the distance the piston rod protrudes from the
Figure 9-2.—Nonpressurized aircraft reservoir. reservoir end cap. The reservoir is provided with

9-2
 Figure 9-3.—Typical fluid-pressurized reservoir.

threaded openings for connecting fittings and Some air-pressurized reservoirs also have
components. Figure 9-4 shows several components direct contact of fluid to gas. These reservoirs are
installed in lines leading to and from the reservoir; installed in large systems and may be cylindrical
however, this may not be the case in actual or rectangular in shape. They contain an oil level
installation. The air relief valve, bleeder valve, and indicator, a pump inlet or suction line connection,
soon, may reinstalled directly on the reservoir. a return line, a gas pressurization and venting
connection, and a drain line connection or a drain
Because the reservoir is pressurized, it can plug. These reservoirs are pressurized by air from
normally be installed at any altitude and still the ship’s service air system or nitrogen banks.
maintain a positive flow of fluid to the pump. These reservoirs are found on board aircraft
carriers and submarines.

ACCUMULATORS

An accumulator is a pressure storage reservoir

in which hydraulic fluid is stored under pressure
from an external source. The storage of fluid
under pressure serves several purposes in hydraulic
systems.
In some hydraulic systems it is necessary to
maintain the system pressure within a specific
pressure range for long periods of time. It is very
difficult to maintain a closed system without some
leakage, either external or internal. Even a small
leak can cause a decrease in pressure. By using
Figure 9-4.—Air-pressurized reservoir. an accumulator, leakage can be compensated for

9-3
Figure 9-5.–Cross-section view of a piston-type accumulator with a tailrod.

9-4
and the system pressure can be maintained within is sufficient time during the working cycle for an
an acceptable range for long periods of time. accumulator to store up enough liquid to aid the
Accumulators also compensate for thermal pump during these peak demands.
expansion and contraction of the liquid due to The energy stored in accumulators maybe also
variations in temperature. used to actuate hydraulically operated units if
A liquid, flowing at a high velocity in a pipe normal hydraulic system failure occurs.
will create a backward surge when stopped Four types of accumulators used in Navy
suddenly by the closing of a valve. This sudden hydraulic systems are as follows:
stoppage causes instantaneous pressures two to
three times the operating pressure of the system. 1. Piston type
These pressures, or shocks, produce objectional 2. Bag or bladder type
noise and vibrations which can cause considerable 3. Direct-contact gas-to-fluid type
damage to piping, fittings, and components. The 4. Diaphragm type
incorporation of an accumulator enables such
shocks and surges to be absorbed or cushioned PISTON-TYPE ACCUMULATORS
by the entrapped gas, thereby reducing their
effects. The accumulator also dampens pressure Piston-type accumulators consist of a
surges caused by pulsating delivery from the cylindrical body called a barrel, closures on each
pump. end called heads, and an internal piston. The
There are times when hydraulic systems piston may be fitted with a tailrod, which extends
require large volumes of liquid for short periods through one end of the cylinder (fig. 9-5), or it
of time. This is due to either the operation of large may not have a tailrod at all (fig. 9-6). In the latter
cylinders or the necessity of operating two or more case, it is referred to as a floating piston.
circuits simultaneously. It is not economical to Hydraulic fluid is pumped into one end of the
install a pump of such large capacity in the system cylinder and the piston is forced toward the
for only intermittent usage, particularly if there opposite end of the cylinder against a captive

Figure 9-6.—Floating piston-type accumulator.

9-5
charge of air or an inert gas such as nitrogen.
Sometimes the amount of air charge is limited to
the volume within the accumulator; other
installations may use separate air flasks which are
piped to the air side of the accumulator. Piston
accumulators may be mounted in any position.
The gas portion of the accumulator may be
located on either side of the piston. For example,
in submarine hydraulic systems with tailrod
pistons, the gas is usually on the bottom and the
fluid on top; in surface ships with floating pistons,
the gas is usually on the top. The orientation of
the accumulator and the type of accumulator are
based upon such criteria as available space,
maintenance accessibility, size, need for external
monitoring of the piston’s location (tailrod
indication), contamination tolerance, seal life, and
safety. The purpose of the piston seals is to keep
the fluid and the gas separate.
Usually, tailrod accumulators use two piston
seals, one for the air side and one for the oil side,
with the space between them vented to the
atmosphere through a hole drilled the length of
the tailrod. When the piston seals fail in this type
of accumulator, air or oil leakage is apparent.
However, seal failure in floating piston or
nonvented tailrod accumulators will not be as
obvious. Therefore, more frequent attention to
venting or draining the air side is necessary. An
indication of worn and leaking seals can be
detected by the presence of significant amounts Figure 9-7.—Bladder-type accumulator.
of oil in the air side.

BLADDER-TYPE ACCUMULATORS the accumulator. Consequently, the bladder

accumulator has a very high volumetric efficiency.
Bladder- or bag-type accumulators consist of In other words, this type of accumulator is
a shell or case with a flexible bladder inside the capable of supplying a large percentage of the
shell. See figure 9-7. The bladder is larger in stored fluid to do work.
diameter at the top (near the air valve) and The bladder is precharged with air or inert gas
gradually tapers to a smaller diameter at the to a specified pressure. Fluid is then forced into
bottom. The synthetic rubber is thinner at the top the area around the bladder, further compressing
of the bladder than at the bottom. The operation the gas in the bladder. This type of accumulator
of the accumulator is based on Barlow’s formula has the advantage that as long as the bladder is
for hoop stress, which states: “The stress in a intact there is no exposure of fluid to the gas
circle is directly proportional to its diameter and charge and therefore less danger of an explosion.
wall thickness.” This means that for a certain
thickness, a large diameter circle will stretch faster DIRECT-CONTACT GAS-TO-FLUID
than a small diameter circle; or for a certain ACCUMULATORS
diameter, a thin wall hoop will stretch faster than
a thick wall hoop. Thus, the bladder will stretch Direct-contact gas-to-fluid accumulators
around the top at its largest diameter and thinnest generally are used in very large installations where
wall thickness, and then will gradually stretch it would be very expensive to require a piston-
downward and push itself outward against the or bladder-type accumulator. This type of
walls of the shell. As a result, the bladder is accumulator consists of a fully enclosed cylinder,
capable of squeezing out all the liquid from. mounted in a vertical position, containing a liquid

9-6
port on the bottom and a pneumatic charging port
at the top (fig. 9-8). This type of accumulator is
used in some airplane elevator hydraulic systems
where several thousand gallons of fluid are needed
to supplement the output of the hydraulic pumps
for raising the elevator platform. The direct
contact between the air or gas and the hydraulic
fluid tends to entrain excessive amounts of gas
in the fluid. For this reason, direct contact
accumulators are generally not used for pressures
over 1200 psi. The use of this type of accumulator
with flammable fluid is dangerous because there
is a possibility of explosion if any oxygen is
present in the gas, and pressure surges generate
excessive heat. For this reason, safety fluids are
used in this type of installation.

DIAPHRAGM ACCUMULATORS

The diaphragm-type accumulator is con- Figure 9-9.—Diaphragm accumulator.

structed in two halves which are either screwed
or bolted together. A synthetic rubber diaphragm
is installed between both halves, making two of the diaphragm. An air valve for pressurizing
chambers. Two threaded openings exist in the the accumulator is located in the gas chamber end
assembled component. The opening at the top, of the sphere, and the liquid port to the hydraulic
as shown in figure 9-9, contains a screen disc system is located on the opposite end of the
which prevents the diaphragm from extruding sphere. This accumulator operates in a manner
through the threaded opening when system similar to that of the bladder-type accumulator.
pressure is depleted, thus rupturing the dia-
phragm. On some designs the screen is replaced
by a button-type protector fastened to the center FILTRATION

You have learned that maintaining hydraulic

fluids within allowable limits is crucial to
the care and protection of hydraulic equipment.
While every effort must be made to prevent
contaminants from entering the system, con-
taminants which do find their way into the system
must be removed. Filtration devices are installed
at key points in fluid power systems to remove
the contaminants that enter the system along
with those that are generated during normal
operations.
Filtration devices for hydraulic systems differ
somewhat from those of pneumatic systems.
Therefore, they will be discussed separately.
The filtering devices used in hydraulic systems
are commonly referred to as strainers and filters.
Since they share a common function, the terms
strainer and filter are often used interchangeably.
As a general rule, devices used to remove large
particles of foreign matter from hydraulic fluids
are referred to as strainers, while those used to
remove the smallest particles are referred to as
Figure 9-8.—Direct-contact gas-to-fluid accumulator. filters.

9-7
STRAINERS

Strainers are used primarily to catch only very

large particles and will be found in applications
where this type of protection is required. Most
hydraulic systems have a strainer in the reservoir
at the inlet to the suction line of the pump. A
strainer is used in lieu of a filter to reduce its
chance of being clogged and starving the pump.
However, since this strainer is located in the
reservoir, its maintenance is frequently neglected.
When heavy dirt and sludge accumulate on the
suction strainer, the pump soon begins to cavitate.
Pump failure follows quickly.

FILTERS

The most common device installed in

hydraulic systems to prevent foreign particles and
contamination from remaining in the system are Figure 9-10.—Full-flow hydraulic filter.
referred to as filters. They may be located in the
reservoir, in the return line, in the pressure line,
or in any other location in the system where the gauges as indicators, the differential pressure must
designer of the system decides they are needed to be obtained by subtracting the readings of two
safeguard the system against impurities. gauges located somewhere along the filter inlet
Filters are classified as full flow and and outlet piping. For pop-up indicators, when
proportional or partial flow. In the full-flow type the increase in pressure reaches a specific value,
of filter, all the fluid that enters the unit passes an indicator (usually in the filter head) pops out,
through the filtering element, while in the signifying that the filter must be cleaned or
proportional-flow type, only a portion of the fluid replaced. A low-temperature lockout feature is
passes through the element. installed in most pop-up types of contamination
indicators to eliminate the possibility of false
Full-Flow Filter indications due to cold weather because the
pressure differential may be much higher with a
The full-flow filter provides a positive filtering cold fluid due to increased viscosity.
action; however, it offers resistance to flow, Filter elements used in filters that have a
particularly when the element becomes dirty. contamination indicator are not normally
Hydraulic fluid enters the filter through the inlet removed or replaced until the indicator is
port in the body and flows around the filter actuated. This decreases the possibility of system
element inside the filter bowl. Filtering takes place contamination from outside sources due to
as the fluid passes through the filtering element unnecessary handling.
and into the hollow core, leaving the dirt and The use of the nonbypassing type of filter
impurities on the outside of the filter element. eliminates the possibility of contaminated fluid
The filtered fluid then flows from the hollow bypassing the filter element and contaminating the
core through the outlet port and into the system entire system. This type of filter will minimize the
(fig. 9-10). necessity for flushing the entire system and lessen
Some full-flow filters are equipped with a the possibility of failure of pumps and other
contamination indicator (fig. 9-11). These components in the system.
indicators, also known as differential pressure A bypass relief valve is installed in some filters.
indicators, are available in three types—gauge The bypass relief valve allows the fluid to bypass
indicators, mechanical pop-up indicators, and the filter element and pass directly through the
electrical with mechanical pop-up indicators. As outlet port in the event that the filter element
contaminating particles collect on the filter becomes clogged. These filters may or may not
element, the differential pressure across the be equipped with the contamination indicator.
element increases. In some installations using Figure 9-11 shows a full-flow bypass-type

9-8
Figure 9-11.—Full-flow bypass-type hydraulic filter (with contamination indicator).

9-9
hydraulic filter with a contamination indicator. Before corrective action is taken based on
Figure 9-12 shows a full-flow bypass-type indicator readings, the bypass condition should
hydraulic filter without a contamination indicator. be verified at normal operating temperature and
A filter bypass indicator provides a positive flow conditions by attempting to reset the
indication, when activated, that fluid is bypassing indicator.
the filter element by flowing through the bypass
relief valve. This indicator should not be confused
with the pop-up differential pressure indicator Proportional-Flow Filter
previously discussed which simply monitors the
pressure across the element. With the bypass This type of filter operates on the venturi
indicator, a similar pop-up button is often used principle. (See glossary.) As the fluid passes
to signal that maintenance is needed. However, through the venturi throat a drop in pressure is
the bypass indicators further signal that, as a created at the narrowest point. See figure 9-13.
result of the high differential pressures across the A portion of the fluid flowing toward and away
element, an internal bypass relief valve has lifted from the throat of the venturi flows through the
and some of the fluid is bypassing the element. passages into the body of the filter. A fluid
Identification of the type of installed indicator passage connects the hollow core of the filter with
can be obtained from filter manifold drawings or the throat of the venturi. Thus, the low-pressure
related equipment manuals. Both a fluid bypass area at the throat of the venturi causes the fluid
indicator and a differential pressure indicator or under pressure in the body of the filter to flow
gauge may be installed on the same filter through the filter element, through the hollow
assembly. core, into the low-pressure area, and then return
As with differential pressure indicators, bypass to the system. Although only a portion of the fluid
relief indicators can be activated by pressure is filtered during each cycle, constant recirculation
surges, such as may develop during cold starts or through the system will eventually cause all the
rapid system pressurization. On some relief fluid to pass through the filter element.
indicators, the pop-up button, or whatever signal
device is used, will return to a normal position
when the surge passes and pressure is reduced.
Other relief indicators may continue to indicate
a bypass condition until they are manually reset.

Figure 9-12.—Full-flow bypass-type hydraulic filter. Figure 9-13.Proportional-flow filter.

9-10
Filter Rating

Filters are rated in several ways—absolute,

mean, and nominal. The absolute filtration rating
is the diameter in microns of the largest spherical
particle that will pass through the filter under a
certain test condition. This rating is an indication
of the largest opening in the filter element. The
mean filtration rating is the measurement of the
average size of the openings in the filter element.
The nominal filtration rating is usually interpreted
to mean the size of the smallest particles of which Figure 9-14.—Cross-section of a stainless steel hydraulic filter
90 percent will be trapped in the filter at each pass element.
through the filter.

of this material may be either cleanable or

Filter Elements noncleanable, depending upon their construction.

Filter elements generally may be divided into WOVEN WIRE-MESH FILTER ELE-
two classes—surface and depth. Surface filters are MENTS.— Filters of this type are made of
made of closely woven fabric or treated paper with stainless steel and are generally rated as 15 or 25
a uniform pore size. Fluid flows through the pores micron (absolute). Figure 9-14 shows a magnified
of the filter material and contaminants are cross section of a woven wire-mesh filter element.
stopped on the filter’s surface. This type of This type of filter is reusable.
element is designed to prevent the passage of a
high percentage of solids of a specific size. Depth MICRONIC HYDRAULIC FILTER ELE-
filters, on the other hand, are composed of layers MENT.— The term micronic is derived from the
of fabric or fibers which provide many tortuous word micron. It could be used to describe any
paths for the fluid to flow through. The pores or filter element; however, through usage, this term
passages must be larger than the rated size of the has become associated with a specific filter with
filter if particles are to be retained in the depth a filtering element made of a specially treated
of the media rather than on the surface. cellulose paper (fig. 9-15). The filter shown in
Consequently, there is a statistical probability figure 9-10 is a typical micronic hydraulic filter.
that a rather large particle may pass through a This filter is designed to remove 99 percent of all
depth-type filter. particles 10 to 20 microns in diameter or larger.
Filter elements may be of the 5-micron, woven
mesh, micronic, porous metal, or magnetic type.
The micronic and 5-micron elements have
noncleanable filter media and are disposed of
when they are removed. Porous metal, woven
mesh, and magnetic filter elements are usually
designed to be cleaned and reused.

5-MICRON NONCLEANABLE FILTER

ELEMENTS.— The most common 5-micron filter
medium is composed of organic and inorganic
fibers integrally bonded by epoxy resin and faced
with a metallic mesh upstream and downstream
for protection and added mechanical strength.
Filters of this type are not to be cleaned under
any circumstances and will be marked Disposable
or Noncleanable.
Another 5-micron filter medium uses layers
of very fine stainless-steel fibers drawn into a
random but controlled matrix. Filter elements Figure 9-15.—Micronic filter element.

9-11 &
The replaceable element is made of specially and drop to the bottom of the bowl. The air then
treated convolutions (wrinkles) to increase its flows through the filter element, which filters out
dirt-holding capacity. The element is noncleanable most of the smaller particles. This type of filter
and should be replaced with a new filter element is designed with a drain valve at the bottom of
during maintenance inspections. the bowl. When the valve is opened with air
pressure in the system, the accumulation of solids
MAGNETIC FILTERS.— Some hydraulic
and water will be blown out of the bowl.
systems have magnetic filters installed at strategic
An air filter that uses moving mechanical
points. Filters of this type are designed primarily devices as an element is illustrated in figure 9-17.
to trap any ferrous particles that may be in the As compressed air passes through the filter the
system.
force revolves a number of multi-blade rotors at
PNEUMATIC GASES high speed. Moisture and dirt are caught on the
blades of the rotors. The whirling blades hurl the
Clean, dry gas is required for the efficient impurities by centrifugal force to the outer rims
operation of pneumatic systems. Due to the of the rotors and to the inner walls of the filter
normal conditions of the atmosphere, free air housing. Here, contaminating matter is out of the
seldom satisfies these requirements adequately. airstream and falls to the bottom of the bowl
The atmosphere contains both dust and impurities where it must be drained at periodic intervals.
in various amounts and a substantial amount of
moisture in vapor form. Removal of Moisture
Solids, such as dust, rust, or pipe scale in The removal of moisture from compressed air
pneumatic systems, may lead to excessive wear is important for a compressed air system. If air
and failure of components and, in some cases, at atmospheric pressure, even at a very low relative
may prevent the pneumatic devices from operating. humidity, is compressed to 3000 or 4500 psi, it
Moisture is also very harmful to the system. It becomes saturated with water vapor. Some
washes lubrication from moving parts, thereby moisture is removed by the intercoolers and
aiding corrosion and causing excessive wear of aftercoolers (see glossary). Also, air flasks,
components. Moisture will also settle in low spots receivers, and banks are provided with low point
in the system and freeze during cold weather, drains to allow periodic draining of any collected
causing a stoppage of the system or ruptured lines. moisture. However, many uses of air require air
An ideal filter would remove all dirt and with an even smaller moisture content than can
moisture from a pneumatic system without be obtained through these methods. Moisture in
causing a pressure drop in the process. Obviously,
such a condition can only be approached; it
cannot be attained.

Removal of Solids
The removal of solids from the gas of
pneumatic systems is generally done by screening
(filtering), centrifugal force, or a combination of
the two. In some cases, the removal of moisture
is done in conjunction with the removal of solids.
Some types of air filters are similar in design
and operation to the hydraulic filters discussed
earlier. Some materials used in the construction
of elements for air filters are woven screen wire,
steel wool, fiber glass, and felt fabrics. Elements
made of these materials are often used in the unit
that filters the air as it enters the compressor.
Porous metal and ceramic elements are
commonly used in filters that are installed in the
compressed air supply lines. These filters also use
a controlled air path to provide some filtration.
Internal design causes the air to flow in a circular
path within the bowl (fig. 9-16). Heavy particles
and water droplets are thrown out of the airstream Figure 9-16.—Air filter.

9-12
 (dehydrator, air purifier, and desiccator are all
terms used by different manufacturers to identify
these components) are used to dry the compressed
air. Some water removal devices are similar in
design and operation to the filters shown in figures
9-16 and 9-17. Two basic types of air dehydrators
are the refrigerated-type and the desiccant-type.
REFRIGERATED-TYPE DEHYDRATORS.–
In refrigerated-type dehydrators, compressed air
is passed over a set of refrigerated cooling coils. Oil
and moisture vapors condense from the air and can
be collected and removed via a low point drain.
DESICCANT-TYPE DEHYDRATORS.– A
desiccant is a chemical substance with a high
capacity to absorb water or moisture. It also has
the capacity to give off that moisture so that the
desiccant can be reused.
Some compressed air system dehydrators use
Figure 9-17.—Air filter using rotating blades as element. a pair of desiccant towers (flasks full of desiccant).
One is kept in service dehydrating the compressed
air, while the other one is being reactivated. A
air lines can create problems which are potentially desiccant tower is normally reactivated by passing
hazardous, such as the freezing of valves and dry, heated air through it in the direction opposite
controls. This can occur, for example, if very high the normal dehydration airflow.
pressure air is throttled to a very low pressure at Another type of chemical drier is shown in
a high flow rate. The venturi effect of the throttled figure 9-18. This unit consists of the housing, a
air produces very low temperatures which will cartridge containing a chemical agent, a filter
cause any moisture in the air to freeze into ice. (sintered bronze), and a spring. Various types of
This makes the valve (especially an automatic absorbent chemicals are used by the different
valve) either very difficult or impossible to manufacturers in the construction of the
operate. Also, droplets of water can cause serious cartridges. To ensure proper filtering, the air must
water hammer in an air system which has high pass through the drier in the proper direction. The
pressure and a high flow rate and can cause correct direction of flow is indicated by an arrow
corrosion, rust, and dilution of lubricants within and the word FLOW printed on the side of the
the system. For these reasons, air driers cartridge.

Figure 9-18.–Chemical drier.

9-13
 CHAPTER 10

ACTUATORS
One of the outstanding features of fluid power usually considered one in which the cross-sectional
systems is that force, generated by the power area of the piston rod is more than one-half the
supply, controlled and directed by suitable cross-sectional area of the movable element. In
valving, and transported by lines, can be con- most actuating cylinders of this type, the rod and
verted with ease to almost any kind of mechanical the movable element have equal areas. This type
motion desired at the very place it is needed. of movable element is frequently referred to as
Either linear (straight line) or rotary motion can a plunger.
be obtained by using a suitable actuating device. The ram-type actuator is used primarily to
An actuator is a device that converts fluid push rather than to pull. Some applications
power into mechanical force and motion. require simply a flat surface on the external part
Cylinders, motors, and turbines are the most of the ram for pushing or lifting the unit to
common types of actuating devices used in fluid be operated. Other applications require some
power systems. mechanical means of attachment, such as a clevis
This chapter describes various types of or eyebolt. The design of ram-type cylinders varies
actuating cylinders and their applications, in many other respects to satisfy the requirements
different types of fluid motors, and turbines used of different applications.
in fluid power systems.
Single-Acting Ram

CYLINDERS The single-acting ram (fig. 10-1) applies force

in only one direction. The fluid that is directed
An actuating cylinder is a device that converts into the cylinder displaces the ram and forces it
fluid power to linear, or straight line, force and outward, lifting the object placed on it. Since there
motion. Since linear motion is a back-and-forth
motion along a straight line, this type of actuator
is sometimes referred to as a reciprocating, or
linear, motor. The cylinder consists of a ram or
piston operating within a cylindrical bore. Actuat-
ing cylinders may be installed so that the cylinder
is anchored to a stationary structure and the ram
or piston is attached to the mechanism to be
operated, or the piston or ram may be anchored
to the stationary structure and the cylinder
attached to the mechanism to be operated.
Actuating cylinders for pneumatic and
hydraulic systems are similar in design and
operation. Some of the variations of ram- and
piston-type actuating cylinders are described in
the following paragraphs.

RAM-TYPE CYLINDERS

The terms ram and piston are often used

interchangeably. However, a ram-type cylinder is Figure 10-1.—Single-acting ram-type actuating cylinder.

10-1
is no provision for retracting the ram by fluid the bottom surface of the ram, and forces the ram
power, when fluid pressure is released, either the outward. Fluid above the ram lip is free to flow
weight of the object or some mechanical means, out of port B, through the control valve, and to
such as a spring, forces the ram back into the the return line in hydraulic systems or to the
cylinder. This forces the fluid back to the atmosphere in pneumatic systems.
reservoir. Normally, the pressure of the fluid is the same
The single-acting ram-type actuating cylinder for either stroke of the ram. Recall from chapter
is often used in the hydraulic jack. The elevators 2 that force is equal to pressure times area
used to move aircraft to and from the flight deck (F= PA). Notice the difference of the areas upon
and hangar deck on aircraft carriers also use which the pressure acts in figure 10-2. The
cylinders of this type. In these elevators, the pressure acts against the large surface area on the
cylinders are installed horizontally and operate the bottom of the ram during the extension stroke,
elevator through a series of cables and sheaves. during which time the ram applies force. Since
Fluid pressure forces the ram outward and lifts the ram does not require a large force during the
the elevator. When fluid pressure is released from retraction stroke, pressure acting on the small area
the ram, the weight of the elevator forces the ram on the top surface of the ram lip provides the
back into the cylinder. This, in turn, forces the necessary force to retract the ram.
fluid back into the reservoir.
Telescoping Rams
Double-Acting Ram
Figure 10-3 shows a telescoping ram-type
A double-acting ram-type cylinder is illustrated actuating cylinder. A series of rams is nested in
in figure 10-2. In this cylinder, both strokes of the telescoping assembly. With the exception of
the ram are produced by pressurized fluid. There the smallest ram, each ram is hollow and serves
are two fluid ports, one at or near each end of as the cylinder housing for the next smaller ram.
the cylinder. Fluid under pressure is directed to The ram assembly is contained in the main
the closed end of the cylinder to extend the ram cylinder assembly, which also provides the fluid
and apply force. To retract the ram and reduce ports. Although the assembly requires a small
the force, fluid is directed to the opposite end of space with all the rams retracted, the telescoping
the cylinder. action of the assembly provides a relatively long
A four-way directional control valve is stroke when the rams are extended.
normally used to control the double-acting ram. An excellent example of the application of this
When the valve is positioned to extend the ram, type of cylinder is in the dump truck. It is used
pressurized fluid enters port A (fig. 10-2), acts on to lift the forward end of the truck bed and dump
the load. During the lifting operation, the greatest
force is required for the initial lifting of the load.

Figure 10-2.—Double-acting ram-type actuating cylinder. Figure 10-3.—Telescoping ram-type actuating cylinder.

10-2
As the load is lifted and begins to dump, the
required force becomes less and less until the load
is completely dumped. During the raise cycle,
pressurized fluid enters the cylinder through port
A (fig. 10-3) and acts on the bottom surface of
all three rams. Ram 1 has a larger surface area
and, therefore, provides the greater force for the
initial load, As ram 1 reaches the end of its stroke
and the required force is decreased, ram 2 moves,
providing the smaller force needed to continue
raising the load. When ram 2 completes its stroke, Figure 10-4.-Dual ram actuating assembly.
a still smaller force is required. Ram 3 then moves
outward to finish raising and dumping the load.
Some telescoping ram-type cylinders are of the action displaces the fluid in the opposite cylinder.
single-acting type. Like the single-acting ram The displaced fluid flows back through the
discussed previously, these telescoping ram-type directional control valve to the return line or
cylinders are retracted by gravity or mechanical reservoir in hydraulic systems or to the
force. Some hydraulic jacks are equipped with atmosphere in pneumatic systems.
telescoping rams. Such jacks are used to lift Dual ram actuating assemblies are used in
vehicles with low clearances to the required height. steering systems of most ships. In some systems,
Other types of telescoping cylinders, like the one assembly is used to actuate the rudder in either
one illustrated in figure 10-3, are of the double- direction; while in other systems, two assemblies
acting type. In this type, fluid pressure is used for are used for the same purpose.
both the extension and retraction strokes. A four-
way directional control valve is commonly used PISTON-TYPE CYLINDERS
to control the operation of the double-acting type.
Note the small passages in the walls of rams 1 and An actuating cylinder in which the cross-
2. They provide a path for fluid to flow to and sectional area of the piston is less than one-half
from the chambers above the lips of rams 2 and the cross-sectional area of the movable element
3. During the extension stroke, return fluid flows is referred to as a piston-type cylinder. This type
through these passages and out of the cylinder of cylinder is normally used for applications that
through port B. It then flows through the require both push and pull functions. The piston-
directional control valve to the return line or type cylinder is the most common type used in
reservoir. fluid power systems.
To retract the rams, fluid under pressure is The essential parts of a piston-type cylinder
directed into the cylinder through port B and acts are a cylindrical barrel, a piston and rod, end caps,
against the top surface areas of all three ram lips. and suitable seals. The end caps are attached to
This forces the rams to the retracted position. The the ends of the barrel. These end caps usually
displaced fluid from the opposite side of the rams contain the fluid ports. The end cap on the rod
flows out of the cylinder through port A, through end contains a hole for the piston rod to pass
the directional control valve to the return line or through. Suitable seals are used between the hole
reservoir. and the piston rod to keep fluid from leaking out
and to keep dirt and other contaminants from
Dual Rams entering the barrel. The opposite end cap of most
cylinders is provided with a fitting for securing
A dual ram assembly consists of a single ram the actuating cylinder to some structure. This end
with a cylinder at either end (fig. 10-4). Fluid can cap is referred to as the anchor end cap.
be directed to either cylinder, forcing the ram to The piston rod may extend through either or
move in the opposite direction. The ram is both ends of the cylinder. The extended end of
connected through mechanical linkage to the unit the rod is normally threaded so that some type
to be operated. A four-way directional control of mechanical connector, such as an eyebolt or
valve is commonly used to operate the dual ram. a clevis, and a locknut can be attached. This
When the control valve is positioned to direct fluid threaded connection of the rod and mechanical
under pressure to one of the cylinders (let’s say connector provides for adjustment between the
the left one), the ram is forced to the right. This rod and the unit to be actuated. After the correct

10-3
adjustment is made, the locknut is tightened cylinder. The spring tension forces the piston to
against the connector to prevent the connector the left, retracting the piston rod and moving the
from turning. The other end of the connector is actuated unit in the opposite direction. The fluid
attached, either directly or through additional is free to flow from the cylinder through the port,
mechanical linkage, to the unit to be actuated. back through the control valve to the return line
In order to satisfy the many requirements of in hydraulic systems or to the atmosphere in
fluid power systems, piston-type cylinders are pneumatic systems.
available in various designs. The end of the cylinder opposite the fluid port
is vented to the atmosphere. This prevents air
Single-Acting Cylinder from being trapped in this area. Any trapped air
would compress during the extension stroke,
The single-acting piston-type cylinder is similar creating excess pressure on the rod side of the
in design and operation to the single-acting piston. This would cause sluggish movement of
ram-type cylinder. The single-acting piston-type the piston and could eventually cause a complete
cylinder uses fluid pressure to provide the force lock, preventing the fluid pressure from moving
in one direction, and spring tension, gravity, the piston.
compressed air, or nitrogen is used to provide the The spring-loaded cylinder is used in arresting
force in the opposite direction. Figure 10-5 shows gear systems on some models of carrier aircraft.
a single-acting, spring-loaded, piston-type To raise (retract) the arresting hook, fluid pressure
actuating cylinder. In this cylinder the spring is is directed through the arresting hook control
located on the rod side of the piston. In some valve to the rod side of the cylinder. This force
spring-loaded cylinders the spring is located on moves the piston, which, through the rod and
the blank side, and the fluid port is on the rod mechanical linkage, retracts the arresting hook.
side of the cylinder. The arresting hook extends when fluid pressure
A three-way directional control valve is is released from the rod side of the cylinder,
normally used to control the operation of the allowing the spring to expand.
single-acting piston-type cylinder. To extend the Leakage between the cylinder wall and piston
piston rod, fluid under pressure is directed is prevented by adequate seals. The piston in
through the port into the cylinder (fig. 10-5). This figure 10-5 contains V-ring seals.
pressure acts on the surface area of the blank side
of the piston and forces the piston to the right. Double-Acting Cylinder
This action moves the rod to the right, through
the end of the cylinder, thus moving the actuated Most piston-type actuating cylinders are
unit in one direction. During this action, the double-acting, which means that fluid under
spring is compressed between the rod side of the pressure can be applied to either side of the piston
piston and the end of the cylinder. The length of to apply force and provide movement.
the stroke depends upon the physical limits within One design of the double-acting cylinder is
the cylinder and the required movement of the shown in figure 10-6. This cylinder contains one
actuated unit. piston and piston rod assembly. The stroke of the
To retract the piston rod, the directional piston and piston rod assembly in either direction
control valve is moved to the opposite working is produced by fluid pressure. The two fluid ports,
position, which releases the pressure in the one near each end of the cylinder, alternate as inlet
and outlet ports, depending on the direction of

Figure 10-5.—Single-acting, spring-loaded, piston-type

actuating cylinder. Figure 10-6.-Doub1e-acting piston-type actuating cylinder.

10-4
flow from the directional control valve. This
actuator (fig. 10-6) is referred to as an unbalanced
actuating cylinder because there is a difference in
the effective working areas on the two sides of
the piston. Therefore, this type of cylinder is
normally installed so that the blank side of the
piston carries the greater load; that is, the cylinder
carries the greater load during the piston rod
extension stroke. Figure 10-8.-Balanced, double-acting piston-type actuating
A four-way directional control valve is cylinder.
normally used to control the operation of this type
of cylinder. The valve can be positioned to direct
fluid under pressure to either end of the cylinder piston rod may be attached to a mechanism to
and allow the displaced fluid to flow from the be operated. In either case, the cylinder provides
opposite end of the cylinder through the control equal areas on each side of the piston. Therefore,
valve to the return line in hydraulic systems or the same amount of fluid and force is used to
to the atmosphere in pneumatic systems. move the piston a certain distance in either
There are applications where it is necessary to direction.
move two mechanisms at the same time. In this
case, double-acting piston-type actuating cylinders Tandem Cylinders
of different designs are required. See figures 10-7
and 10-8. A tandem actuating cylinder consists of two
Figure 10-7 shows a three-port, double-acting or more cylinders arranged one behind the other
piston-type actuating cylinder. This actuator but designed as a single unit (fig. 10-9). This type
contains two pistons and piston rod assemblies. of actuating cylinder is used in applications that
Fluid is directed through port A by a four-way require two or more independent systems; for
directional control valve and moves the pistons example, power-operated flight control systems
outward, thus moving the mechanisms attached in naval aircraft.
to the pistons’ rods. The fluid on the rod side of The flow of fluid to and from the two
each piston is forced out of the cylinder through chambers of the tandem actuating cylinder is
ports B and C, which are connected by a common provided from two independent hydraulic systems
line to the directional control valve. The displaced and is controlled by two sliding spool directional
fluid then flows through the control valve to the control valves. In some applications, the control
return line or to the atmosphere. valves and the actuating cylinder are two separate
When fluid under pressure is directed into the units. In some units, the pistons (lands) of the two
cylinder through ports B and C, the two pistons sliding spools are machined on one common shaft.
move inward, also moving the mechanisms In other applications, the valves and the actuator
attached to them. Fluid between the two pistons are directly connected in one compact unit.
is free to flow from the cylinder through port A Although the two control valves are hydraulically
and through the control valve to the return line independent, they are interconnected mechanically.
or to the atmosphere. In other units, the two sliding spools are connected
The actuating cylinder shown in figure 10-8 through mechanical linkages with a synchronizing
is a double-acting balanced type. The piston rod rod. In either case, the movement of the two
extends through the piston and out through both sliding spools is synchronized, thus equalizing the
ends of the cylinder. One or both ends of the

Figure 10-7.—Three-port, double-acting actuating cylinder. Figure 10-9.—Tandem actuating cylinder.

10-5
flow of fluid to and from the two chambers of The actuator consists of a body and two
the actuating cylinder. reciprocating pistons with an integral rack for
rotating the shaft mounted in roller or journal
Since the two control valves operate bearings. The shaft and bearings are located in
independently of each other as far as hydraulic a central position and are enclosed with a bearing
pressure is concerned, failure of either hydraulic cap. The pistons, one on each side of the rack,
system does not render the actuator inoperative. are enclosed in cylinders machined or sleeved into
Failure of one system does reduce the output force the body. The body is enclosed with end caps and
by one-half; however, this force is sufficient to static seals to prevent external leakage of
permit operation of the actuator. pressurized fluid.
Only a few of the many applications of
actuating cylinders were discussed in the preceding
RACK-AND-PINION PISTON-TYPE paragraphs. Figure 10-11 shows additional types
ROTARY ACTUATORS of force and motion applications.
In addition to its versatility, the cylinder-type
The rack-and-pinion-type actuators, also actuator is probably the most trouble-free
referred to as limited rotation cylinders, of the component of fluid power systems. However, it
single or multiple, bidirectional piston are used is very important that the cylinder, mechanical
for turning, positioning, steering, opening and linkage, and actuating unit are correctly aligned.
closing, swinging, or any other mechanical Any misalignment will cause excessive wear of the
function involving restricted rotation. Figure piston, piston rod, and seals. Also, proper
10-10 shows a typical rack-and-pinion double- adjustment between the piston rod and the
piston actuator. actuating unit must be maintained.

Figure 10-10.—Rack-and-pinion double-piston rotary actuator.

10-6
Figure 10-11.—Applications of actuating cylinders.

10-7
 MOTORS controlled by either a four-way directional control
valve or a variable-displacement pump.
A fluid power motor is a device that converts
fluid power energy to rotary motion and force. Fluid motors are usually classified according
The function of a motor is opposite that of a to the type of internal element, which is directly
pump. However, the design and operation of actuated by the flow. The most common types of
fluid power motors are very similar to pumps. elements are the gear, the vane, and the piston,
Therefore, a thorough knowledge of the pumps AU three of these types are adaptable for hydraulic
described in chapter 4 will help you understand systems, while only the vane type is used in
the operation of fluid power motors. pneumatic systems.
Motors have many uses in fluid power
systems. In hydraulic power drives, pumps and
motors are combined with suitable lines and valves GEAR-TYPE MOTORS
to form hydraulic transmissions. The pump,
commonly referred to as the A-end, is driven by The spur, helical, and herringbone design
some outside source, such as an electric motor. gears are used in gear-type motors. The motors
The pump delivers fluid to the motor. The motor, use external-type gears, as discussed in chapter 4.
referred to as the B-end, is actuated by this flow,
and through mechanical linkage conveys rotary The operation of a gear-type motor is shown
motion and force to the work. This type of power in figure 10-12. Both gears are driven gears;
drive is used to operate (train and elevate) many however, only one is connected to the output
of the Navy’s guns and rocket launchers. shaft. As fluid under pressure enters chamber A,
Hydraulic motors are commonly used to operate it takes the path of least resistance and flows
the wing flaps, radomes, and radar equipment in around the inside surface of the housing, forcing
aircraft. Air motors are used to drive pneumatic the gears to rotate as indicated. The flow
tools. Air motors are also used in missiles to continues through the outlet port to the return.
convert the kinetic energy of compressed gas into This rotary motion of the gears is transmitted
electrical power, or to drive the pump of a through the attached shaft to the work unit.
hydraulic system.
Fluid motors may be either fixed or variable The motor shown in figure 10-12 is operating
displacement. Fixed-displacement motors provide in one direction; however, the gear-type motor is
constant torque and variable speed. The speed is capable of providing rotary motion in either
varied by controlling the amount of input flow. direction. To reverse the direction of rotation, the
Variable-displacement motors are constructed so ports may be alternated as inlet and outlet. When
that the working relationship of the internal parts fluid is directed through the outlet port (fig. 10-12)
can be varied to change displacement. The into chamber B, the gears rotate in the opposite
majority of the motors used in fluid power direction.
systems are the fixed-displacement type.
Although most fluid power motors are capable
of providing rotary motion in either direction,
some applications require rotation in only one
direction. In these applications, one port of the
motor is connnected to the system pressure line and
the other port to the return line or exhausted to
the atmosphere. The flow of fluid to the motor
is controlled by a flow control valve, a two-way
directional control valve, or by starting and
stopping the power supply. The speed of the
motor may be controlled by varying the rate of
fluid flow to it.
In most fluid power systems, the motor is
required to provide actuation power in either
direction. In these applications the ports are
referred to as working ports, alternating as inlet
and outlet ports. The flow to the motor is usually Figure 10-12.—Gear-type motor.

10-8
VANE-TYPE MOTORS

A typical vane-type air motor is shown in

figure 10-13. This particular motor provides
rotation in only one direction. The rotating
element is a slotted rotor which is mounted on
a drive shaft. Each slot of the rotor is fitted with
a freely sliding rectangular vane. The rotor and
vanes are enclosed in the housing, the inner
surface of which is offset from the drive shaft axis.
When the rotor is in motion, the vanes tend to
slide outward due to centrifugal force. The
distance the vanes slide is limited by the shape of
the rotor housing.
This motor operates on the principle of
differential areas. When compressed air is directed
into the inlet port, its pressure is exerted equally
in all directions. Since area A (fig. 10-13) is greater Figure 10-14.—Vane-type motor.
than area B, the rotor will turn counterclockwise.
Each vane, in turn, assumes the No. 1 and No.
2 positions and the rotor turns continuously. The starting of the motor, since centrifugal force does
potential energy of the compressed air is thus not exist until the rotor begins to rotate.
converted into kinetic energy in the form of rotary
motion and force. The air at reduced pressure is
exhausted to the atmosphere. The shaft of the PISTON-TYPE MOTORS
motor is connected to the unit to be actuated.
Many vane-type motors are capable of Piston-type motors are the most commonly
providing rotation in either direction. A motor used in hydraulic systems. They are basically the
of this design is shown in figure 10-14. This motor same as hydraulic pumps except they are used to
operates on the same principle as the vane motor convert hydraulic energy into mechanical (rotary)
shown in figure 10-13. The two ports may be energy.
alternately used as inlet and outlet, thus providing The most commonly used hydraulic motor is
rotation in either direction. Note the springs in the fixed-displacement piston type. Some
the slots of the rotor. Their purpose is to hold the equipment uses a variable-displacement piston
vanes against the housing during the initial motor where very wide speed ranges are desired.
Although some piston-type motors are
controlled by directional control valves, they
are often used in combination with variable-
displacement pumps. This pump-motor combina-
tion is used to provide a transfer of power between
a driving element and a driven element. Some
applications for which hydraulic transmissions
may be used are speed reducers, variable speed
drives, constant speed or constant torque drives,
and torque converters. Some advantages of
hydraulic transmission of power over mechanical
transmission of power are as follows:

1. Quick, easy speed adjustment over a wide

range while the power source is operating
at a constant (most efficient) speed. Rapid,
smooth acceleration or deceleration.
2. Control over maximum torque and power.
3. Cushioning effect to reduce shock loads.
Figure 10-13.—Vane-type air motor. 4. Smoother reversal of motion.

10-9
Radial-Piston Motor continues as long as fluid under pressure enters
the cylinders.
The radial-piston motor operates in reverse of
the radial-piston pump. In the radial-piston pump, The direction of rotation of the motor (fig.
as the cylinder block rotates, the pistons press 10-15) is changed by reversing the flow of fluid
against the rotor and are forced in and out of the to it. Admitting fluid under pressure on the top
cylinders, thereby receiving fluid and pushing it side of the pintle valve forces piston 3 out of the
out into the system. In the radial motor, fluid is cylinder block. This causes the cylinder to rotate
forced into the cylinders and drives the pistons in the counterclockwise direction.
outward. The pistons pushing against the rotor
cause the cylinder block to rotate.
Axial-Piston Motor
The operation of a radial-piston motor is
shown in figure 10-15. This motor is shown with
The variable-stroke axial-piston pump is often
three pistons for simplicity. Normally it contains
used as a part of variable speed gear, such as
seven or nine pistons. When liquid is forced into
electrohydraulic anchor windlasses, cranes,
the cylinder bore containing piston 1, the piston
winches, and the power transmitting unit in
moves outward since the liquid cannot be
electrohydraulic steering engines. In those cases,
compressed. This causes the cylinder to rotate in
the tilting box is arranged so that it maybe tilted
a clockwise direction. As the force acting on
in either direction. Thus it maybe used to transmit
piston 1 causes the cylinder block to rotate, piston
bidirectional power hydraulically to pistons or
2 starts to rotate and approach the position of
rams, or it may be used to drive a hydraulic
piston 3. (Note that the distance between the
motor. In the latter use, the pump is the A-end
cylinder block and the reaction ring of the rotor
of the variable speed gear and the hydraulic motor
gets progressively shorter on the top and right half
is the B-end.
of the rotor.)
As piston 2 rotates, it is forced inward and, The B-end of the hydraulic unit of the
in turn, forces the fluid out of the cylinder. Since hydraulic speed gear is exactly the same as the
there is little or no pressure on this side of the A-end of the variable-stroke pump mentioned
pintle valve, the piston is easily moved in by its previously. However, it generally does not have
contact with the reaction ring of the rotor. The a variable-stroke feature. The tilting box is
fluid is easily forced out of the cylinder and back installed at a permanently fixed angle. Thus, the
to the reservoir or to the inlet side of the pump. B-end becomes a fixed-stroke axial-piston motor.
As the piston moves past the midpoint, or past Figure 10-16 illustrates an axial-piston hydraulic
the shortest distance between the cylinder block speed gear with the A-end and B-end as a single
and the rotor, it enters the pressure side of the unit. It is used in turrets for train and elevation
pintle valve and fluid is forced into the cylinder. driving units. For electrohydraulic winches and
Piston 3 then becomes the pushing piston and in cranes, the A-end and B-end are in separate
turn rotates the cylinder block. This action housings connected by hydraulic piping.

Hydraulic fluid introduced under pressure to

a cylinder (B-end) tries to push the piston out of
the cylinder. In being pushed out, the piston,
through its piston rod, will seek the point of
greatest distance between the top of the cylinder
and the socket ring. The resultant pressure of the
piston against the socket ring will cause the
cylinder barrel and the socket ring to rotate. This
action occurs during the half revolution while the
piston is passing the intake port of the motor,
which is connected to the pressure port of the
pump. After the piston of the motor has taken
all the hydraulic fluid it can from the pump, the
piston passes the valve plate land and starts to
Figure 10-15.—Operation of a radial-piston motor. discharge oil through the outlet ports of the motor

10-10
 Figure 10-16.—Exploded view of a axial-piston hydraulic speed gear.

to the suction pistons of the pump. The pump is The basic distinction between types of turbines
constantly putting pressure on one side of the is the manner in which the gas causes the turbine
motor and receiving hydraulic fluid from the other rotor to move. When the rotor is moved by a
side. The fluid is merely circulated from pump direct push or “impulse” from the gas impinging
to motor and back again. upon the blades, the turbine is said to be an
impulse turbine. When the rotor is moved by force
Both of the axial-piston motors described in of reaction, the turbine is said to be a reaction
this section may be operated in either direction. turbine.
The direction of rotation is controlled by the
direction of fluid flow to the valve plate. The Although the distinction between impulse
direction of flow may be instantly reversed turbines and reaction turbines is a useful one,
without damage to the motor. it should not be considered as an absolute
distinction in real turbines. An impulse turbine
uses both the impulse of the gas jet and,
to a lesser extent, the reactive force that results
TURBINES when the curved blades cause the gas to change
direction. A reaction turbine is moved primarily
Turbines are used in pneumatic systems to by reactive force, but some motion of the rotor
convert kinetic energy of gases to mechanical is caused by the impact of the gas against the
energy. Turbines are used to drive electric blades.
generators, to convert mechanical energy into
electrical energy, and to drive pumps to supply
fluid flow in hydraulic systems. IMPULSE TURBINE

The basic parts of a turbine are the rotor, The impulse turbine consists essentially of a
which has blades projecting radially from its rotor mounted on a shaft that is free to rotate in
periphery; and nozzles, through which the gas is a set of bearings. The outer rim of the rotor carries
expanded and directed. The conversion of kinetic a set of curved blades, and the whole assembly
energy to mechanical energy occurs on the blades. is enclosed in an airtight case. Nozzles direct the

10-11
rapidly moving fluid against the blades and turn the stator (casing) in which the rotor revolves. The
the rotor (fig. 10-17). fixed blades guide the gas into the moving blade
system and, since they are also shaped and
mounted to provide nozzle-shaped spaces between
REACTION TURBINE the blades, the freed blades also act as nozzles.
A reaction turbine is moved by three main
The reaction turbine, as the name implies, is forces: (1) the reactive force produced on the
turned by reactive force rather than by a direct moving blades as the gas increases in velocity as
push or impulse. In reaction turbines, there are it expands through the nozzle-shaped spaces
no nozzles as such. Instead, the blades that project between the blades; (2) the reactive force produced
radially from the periphery of the rotor are on the moving blades when the gas changes
formed and mounted so that the spaces between direction; and (3) the push or impulse of the gas
the blades have, in cross section, the shape of impinging upon the blades. Thus, as previously
nozzles. Since these blades are mounted on the noted, a reaction turbine is moved primarily by
revolving rotor, they are called moving blades. reactive force but also to some extent by direct
Fixed or stationary blades of the same shape impulse.
as the moving blades (fig. 10-18) are fastened to Impulse and reaction blades can be combined
to form an impulse-reaction turbine. This turbine
combines the rotational forces of the previously
described turbines; that is, it derives its rotation
from both the impulse of the gas striking the
turbine blades and the reactive force of the gas
changing direction.

Figure 10-17 .—Impulse turbine. Figure 10-18.—Reaction turbine blading.

10-12
 CHAPTER 11

PNEUMATICS
The word pneumatics is a derivative of the Probably one of the most common uses of
Greek word pneuma, which means air, wind, or pneumatic power is in the operation of pneumatic
breath. It can be defined as that branch of tools. However, you should understand that
engineering science that pertains to gaseous pneumatics is also of great importance in large
pressure and flow. As used in this manual, and complex systems such as the controls of vital
pneumatics is the portion of fluid power in which propulsion and weapon systems.
compressed air, or other gas, is used to transmit
and control power to actuating mechanisms.
This chapter discusses the origin of pneu- CHARACTERISTICS OF GASES
matics. It discusses the characteristics of gases and
compares them with those of liquids. It also Recall from chapter 1 that gas is one of the
explains factors which affect the properties of three states of matter. It has characteristics similar
gases, identifies and explains the gas laws, and to those of liquids in that it has no definite shape
identifies gases commonly used in pneumatics and but conforms to the shape of its container and
their pressure ranges. It also discusses hazards of readily transmits pressure.
pneumatic gases, methods of controlling contami- Gases differ from liquids in that they have no
nation, and safety precautions associated with definite volume. That is, regardless of the size or
compressed gases. shape of the containing vessel, a gas will
completely fill it. Gases are highly compressible,
while liquids are only slightly so. Also, gases are
lighter than equal volumes of liquids, making
DEVELOPMENT OF PNEUMATICS gases less dense than liquids.

There is no record of man’s first uses of air DENSITY

to do work. Probably the earliest uses were to
separate chaff from grain and to move ships. One Early experiments were conducted concerning
of the first pneumatic devices was the blow gun the behavior of air and similar gases. These
used by primitive man. In the latter part of the experiments were conducted by scientists such as
eighteenth century, heated air was used to carry Boyle and Charles (discussed later in this chapter).
the first balloon aloft. The heated air, being The results of their experiments indicated that the
lighter than the surrounding air, caused the gases’ behavior follows the law known as the
balloon to rise. ideal-gas law. It states as follows: For a given
Every age of man has witnessed the develop- weight of any gas, the product of the absolute
ment of devices which used air to do work. pressure and the volume occupied, divided by the
However, man used air to do work long before absolute temperature, is constant. In equation
he understood it. form, it is expressed as follows:
Many of the principles of hydraulics apply to
pneumatics. For example, Pascal’s law applies to
Equation 11-1
gases as well as liquids. Also, like hydraulics, the
development of pneumatics depended on closely
fitted parts and the development of gaskets and For 1 pound of gas,
packings. Since the invention of the air com-
pressor, pneumatics has become a very reliable
Equation 11-2
way to transmit power.

11-1
 NOTE: During the compression of the gas,
the temperature will actually increase; however,
the explanation is beyond the scope of this text.

a decrease in volume with the weight held constant

will cause density to increase.

TEMPERATURE

As indicated previously, temperature is a

dominant factor affecting the physical properties
of gases. It is of particular concern in calculating
The specific volume (v) is expressed in cubic feet changes in the states of gases.
per pound. Three temperature scales are used extensively
in gas calculations. They are the Celsius (C), the
For any weight of a gas this equation maybe Fahrenheit (F), and the Kelvin (K) scales. The
modified as follows: Celsius (or centigrade) scale is constructed by
identifying the freezing and boiling points of
W = weight of the gas in pounds, water, under standard conditions, as fixed points
of 0° and 100°, respectively, with 100 equal
V = volume of W pounds of the gas in cubic feet. divisions between. The Fahrenheit scale identifies
32° as the freezing point of water and 212° as the
The volume of 1 pound would then be V/W. boiling point, and has 180 equal divisions
If we substitute this for v in equation 11-3, it then between. The Kelvin scale has its zero point equal
becomes to –273°C, or –460°F.
Absolute zero, one of the fundamental
constants of physics, is commonly used in the
study of gases. It is usually expressed in terms of
the Celsius scale. If the heat energy of a gas
Solving equation 11-4 for pressure, sample could be progressively reduced, some
temperature should be reached at which the
motion of the molecules would cease entirely. If
accurately determined, this temperature could
then be taken as a natural reference, or as a true
In chapter 2 we defined density as the mass absolute zero value.
per unit volume. In equation 11-5, Experiments with hydrogen indicated that if
a gas were cooled to –273.16°C (–273° for most
w calculations), all molecular motion would cease
7 and no additional heat could be extracted. Since
this is the coldest temperature to which an ideal
represents density. (Notice that this is the reverse gas can be cooled, it is considered to be absolute
of the specific volume.) We can now say that zero. Absolute zero may be expressed as 0°K,
pressure is equal to the density of the gas times –273°C, or –459.69°F (–460°F for most
the gas constant times the absolute temperature calculations).
of the gas. (The gas constant varies for different When you work with temperatures, always be
gases.) From this equation we can show how sure which system of measurement is being used
density varies with changes in pressure and and how to convert from one to another. The
temperature. Decreasing the volume, with the conversion formulas are shown in figure 11-1. For
weight of the gas and the temperature held purposes of calculations, the Rankine (R) scale
constant, causes the pressure to increase. illustrated in figure 11-1 is commonly used to

11-2
 Figure 11-1.-Comparison of Kelvin, Celsius, Fahrenheit, and Rankine temperature.

convert Fahrenheit to absolute. For Fahrenheit In practice, we maybe interested in either of

readings above zero, 460° is added. Thus, 72°F two pressure readings. We may desire either the
equals 460° plus 72°, or 532° absolute (532°R). gauge pressure or the absolute pressure.
If the Fahrenheit reading is below zero, it is Absolute pressure is measured from absolute
subtracted from 460°. Thus, -40°F equals 460° zero pressure rather than from normal or
minus 40°, or 420° absolute (420°R). atmospheric pressure (approximately 14.7 psi).
The Kelvin and Celsius scales are used Gauge pressure is used on all ordinary gauges, and
internationally in scientific measurements; there- indicates pressure in excess of atmospheric
fore, some technical manuals may use these scales pressure. Therefore, absolute pressure is equal to
in directions and operating instructions. The atmospheric pressure plus gauge pressure. For
Fahrenheit scale is commonly used in the United example, 100 psi gauge pressure (psig) equals 100
States; therefore, it is used in most areas of this psi plus 14.7 psi or 114.7 psi absolute pressure
manual. (psia). Whenever gas laws are applied, absolute
pressures are required.
PRESSURE

We defined pressure in chapter 2 as force per COMPRESSIBILITY AND

unit area. Remember, liquids exert pressure on EXPANSION OF GASES
all surfaces with which they come in contact.
Gases, because of their ability to completely fill Gases can be readily compressed and are
containers, exert pressure on all sides of a assumed to be perfectly elastic. This combination
container. of properties gives a gas the ability to yield to a

11-3
force and return promptly to its original condition BOYLE’S LAW
when the force is removed. These are the
properties of air that is used in pneumatic tires, When the automobile tire is initially inflated,
tennis balls and other deformable objects whose air which normally occupies a specific volume is
shapes are maintained by compressed air. compressed into a smaller volume inside the tire.
This increases the pressure on the inside of the tire.

KINETIC THEORY OF GASES Charles Boyle, an English scientist, was among

the first to experiment with the pressure-volume
In an attempt to explain the compressibility relationship of gas. During an experiment when
of gases, Bernoulli proposed the hypothesis that he compressed a volume of air he found that the
is accepted as the kinetic theory of gases. volume decreased as the pressure increased, and
According to this theory, the pressure exerted by by doubling the force exerted on the air he could
a gas on the walls of a closed container is caused decrease the volume of the air by half. See figure
by continual bombardment of the walls by 11-3. Recall from the example of the automobile
molecules of the gas. tire that changes in temperature of a gas also
Consider the container shown in figure 11-2 change the pressure and volume. Therefore, the
as containing a gas. At any given time, some experiment must be performed at a constant
molecules are moving in one direction, some are temperature. The relationship between pressure
traveling in other directions; some are traveling and volume is known as Boyle’s law. It states:
fast, some slow, and some may even be in a state When the temperature of a gas is kept constant,
of rest. The average effect of the molecules the volume of an enclosed gas varies inversely with
bombarding each container wall corresponds to its pressure.
the pressure of the gas.
As more gas is pumped into the container, In equation form, this relationship may be
more molecules are available to bombard the expressed as either
walls; thus the pressure in the container increases.
The gas pressure in a container can also be vlP~ = v~P~
increased by increasing the speed with which the
molecules hit the walls. If the temperature of the or Equation 11-6
gas is raised, the molecules move faster causing
an increase in pressure. This can be shown by VI ~,
considering the automobile tire. When you take ~=P1
a long drive on a hot day, the pressure in the tires
increases and a tire which appeared to be where V1 and P1 are the original volume and
somewhat “soft” in cool morning temperature pressure, and V 2 and P2 are the final volume
may appear normal at a higher midday tempera- and pressure (P1 and P2 are absolute pressures).
ture.

Figure 11-3.-Gas compressed to half its original volume by

Figure 11-2.—Molecular bombardment creating pressure. a doubled force.

11-4
 Example of Boyle’s law: 4 cubic feet of where V 1 and V 2 are the original and final
nitrogen are under a pressure of 100 psi (gauge). volumes, and T1 and T2 are the original and final
The nitrogen is allowed to expand to a volume absolute temperatures.
of 6 cubic feet. What is the new gauge pressure?
Remember to convert gauge pressure to absolute Since an increase in the temperature of a gas
pressure by adding 14.7. causes it to expand if the pressure is kept constant,
it is reasonable to expect that if a given sample
Using equation 11-6, V 1P 1 = V2P 2, where V1 is is heated within a closed container and its volume
4 ft3 , V2 is 6 ft, and P1 is 100 psig: remains constant, the pressure of the gas will
increase. Experiments have proven this to be true.
In equation form, this becomes

P 1 T 2 = P2 T 1 Equation 11-8

or

This equation states that for a constant volume,

the absolute pressure of a gas varies directly with
the absolute temperature.

Example: A cylinder of gas under a pressure

of 1800 psig at 70°F is left out in the sun in the
tropics and heats up to a temperature of 130°F.
What is the new pressure within the cylinder?
(Remember that both pressure and temperature
must be converted to absolute pressure and
absolute temperature.)

CHARLES’S LAW
Boyle’s law assumes conditions of constant
temperature. In actual situations this is rarely the
case. Temperature changes continually and affects
the volume of a given mass of gas.
Jacques Charles, a French physicist, provided
much of the foundation for the modern kinetic
theory of gases. Through experiments, he found
that all gases expand and contract proportionally
to the change in the absolute temperature,
providing the pressure remains constant. The
relationship between volume and temperature is
known as Charles’s law. It states: The volume of
a gas is proportional to its absolute temperature,
if constant pressure is maintained. In equation
form, this relationship may be expressed as

Equation 11-7
Converting absolute pressure to gauge pressure:

11-5
GENERAL GAS LAW the general equation to the form given in part B.
Similarly, P 1 is equated to P 2 for constant
We have learned that Boyle’s law pertains to pressure, and the equation then takes the form
situations in which the temperature remains given in part C.
constant (fig. 11-4), and that Charles’s law
pertains to situations in which pressure remains The general gas law applies with exactness only
constant (fig. 11-4). It is usually not possible to to “ideal” gases in which the molecules are
control pressure or temperature in tanks or bottles assumed to be perfectly elastic. However, it
of gas subject to the weather and shipboard describes the behavior of actual gases with
demands. Boyle’s and Charles’s laws are com- sufficient accuracy for most practical purposes.
bined to form the general gas law. This law states:
The product of the initial pressure, initial volume, Two examples of the general equation follow:
and new temperature (absolute scale) of an
enclosed gas is equal to the product of the new 1. Two cubic feet of a gas at 75 psig and 80°F
pressure, new volume, and initial temperature. It are compressed to a volume of 1 cubic foot and
is a mathematical statement which allows many then heated to a temperature of 300°F. What is
gas problems to be solved by using the principles the new gauge pressure?
of Boyle’s law and/or Charles’s law. The equation
is expressed as Using equation 11-9, P 1V 1T 2 = P2V 2T 1, where
V 1 is 2 ft3, P1 is 75 psig, T1 is 80°F, V2 is 1 ft3
and T2 is 300°F:

or Solution:

(P and T represent absolute pressure and absolute

temperature, respectively.)

You can see by examining figure 11-4 that the Substituting:

three equations are special cases of the general
equation. Thus, if the temperature remains
constant, T1 equals T2 and both can be eliminated
from the general formula, which then reduces to
the form shown in part A. When the volume
remains constant, V1 equals V2, thereby reducing

Converting absolute pressure to gauge pressure:

2. Four cubic feet of a gas at 75 psig and 80°F

are compressed to 237.8 psig and heated to a
temperature of 300°F. What is the volume of the
gas resulting from these changes? Using equation
3
Figure 11-4.—The general gas law. 11-9, P1V 1T 2 = P 2V 2T 1, where V1 is 4 ft , P2 i s

11-6
75 psig, T1 is 800, P 1 is 237.8 psig, and T2 i s compressed air is referred to as a gas when it is
300°F: used as a fluid medium.
The unlimited supply of air and the ease of
Solution: compression make compressed air the most widely
used fluid for pneumatic systems. Although
moisture and solid particles must be removed
from the air, it does not require the extensive
distillation or separation process required in the
production of other gases.
Compressed air has most of the desired
Substituting: properties and characteristics of a gas for
pneumatic systems. It is nonpoisonous and
nonflammable but does contain oxygen, which
supports combustion. One of the most undesirable
qualities of compressed air as a fluid medium for
pneumatic systems is moisture content. The
atmosphere contains varying amounts of moisture
in vapor form. Changes in the temperature of
compressed air will cause condensation of
moisture in the pneumatic system. This condensed
moisture can be very harmful to the system, as
PNEUMATIC GASES it increases corrosion, dilutes lubricants, and may
freeze in lines and components during cold
In chapter 1, you learned that many factors weather. Moisture separators and air driers
are considered in determining whether to use (dehydrators) are installed in the compressed air
hydraulics or pneumatics as a power source in a lines to minimize or eliminate moisture in
fluid power system. Once it is determined that systems where moisture would deteriorate system
pneumatics will be used as the source of power, performance.
some of the same factors are considered in The supply of compressed air at the required
selecting the pneumatic gas. volume and pressure is provided by an air
compressor. (For information on air compressors,
QUALITIES refer to Naval Ships’ Technical Manual, chapter
551.) In most systems the compressor is part of
The ideal fluid medium for a pneumatic the system with distribution lines leading from the
system is a readily available gas that is compressor to the devices to be operated. In these
nonpoisonous (nontoxic), chemically stable, free systems a receiver is installed in-line between the
from any acids that cause corrosion of system compressor and the device to be operated to help
components, and nonflammable. It also will not eliminate pulsations in the compressor discharge
support combustion of other elements. line, to act as a storage tank during intervals when
Gases that have these desired qualities may not the demand for air exceeds the compressor’s
have the required lubricating power. Therefore, capacity, and to enable the compressor to shut
lubrication of the components of some pneumatic down during periods of light load. Other systems
systems must be arranged by other means. For receive their supply from cylinders which must be
example, some air compressors are provided with filled at a centrally located air compressor and
a lubricating system, some components are then connected to the system.
lubricated upon installation or, in some cases, Compressed air systems are categorized by
lubrication is introduced into the air supply line. their operating pressures as follows: high-pressure
Two gases meeting these qualities and most (HP) air, medium-pressure (MP) air, and low-
commonly used in pneumatic systems are com- pressure (LP) air.
pressed air and nitrogen.
High-Pressure Air Systems
COMPRESSED AIR
HP air systems provide compressed air at a
Compressed air is a mixture of all gases nominal operating pressure of 3000 psi or 5000
contained in the atmosphere. In this manual, psi and are installed whenever pressure in excess

11-7
of 1000 psi is required. HP compressed air plants CONTAMINATION CONTROL
support functions which require high pressures
and high flow rates of compressed air by the As in hydraulic systems, fluid contamination
addition of HP storage flasks to the system. An is also a leading cause of malfunctions in
example of such a system is one that provides air pneumatic systems. In addition to the solid
for starting diesel and gas turbine engines. particles of foreign matter which find a way to
Reduction in pressure, if required, is done enter the system, there is also the problem of
by using specially designed pressure-reducing moisture. Most systems are equipped with one or
stations. more devices to remove this contamination. These
include filters, water separators, air dehydrators,
Medium-Pressure Air and chemical driers, which are discussed in
chapter 9 of this manual. In addition, most
MP air systems provide compressed air at a systems contain drain valves at critical low points
nominal operating pressure of 151 psi to 1000 psi. in the system. These valves are opened periodically
These pressures are provided either by an MP air to allow the escaping gas to purge a large
compressor or by the HP air system supplying air percentage of the contaminants, both solids and
through an air bank and pressure-reducing moisture, from the system. In some systems these
stations. valves are opened and closed automatically, while
in others they must be operated manually.
Low-Pressure Air Complete purging is done by removing lines
from various components throughout the system
LP air systems provide compressed air at a and then attempting to pressurize the system,
nominal operating pressure of 150 psi and below. causing a high rate of airflow through the system.
The LP air system is supplied with LP air by LP The airflow will cause the foreign matter to be
air compressors or by the HP air system supplying dislodged and blown from the system.
air through an air bank and pressure-reducing
stations. LP air is the most extensive and varied NOTE: If an excessive amount of foreign
air system used in the Navy, matter, particularly oil, is blown from any one
In addition to being used for various system, the lines and components should be
pneumatic applications, LP and HP compressed removed and cleaned or replaced.
air are used in the production of nitrogen.
In addition to monitoring the devices installed
NITROGEN to remove contamination, it is your responsibility
as a maintenance person or supervisor to control
For all practical purposes, nitrogen is the contamination. You can do this by using the
considered to be an inert gas. It is nonflammable, following maintenance practices:
does not form explosive mixtures with air or
oxygen, and does not cause rust or decay. Due 1. Keep all tools and the work area in a clean,
to these qualities, its use is preferred over dirt-free condition.
compressed air in many pneumatic systems, 2. Cap or plug all lines and fittings
especially aircraft and missile systems, and immediately after disconnecting them.
wherever an inert gas blanket is required. 3. Replace all packing and gaskets during
Nitrogen is obtained by the fractional assembly procedures.
distillation of air. Oxygen/nitrogen-producing 4. Connect all parts with care to avoid
plants expand compressed air until its temperature stripping metal slivers from threaded areas. Install
decreases to –196°C (–320°F), the boiling point and torque all fittings and lines according to
of nitrogen at atmospheric pressure. The liquid applicable technical instructions.
nitrogen is then directed to a storage tank. A 5. Complete preventive maintenance as
liquid nitrogen pump pumps the low-pressure specified by MRCs.
liquid nitrogen from the storage tank and
discharges it as a high-pressure (5000 psi) liquid Also, you must take care to ensure that the
to the vaporizer where it is converted to a gas at proper cylinders are connected to systems being
5000 psi. Oxygen/nitrogen-producing plants are supplied from cylinders.
located at many naval installations and on Cylinders for compressed air are painted
submarine tenders and aircraft carriers. black. Cylinders containing oil-pumped air have

11-8
two green stripes painted around the top of the the blood). Although compressed air and nitrogen
cylinder, while cylinders containing water-pumped seem so safe in comparison with other gases, do
air have one green stripe. Oil-pumped air indicates not let overconfidence lead to personal injury.
that the air or nitrogen is compressed by an
oil-lubricated compressor. Air or nitrogen com- SAFETY PRECAUTIONS
pressed by a water-lubricated (or nonlubricated)
compressor is referred to as water pumped. To minimize personal injury and equipment
Oil-pumped nitrogen can be very dangerous in damage when using compressed gases, observe all
certain situations. For example, nitrogen is practical operating safety precautions, including
commonly used to purge oxygen systems. Oxygen the following:
will not burn, but it supports and accelerates
combustion and will cause oil to burn easily and 1. Do not use compressed air to clean parts
with great intensity. Therefore, oil-pumped of your body or clothing, or to perform general
nitrogen must never be used to purge oxygen space cleanup in lieu of vacuuming or sweeping.
systems. When the small amount of oil remaining 2. Never attempt to stop or repair a leak while
in the nitrogen comes in contact with the oxygen, the leaking portion is still under pressure. Always
an explosion may result. In all situations, use isolate, repressurize and danger tag out the
only the gas specified by the manufacturer or portion of the system to be repaired. For pressures
recommended by the Navy. Nitrogen cylinders are of 1000 psi or greater, double valve protection is
painted gray. One black stripe identifies cylinders required to prevent injury if one of the valves
for oil-pumped nitrogen, and two black stripes should fail.
identify cylinders for water-pumped nitrogen. In 3. Avoid the application of heat to the air
addition to these color codes, the exact identi- piping system or components, and avoid striking
fication of the contents is printed in two locations a sharp or heavy blow on any pressurized part of
diametrically opposite one another along the the piping system.
longitudinal axis of the cylinder. For compressed 4. Avoid rapid operation of manual valves.
air and nitrogen cylinders, the lettering is white. The heat of compression caused by a sudden high-
-pressure flow into an empty line or vessel can
cause an explosion if oil is present. Valves should
POTENTIAL HAZARDS be slowly cracked open until airflow is noted and
should be kept in this position until pressures on
All compressed gases are hazardous. Com- both sides of the valve have equalized. The rate
pressed air and nitrogen are neither poisonous nor of pressure rise should be kept under 200 psi
flammable, but should not be handled carelessly. per second, if possible. Valves may then be opened
Some pneumatic systems operate at pressures fully.
exceeding 3000 psi. Lines and fittings have 5. Do not discharge large quantities of
exploded, injuring personnel and property. nitrogen into closed compartments unless
Literally thousands of careless workers have adequate ventilation is provided.
blown dust or harmful particles into their eyes by 6. Do not subject compressed gas cylinders
the careless handling of compressed air outlets. to temperatures greater than 130°F.
Nitrogen gas will not support life, and when
it is released in a confined space, it will cause Remember, any pressurized system can be
asphyxia (the loss of consciousness as a result of hazardous to your health if it is not maintained
too little oxygen and too much carbon dioxide in and operated carefully and safely.

11-9
 CHAPTER 12

BASIC DIAGRAMS AND SYSTEMS

In the preceding chapters, you learned about SYMBOLS
hydraulic and pneumatic fluids and components
of fluid power systems. While having a knowledge The Navy uses two military standards that
of system components is essential, it is difficult list mechanical symbols that must be used in
to understand the interrelationship of these preparing drawings that will contain symbolic
components by simply watching the system representation. These standards are as follows:
operate. The knowledge of system interrelation
is required to effectively troubleshoot and 1. Military Standard, Mechanical Symbols
maintain a fluid power system. Diagrams pro- (Other than Aeronautical, Aerospacecraft, and
vided in applicable technical publications or Spacecraft Use), Part 1, MIL-STD-17B-1.
drawings are a valuable aid in understanding the 2. Military Standard, Mechanical Symbols for
operation of the system and in diagnosing the Aeronautical, Aerospacecraft, and Spacecraft
causes of malfunctions. Use, Part 2, MIL-STD-17B-2.
This chapter explains the different types of
diagrams used to illustrate fluid power circuits, Some of the symbols frequently used in fluid
including some of the symbols that depict fluid power systems have been selected from these
power components. Included in this chapter two standards and are shown in Appendixes II
are descriptions and illustrations denoting the and III. Appendix II contains symbols from
differences between open-center and closed-center MIL-STD-17B-1. Appendix III contains symbols
fluid power systems. The last part of the chapter from MIL-STD-17B-2.
describes and illustrates some applications of basic While the symbols shown in the appendixes
fluid power systems. are not all encompassing, they do provide a basis
for an individual working with fluid power
systems to build upon. Some rules applicable to
DIAGRAMS graphical symbols for fluid diagrams are as
follows:
As mentioned earlier in this chapter, to
troubleshoot fluid power systems intelligently, a 1. Symbols show connections, flow paths,
mechanic or technician must be familiar with the and the function of the component represented
system on which he or she is working. The only. They do not indicate conditions occurring
mechanic must know the function of each during transition from one flow path to another;
component in the system and have a mental nor do they indicate component construction or
picture of its location in relation to other values, such as pressure or flow rate.
components. This can best be done by studying 2. Symbols do not indicate the location of
the diagrams of the system. ports, direction of shifting of spools, or position
A diagram may be defined as a graphic of control elements on actual components.
representation of an assembly or system that 3. Symbols may be rotated or reversed
indicates the various parts and expresses the without altering their meaning except in cases of
methods or principles of operations. The ability lines to reservoirs and vented manifolds.
to read diagrams is a basic requirement for 4. Symbols may be drawn in any size.
understanding the operation of fluid power 5. Each symbol is drawn to show the normal
systems. Understanding the diagrams of a system or neutral condition of each component unless
requires having a knowledge of the symbols used multiple circuit diagrams are furnished showing
in the schematic diagrams. various phases of circuit operation.

12-1
 For more detailed information concerning the component, all interconnecting piping, and the
symbols used in fluid power diagrams, consult the general piping arrangement. This type of diagram
above-mentioned military standards. Additional is sometimes referred to as an installation
information concerning symbols and the reading diagram. Diagrams of this type are invaluable to
of diagrams is contained in BIueprint Reading and maintenance personnel in identifying and locating
Sketching, NAVEDTRA 10077-F1. components of a system.
TYPES OF DIAGRAMS
There are many types of diagrams. Those that Cutaway Diagrams
are most pertinent to fluid power systems are
discussed in this text. Cutaway diagrams (fig. 12-2) show the internal
working parts of all fluid power components in
Pictorial Diagrams
a system. This includes controls and actuating
Pictorial diagrams (fig. 12-1) show the mechanisms and all interconnecting piping.
general location and actual appearance of each Cutaway diagrams do not normally use symbols.

Figure 12-1.—Hydraulic system pictorial diagram.

12-2
Figure 12-2.—Cutaway diagram—pneumatic.

12-3
Graphic Diagrams piping. Additionally, the diagram contains a
component list, pipe size, data on the sequence
The primary purpose of a graphic (schematic) of operation, and other pertinent information.
diagram is to enable the maintenance person to The graphic diagram (fig. 12-3) does not indi-
trace the flow of fluid from component to cate the physical location of the various com-
component within the system. This type of ponents, but it does show the relation of each
diagram uses standard symbols to show each component to the other components within the
component and includes all interconnecting system.

Figure 12-3.—Graphic diagram of LST 1182 class hydraulic steering gear.

12-4
 Notice that figure 12-3 does not indicate the
physical location of the individual components
with respect to each other in the system. For
example, the 3/4-inch, solenoid-operated, 4-way
valve (10) is not necessarily located directly above
the relief valve (26). The diagram does indicate,
however, that the 4-way valve is located in the
working line, between the variable-displacement
pump and the 1-inch rotary selector valve, and
that the valve directs fluid to and from the rotary
actuator.
Combination Diagrams
A combination drawing uses a combination
of graphic, cutaway, and pictorial symbols. This
drawing also includes all interconnecting piping.

FLUID POWER SYSTEMS

A fluid power system in which the fluid in the
system remains pressurized from the pump (or
regulator) to the directional control valve while
the pump is operating is referred to as a closed-
center system. In this type of system, any number
of subsystems may be incorporated, with a
separate directional control valve for each
subsystem. The directional control valves are
arranged in parallel so that system pressure acts Figure 12-4.—Open-center hydraulic system.
equally on all control valves.
Another type of system that is sometimes used
in hydraulically operated equipment is the open- actuating cylinder. The fluid from the other end
center system. An open-center system has fluid of the actuator returns to the control valve
flow but no internal pressure when the actuating through the opposite working line and flows back
mechanisms are idle. The pump circulates the fluid to the reservoir.
from the reservoir, through the directional control Several different types of directional control
valves, and back to the reservoir. (See fig. 12-4, valves are used in the open-center system. One
view A.) Like the closed-center system, the open- type is the manually engaged and manually
center system may have any number of subsystems, disengaged. After this type of valve is manually
with a directional control valve for each subsystem. moved to the operating position and the actuating
Unlike the closed-center system, the directional mechanism reaches the end of its operating cycle,
control valves of an open-center system are always pump output continues until the system relief
connected in series with each other, an arrange- valve setting is reached. The relief valve then
ment in which the system pressure line goes unseats and allows the fluid to flow back to the
through each directional control valve. Fluid is reservoir. The system pressure remains at the
always allowed free passage through each control pressure setting of the relief valve until the
valve and back to the reservoir until one of the con- directional control valve is manually returned to
trol valves is positioned to operate a mechanism. the neutral position. This action reopens the
When one of the directional control valves is open-center flow and allows the system pressure
positioned to operate an actuating device, as to drop to line resistance pressure.
shown in view B of figure 12-4, fluid is directed Another type of open-center directional
from the pump through one of the working lines control valve is manually engaged and pressure
to the actuator. With the control valve in this disengaged. This type of valve is similar to the
position, the flow of fluid through the valve to valve discussed in the preceding paragraph;
the reservoir is blocked. Thus, the pressure builds however, when the actuating mechanism reaches
up in the system and moves the piston of the the end of its cycle and the pressure continues to

12-5
rise to a predetermined pressure, the valve In its simplest form, the hydraulic power drive
automatically returns to the neutral position and, consists of the following:
consequently, to open-center flow.
One of the advantages of the open-center 1. The prime mover, which is the outside
system is that the continuous pressurization of the source of power used to drive the hydraulic pump
system is eliminated. Since the pressure is 2. A variable-displacement hydraulic pump
gradually built up after the directional control 3. A hydraulic motor
valve is moved to an operating position, there is 4. A means of introducing a signal to the
very little shock from pressure surges. This hydraulic pump to control its output
provides a smooth operation of the actuating 5. Mechanical shafting and gearing that
mechanisms; however, the operation is slower transmits the output of the hydraulic motor to the
than the closed-center system in which the pressure equipment being operated
is available the moment the directional control
valve is positioned. Since most applications Hydraulic power drives differ in some
require instantaneous operation, closed-center respects, such as size, method of control, and so
systems are the most widely used. forth. However, the fundamental operating
principles are similar. The unit used in the
HYDRAULIC POWER DRIVE SYSTEM
following discussion of fundamental operating
The hydraulic power drive has been used principles is representative of the hydraulic power
in the Navy for many years. Proof of its drives used to operate the 5"/38 twin mounts.
effectiveness is that it has been used to train and Figure 12-5 shows the basic components of
elevate nearly all caliber guns, from the 40-mm the train power drive. The electric motor is
gun mount to the 16-inch turret. In addition to constructed with drive shafts at both ends. The
gun mounts and turrets, hydraulic power drives forward shaft drives the A-end pump through
are used to position rocket launchers and reduction gears, and the after shaft drives the
missile launchers, and to drive and control such auxiliary pumps through the auxiliary reduction
equipment as windlasses, capstans, and winches. gears. The reduction gears are installed because

Figure 12-5.-Train power drive—components.

the pumps are designed to operate at a speed much
slower than that of the motor.
The replenishing pump is a spur gear pump.
Its purpose is to replenish fluid to the active
system of the power drive. It receives its supply
of fluid from the reservoir and discharges it to
the B-end valve plate. This discharge of fluid from
the pump is held at a constant pressure by the
action of a pressure relief valve. (Because the
capacity of the pump exceeds replenishing
demands, the relief valve is continuously allowing
some of the fluid to flow back to the reservoir.)
The sump pump and oscillator has a twofold
purpose. It pumps leakage, which collects in the
sump of the indicator regulator, to the expansion
tank. Additionally, it transmits a pulsating effect
to the fluid in the response pressure system.
Oscillations in the hydraulic response system help
eliminate static friction of valves, allowing
hydraulic control to respond faster.
The control pressure pump supplies high-
pressure fluid for the hydraulic control system,
brake pistons, lock piston, and the hand-
controlled clutch operating piston. The control
pressure pump is a fixed-displacement, axial-
piston type. An adjustable relief valve is used to
limit the operating pressure at the outlet of the Figure 12–6.–Main cylinder assembly.
pump.

Control Intermediate high-pressure fluid (IHP) is

transmitted to the left side of the piston, while
For the purpose of this text, control constitutes high-pressure hydraulic fluid (HPC) is transmitted
the relationship between the stroke control shaft to the right side. The HPC is held constant at 1000
and the tilting box. The stroke control shaft is one psi. Since the area of the piston upon which HPC
of the piston rods of a double-acting piston-type acts is exactly one-half the area upon which IHP
actuating cylinder. This actuating cylinder and its acts, the main piston is maintained in a fixed
direct means of control are referred to as the main position when IHP is one-half HPC (500 psi).
cylinder assembly (fig. 12-6). It is the link between Whenever IHP varies from its normal value of
the hydraulic followup system and the power drive 500 psi, the main piston will move, thus moving
itself. the tilting box.
In hand control, the tilting box is mechanically
positioned by gearing from the handwheel Operation
through the A-end control unit. In local and
automatic control, the tilting box is positioned by Assume that a right train order signal is
the stroke control shaft. As shown in figure 12-6, received. This will cause the pilot valve to be
the extended end of the control shaft is connected pulled upward. The fluid in the upper chamber
to the tilting box. Movement of the shaft will pivot of the amplifier piston can now flow through the
the tilting box one way or the other; which, in lower land chamber of the fine pilot to exhaust.
turn, controls the output of the A-end of the This will cause the amplifier piston to move
transmission. The other end of the shaft is upward, and the fluid in the right-hand chamber
attached to the main piston. A shorter shaft is of the main control valve can flow into the lower
attached to the opposite side of the piston. This chamber of the amplifier valve.
shaft is also smaller in diameter. Thus the working The main control valve will now move to the
area of the left side of the piston is twice that of the right, IHP will drop below 500 psi, and the stroke
area of the right side, as it appears in figure 12-6. piston will move to the left. Movement of the

12-7
stroke piston will cause tilt to be put on the tilt direction determined by the signal. At the same
plate, and the A-end will cause the mount to train time, B-end response is transmitted to the
right. indicator regulator and continuously combines
Figure 12-7 is a simplified block diagram with incoming gun-order signals to give the
showing the main element of the hydraulic power error between the two. This error is modified
drive system under automatic control for hydraulically, according to the system of
clockwise and counterclockwise rotation. mechanical linkages and valves in the regulator.
There are two principal problems in posi- When the gun is lagging behind the signal, its
tioning a gun to fire. One is to get an accurate movement is accelerated; and when it begins to
gun-order signal. This problem is solved by the catch up, its movement is slowed down so that
director-computer combination. The other it will not overrun excessively.
problem is to transmit the director signal promptly
to the gun so that the position and movements LANDING GEAR EMERGENCY
of the gun will be synchronized with the signals SYSTEM
from the director.
The problem of transforming gun-order If the landing gear in a naval aircraft fails to
signals to mount movements is solved by the extend to the down and locked position, the
power drive and its control—the indicator aircraft has an emergency method to extend the
regulator. The indicator regulator controls the landing gear. This text will cover the nitrogen
power drive, and this, in turn, controls the system.
movement of the gun. The nitrogen storage bottle system is a
The indicator regulator receives an initial one-shot system powered by nitrogen pressure
electrical gun-order from the director-computer, stored in four compressed nitrogen bottles
compares it to the existing mount position, and (fig. 12-8). When the landing gear control handle
sends an error signal to the hydraulic control is used to actuate the emergency landing gear
mechanism in the regulator. The hydraulic control system, a cable between the control and the
mechanism controls the flow to the stroke control manually operated nitrogen bottle opens the
shaft, which positions the tilting box in the A-end emergency gear down release valve on the bottle.
of the transmission. Its tilt controls the volume Nitrogen from this bottle actuates the release
and direction of fluid pumped to the B-end and, valves on the other three bottles so that they
therefore, the speed and direction of the drive discharge. Nitrogen flows from the manually
shaft of the B-end. Through mechanical linkage, operated bottle, actuates the dump valves, and
the B-end output shaft moves the gun in the causes the shuttles within the shuttle valves on the

Figure 12-7.—Operation of the hydraulic power drive.

12-8
 Figure 12-8.
12-9
aft doors’ cylinders and the shuttle valve on the hydraulic cylinders are attached to each JBD panel
nose gear cylinder to close off the normal port shaft by crank assemblies. (See fig. 12-9.) The
and operate these cylinders. The nose gear cylinder shaft is rotated by the push and pull operation
extends; this unlocks the uplock and extends the of the hydraulic cylinders. Shaft rotation extends
nose gear. The nitrogen flowing into the aft door or retracts the linkage to raise or lower the JBD
cylinders opens the aft doors. Fluid on the close panels. This operation is designed so that in the
side of the door cylinder is vented to return event of a failure of one of the hydraulic cylinders,
through the actuated dump valves. Nitrogen from the other one will raise or lower the panels.
another bottle actuates the shuttle valves on the Figure 12-10 is a diagram of the hydraulic
uplock cylinders. Nitrogen flows into the uplock control system of a JBD during the raise cycle.
cylinders and causes them to disengage the Hydraulic fluid from the catapult hydraulic supply
uplocks. As soon as the uplocks are disengaged, system is supplied to the JBD hydraulic system
the main gear extends by the force of gravity. through an isolation valve and a filter to the 4-way
Fluid on the up side of the main gear cylinders control valve assembly. (The 4-way control valve
is vented to return through the actuated dump assembly consists of a pilot-operated control
valves, preventing a fluid lock. valve, a direct- or solenoid-operated control valve,
and a sequence valve, which is not shown.)
JET BLAST DEFLECTORS To raise the JBD, solenoid B of the 4-way
control valve assembly is energized. The spools
Jet blast deflectors (JBD) onboard aircraft of the 4-way valve assembly shift, allowing
carriers are raised and lowered by hydraulic medium-pressure hydraulic fluid to flow into port
cylinders through mechanical linkage. Two A of the hydraulic cylinder. The cylinders extend,

Figure 12-9.—Operating gear assembly (panels raised).

12-10
 I
I
Figure 12-10.
I
I
I
I
I I
12-11
Figure 12-11.
12-12
pushing the crank assembly aft and rotating the assemblies. Fluid from port A of the piston is
shaft. The rotation of the shaft extends the directed through the 4-way valve assembly and
operating gear linkage and raises the panel back to the gravity tank.
assemblies. Fluid from port B of the piston is
To lower the JBD in the event of hydraulic
directed through the 4-way valve assembly and
control failure, each JBD panel is equipped with
back to the gravity tank.
a manual bypass valve, which allows bypassing
To lower the JBD (fig. 12-11), solenoid A of
the 4-way control valve. This allows venting the
the 4-way control valve assembly is energized. The
hydraulic pressure from the “raise” side of the
spools of the 4-way valve assembly shift, allow
cylinder back to the gravity tank.
medium-pressure hydraulic fluid to flow into port
B of the hydraulic cylinder. The cylinders retract, The three lines to port A of the hydraulic
pulling the crank assembly forward and rotating cylinders have orifice assemblies in them. These
the shaft. The rotation of the shaft retracts the orifice assemblies control the flow of hydraulic
operating gear linkage and lowers the panel fluid in both the raise and lower operations.

12-13
 APPENDIX I

GLOSSARY
A part of this glossary has been extracted from BOYLE’S LAW—The absolute pressure of a
the American Standard Glossary of Terms for fixed mass of gas varies inversely as the volume,
Fluid Power (ASA B93.2-1965) with permission provided the temperature remains constant.
of the publisher, The National Fluid Power
Association. CAVITATION—A localized gaseous
condition within a liquid stream that occurs where
ABSOLUTE TEMPERATURE—The tempera- the pressure is reduced to the vapor pressure.
ture measured using absolute zero as a reference.
Absolute zero is –273.16°C or –459.69°F. CELSIUS—The temperature scale using the
freezing point of water as zero and the boiling
ACCELERATION—Time rate of change of point as 100, with 100 equal divisions between,
velocity. called degrees. This scale was formerly known as
the centigrade scale.
ACCUMULATOR—A device for storing
liquid under pressure. It usually consists of a CENTIGRADE—(See Celsius.)
chamber separated into a gas compartment and
a liquid compartment by a piston or diaphragm. CENTRIFUGAL FORCE—A force exerted
An accumulator also serves to smooth out on a rotating object in a direction outward from
pressure surges in a hydraulic system. the center of rotation.

ACTUATOR—A device that converts fluid CHARLES’S LAW—If the pressure is

power into mechanical force and motion. constant, the volume of dry gas varies directly
with the absolute temperature.
ADDITIVE—A chemical compound or
compounds added to a fluid to change its CHEMICAL CHANGE—A change that
properties. alters the composition of the molecules of a
substance.
AIR, COMPRESSED—Air at any pressure
greater than atmospheric pressure.
CIRCUIT—An arrangement of intercon-
nected component parts.
AMBIENT—Surrounding, such as ambient
air, meaning surrounding air.
COMPRESSIBILITY—The change in volume
BAROMETER—An instrument that mea- of a unit volume of a fluid when it is subjected
to a unit change of pressure.
sures atmospheric pressure.

BERNOULLI’S PRINCIPLE—If a fluid COMPRESSOR—A device that converts

flowing through a tube reaches a constriction, or mechanical force and motion into pneumatic fluid
narrowing of the tube, the velocity of the fluid power.
flowing through the constriction increases and the
pressure decreases. COMPUTER—A device capable of accepting
information, applying prescribed processes to the
BLEEDER, AIR—A bleeder for the removal information, and supplying the results of these
of air. processes.

AI-1
 CONDENSATION—The change from a COOLER, PRECOOLER—A device that
gaseous (or vapor) state to a liquid state. cools a gas before it is compressed.

CONTAMINANT—Detrimental matter in a CORROSION—The slow destruction of

fluid. materials by chemical agents and electromechanical
reactions.
CONTINUITY EQUATION—The mass rate
of fluid flow into any fixed space is equal to the CYCLE—A single complete operation
mass flow rate out. Hence, the mass flow rate of consisting of progressive phases starting and
fluid past all cross sections of a conduit is equal. ending at the neutral position.

CONTROL—A device used to regulate the CYLINDER—A device that converts fluid
function of a component or system. power into linear mechanical force and motion.
It usually consists of a movable element, such as
CONTROL, CYLINDER—A control in a piston and piston rod, plunger, or ram,
which a fluid cylinder is the actuating device. operating within a cylindrical bore.

CONTROL, ELECTRIC—A control actuated CYLINDER, CUSHIONED—A cylinder with

electrically. a piston-assembly deceleration device at one of
both ends of the stroke.
CONTROL, HYDRAULIC—A control
CYLINDER, DOUBLE-ACTING—A
actuated by a liquid.
cylinder in which fluid force can be applied to the
CONTROL, MANUAL—A control actuated movable element in either direction.
by the operator.
CYLINDER, DOUBLE-ROD—A cylinder
with a single piston and a piston rod extending
CONTROL, MECHANICAL—A control
actuated by linkages, gears, screws, cams, or other from each end.
mechanical elements.
CYLINDER, DUAL-STROKE—A cylinder
combination that provides two working strokes.
CONTROL, PNEUMATIC—A control
actuated by air or other gas pressure. CYLINDER, PISTON—A cylinder in which
the movable element has a greater cross-sectional
CONTROL, SERVO—A control actuated by
area than the piston rod.
a feedback system that compares the output with
the reference signal and makes corrections to CYLINDER, PLUNGER—A cylinder in
reduce the difference. which the movable element has the same cross-
sectional area as the piston rod.
CONTROLS, PUMP—Controls applied to
positive-displacement variable delivery pumps to CYLINDER, SINGLE-ACTING—A cylinder
adjust their volumetric output or direction of in which the fluid force can be applied to the
flow. movable element in only one direction.

CONVERGENT—That which inclines and CYLINDER, SINGLE-ROD—A cylinder

approaches nearer together, as the inner walls of with a piston rod extending from one end.
a tube that is constricted.
CYLINDER, SPRING-RETURN—A cylin-
COOLER—A heat exchanger, which removes der in which a spring returns the piston assembly.
heat from a fluid.
CYLINDER, TANDEM—Two or more
COOLER, AFTERCOOLER—A device that cylinders with interconnected piston assemblies.
cools a gas after it has been compressed.
CYLINDER, TELESCOPING—A cylinder
COOLER, INTERCOOLER—A device that with nested multiple tubular rod segments which
cools a gas between the compressive steps of a provide a long working stroke in a short retracted
multiple stage compressor. envelope.

AI-2
 DENSITY—The weight per unit volume of a FEEDBACK—A transfer of energy from the
substance. output of a device to its input.

DIAGRAM, COMBINATION—A drawing FILTER—A device whose primary function

using a combination of graphical, cutaway, and is the retention by a porous media of insoluble
pictorial symbols. contaminants from a fluid.

DIAGRAM, CUTAWAY—A drawing show- FILTER ELEMENT—The porous device that

ing principal internal parts of all components, performs the actual process of filtration.
controls, and actuating mechanisms, all inter-
connecting lines and functions of individual FILTER MEDIA—The porous materials that
components. perform the actual process of filtration.

DIAGRAM, GRAPHICAL—A drawing or FILTER MEDIA, SURFACE—Porous

drawings showing each piece of apparatus materials that primarily retain contaminants on
including all interconnecting lines by approved the influent face.
standard symbols.
FLASH POINT—The temperature to which
DIAGRAM, PICTORIAL—A drawing show-
a liquid must be heated under specified conditions
ing each component in its actual shape according
of the test method to give off sufficient vapor to
to the manufacturer’s installation.
form a mixture with air that can be ignited
momentarily by a specified flame.
DIAGRAM, SCHEMATIC—(See Diagram,
graphical.)
FLOW, LAMINAR—A flow situation in
which fluid moves in parallel layers (also referred
DIAPHRAGM—A dividing membrane or
to as streamline flow).
thin partition.
FLOW, METERED—Flow at a controlled
DIFFUSER—A duct of varying cross section
rate.
designed to convert a high-speed gas flow into
low-speed at an increased pressure.
FLOW, TURBULENT—A flow situation in
DISPLACEMENT—The volume of fluid that which the fluid particles move in a random
can pass through a pump, motor, or cylinder in manner.
a single revolution or stroke.
FLOW RATE—The volume, mass, or weight
DIVERGENT—Moving away from each of a fluid passing through any conductor per unit
other, as the inner wall of a tube that flares of time.
outward.
FLOWMETER—An instrument used to
EFFICIENCY—The ratio of the output measure quantity or the flow rate of a fluid
power to the input power, generally expressed as motion.
a percentage.
FLUID—A liquid or a gas.
ENERGY—The ability or capacity to do
work. FLUID FLOW—The stream or movement of
a fluid, or the rate of its movement.
EQUILIBRIUM—A state of balance between
opposing forces or actions. FLUID FRICTION—Friction due to the
viscosity of fluids.
FAHRENHEIT—The temperature scale using
the freezing point of water as 32 and the boiling FLUID, FIRE-RESISTANT—A fluid
point as 212, with 180 equal divisions between, difficult to ignite, which shows little tendency to
called degrees. propagate flame.

AI-3
 FLUID, HYDRAULIC—A fluid suitable for GAUGE—An instrument or device for
use in a hydraulic system. measuring, indicating, or comparing a physical
characteristic.
FLUID, PETROLEUM—A fluid composed
of petroleum oil. It may contain additives. GAUGE PRESSURE—Pressure above
atmospheric pressure.
FLUID, PHOSPHATE ESTER BASE—A
fluid that contains a phosphate ester as one of the GAUGE SNUBBER—A device installed in
major components. the line to the pressure gauge used to dampen
pressure surges and thus provide a steady reading
FLUID, SILICONE—A fluid composed of and a protection for the gauge.
silicones. It may contain additives.
GAUGE, BELLOWS—A gauge in which the
FLUID, WATER-GLYCOL—A fluid whose sensing element is a convoluted closed cylinder.
major constituents are water and one or more A pressure differential between the outside and
glycols or polyglycols. the inside causes the cylinder to expand or contract
axially.
FLUID STABILITY—Resistance of a fluid to
permanent change in properties. GAUGE, BOURDON TUBE—A pressure
gauge in which the sensing element is a curved
FLUID POWER—Energy transmitted and tube that tends to straighten out when subjected
controlled through the use of fluids under to internal fluid pressure.
pressure.
GAUGE, DIAPHRAGM—A gauge in which
FLUID POWER SYSTEM—A system that the sensing element is relatively thin and its inner
transmits and controls power through use of a portion is free to deflect with respect to its
pressurized fluid within an enclosed circuit. periphery.

FOOT-POUND—The amount of work GAUGE, PRESSURE—A gauge that

accomplished when a force of 1 pound produces indicates the pressure in the system to which it
a displacement of 1 foot. is connected.

FORCE—The action of one body on another GAUGE, VACUUM—A pressure gauge for
tending to change the state of motion of the body pressures less than atmospheric.
acted upon.
GRAVITY—The force that tends to draw all
FREE FLOW—Flow that encounters negli- bodies toward the center of the earth. The weight
gible resistance. of a body is the resultant of gravitational force
acting on the body.
FRICTION—The action of one body or
substance rubbing against another, such as fluid HEAD—The height of a column or body of
flowing against the walls of pipe; the resistance fluid above a given point expressed in linear units.
to motion caused by this rubbing. Head is often used to indicate gauge pressure.
Pressure is equal to the height times the density
FRICTION PRESSURE DROP—The decrease of the fluid.
in the pressure of a fluid flowing through a
passage attributable to the friction between the HEAD, FRICTION—The head required to
fluid and the passage walls. overcome the friction at the interior surface of
a conductor and between fluid particles in motion.
GAS—The form of matter that has neither a It varies with flow, size, type, and condition of
definite shape nor a definite volume. conductors and fittings, and fluid characteristics,

GASKET—A class of seals that provides a seal HEAD, STATIC—The height of a column or
between two stationary parts. body of fluid above a given point.

AI-4
 HEAD, VELOCITY—The equivalent head KELVIN SCALE—The temperature scale
through which the liquid would have to fall to using absolute zero as the zero point and divisions
attain a given velocity. Mathematically it is equal that are the same size as centigrade degrees.
to the square of the velocity (in feet) divided by
64.4 feet per second square. KINETIC ENERGY—The energy that a
substance has while it is in motion.
HEAT EXCHANGER—A device that
transfers heat through a conducting wall from one KINETIC THEORY—A theory of matter that
fluid to another. assumes that the molecules of matter are in
constant motion.
HYDRAULICS—Engineering science pertain-
ing to liquid pressure and flow. LINE—A tube, pipe, or hose that is used as
a conductor of fluid.
HYDROMETER—An instrument for deter-
mining the specific gravities of liquids. LIQUID—A form of matter that has a
definite volume but takes the shape of its
HYDROPNEUMATICS—Pertaining to the container.
combination of hydraulic and pneumatic fluid
power. LOAD—The power that is being delivered by
any power-producing device. The equipment that
uses the power from the power-producing device.
HYDROSTATICS—Engineering science
pertaining to the energy of liquids at rest.
LUBRICATOR—A device that adds
controlled or metered amounts of lubricant into
IMPACT PRESSURE—The pressure of a
a fluid power system.
moving fluid brought to rest that is in excess of
the pressure the fluid has when it does not flow;
MANIFOLD—A type of fluid conductor that
that is, total pressure less static pressure. Impact
provides multiple connections ports.
pressure is equal to dynamic pressure in incom-
pressible flow; but in compressible flow, impact
MANOMETER—A differential pressure
pressure includes the pressure change owing to the
gauge in which pressure is indicated by the height
compressibility effect.
of a liquid column of known density. Pressure is
equal to the difference in vertical height between
IMPINGEMENT—The striking or dashing two connected columns multiplied by the density
upon with a clash or sharp collision, as air of the manometer liquid. Some forms of
impinging upon the rotor of a turbine or motor. manometers are U tube, inclined tube, well, and
bell types.
IMPULSE TURBINE—A turbine driven by
a fluid at high velocity under relatively low MATTER—Any substance that occupies
pressure. space and has weight.

INERTIA—The tendency of a body at rest to MECHANICAL ADVANTAGE—The ratio

remain at rest, and a body in motion to continue of the resisting weight to the acting force. The
to move at a constant speed along a straight line, ratio of the distance through which the force is
unless the body is acted upon in either case by an exerted divided by the distance the weight is
unbalanced force. raised.

INHIBITOR—Any substance which slows or METER-IN—To regulate the amount of fluid

prevents chemical reactions such as corrosion or into a system or an actuator.
oxidation.
METER-OUT—To regulate the flow of fluid
INVERSE PROPORTION—The relation that from a system or actuator.
exists between two quantities when an increase in
one of them produces a corresponding decrease MICRON—A millionth of a meter or about
in the other. 0.00004 inch.

AI-5
 MOLECULE—A small natural particle of POTENTIAL ENERGY—The energy a sub-
matter composed of two or more atoms. stance has because of its position, its condition,
or its chemical composition.
MOTOR—A device that converts fluid power
into mechanical force and motion. It usually POUR POINT—The lowest temperature at
provides rotary mechanical motion. which a liquid will flow under specified con-
ditions.
MOTOR, FIXED-DISPLACEMENT—A
motor in which the displacement per unit of POWER UNIT—A combination of pump,
output motion cannot be varied. pump drive, reservoir, controls, and conditioning
components which may be required for its
MOTOR, LINEAR—(See Cylinder.) application.

MOTOR, ROTARY—A motor capable of POWER—The rate of doing work or the rate
continuous rotary motion. of expanding energy.

MOTOR, ROTARY LIMITED—A rotary PRESSURE—The amount of force distrib-

motor having limited motion. uted over each unit of area, usually expressed in
pounds per square inch.
MOTOR, VARIABLE-DISPLACEMENT—
A motor in which the displacement per unit of PRESSURE, ABSOLUTE—The sum of
output motion can be varied. atmospheric and gauge pressures.
NEOPRENE—A synthetic rubber highly
PRESSURE, ATMOSPHERIC—Pressure
resistant to oil, light, heat, and oxidation.
exerted by the atmosphere at any specific location.
NEUTRALIZATION NUMBER—A mea-
PRESSURE, BACK—The pressure encoun-
sure of the total acidity or basicity of an oil; this
tered on the return side of a system.
includes organic or inorganic acids or bases or a
combination of them.
PRESSURE, DIFFERENTIAL—The dif-
ference in pressure between any two points of a
OXIDATION—The process by which oxygen
unites with some other substance, causing rust or system or a component.
corrosion.
PRESSURE, HEAD—The pressure due to the
PACKING—A class of seal that is used to height of a column or body of fluid. It is usually
provide a seal between two parts of a unit which expressed in feet.
move in relation to each other.
PRESSURE, OPERATING—The pressure at
PASCAL’S LAW—A pressure applied to a which a system operates.
confined fluid at rest is transmitted with equal
intensity throughout the fluid. PRESSURE, PRECHARGE—The pressure
of compressed gas in an accumulator prior to the
PERIPHERY—The outside surface, espe- admission of a liquid.
cially that of a rounded object or body.
PRESSURE, PROOF—The nondestructive
PIPE—A type of fluid line whose dimensions test pressure in excess of the maximum rated
are designated by nominal (approximate) inside operating pressure.
diameter and wall thickness.
PRESSURE, STATIC—The pressure in a
PNEUMATICS—Engineering science per- fluid at rest.
taining to gaseous pressure and flow.
PRESSURE SWITCH—An electrical switch
PORT—An internal or external terminus of operated by the increase or decrease of fluid
a passage in a component. pressure.

AI-6
 PRIME MOVER—The source of mechanical RETURN LINE—A line used for returning
power used to drive the pump or compressor. fluid back into the reservoir or atmosphere.

PUMP—A device that converts mechanical SEPARATOR—A device whose primary

force and motion into hydraulic fluid power. function is to isolate undesirable fluids and or
contaminants by physical properties other than
PUMP, AXIAL PISTON—A pump having size.
multiple pistons disposed with their axes parallel.
SERVO—A device used to convert a small
PUMP, CENTRIFUGAL—A pump that movement into a greater movement of force.
produces fluid velocity and converts it to pressure
head. SOLID—The form of matter that has a
definite shape and a definite volume.
PUMP, FIXED-DISPLACEMENT—A
pump in which the displacement per cycle cannot SPECIFIC GRAVITY—The ratio of the
be varied. weight of a given volume of a substance to the
weight of an equal volume of some standard
PUMP, RADIAL PISTON—A pump having substance.
multiple pistons disposed radially actuated by an
eccentric element. STEADY FLOW—A flow in which the
velocity, pressure, and temperature at any point
PUMP, VARIABLE-DISPLACEMENT—A in the fluid do not vary with time.
pump in which the volume of fluid per cycle can
be varied. STRAINER—A coarse filter.

RANKINE SCALE—A thermometer scale STOKE—The standard unit of kinematic

based on absolute zero of the Fahrenheit scale, viscosity in the cgs system. It is expressed in square
in which the freezing point of water is centimeters per second; 1 centistoke equals 0.01
approximately 492°R. stoke.

RATIO—The value obtained by dividing one STUFFING BOX—A cavity and closure with
number by another, indicating their relative manual adjustment for a sealing device.
proportions.
SUPPLY LINE—A line that conveys fluid
RECEIVER—A container in which gas is from the reservoir to the pump.
stored under pressure as a supply source for
pneumatic power. SURGE—A momentary rise of pressure in a
circuit.
RECIPROCATING—Moving back and
forth, as a piston reciprocating in a cylinde., SYNCHRONIZE—To make two or more
events or operations occur at the proper time with
RESERVOIR—A container for storage of respect to each other.
liquid in a fluid power system.
SYNTHETIC MATERIAL—A complex
RESPONSE TIME—The time lag between a chemical compound that is artificially formed by
signal input and the resulting change of output. the combining of two or more simpler compounds
or elements.
RESTRICTOR—A device that reduces the
cross-sectional flow area. TANK—A container for the storage of fluid
in a fluid power system.
RESTRICTOR, ORIFICE—A restrictor, the
length of which is relatively small with respect to THEORY—A scientific explanation, tested by
its cross-sectional area. The orifice may be fixed observations and experiments.
or variable. Variable types are noncompensated,
pressure compensated, or pressure and tempera- THERMAL EXPANSION—The increase in
ture compensated. volume of a substance due to temperature change.

A4-7
 TORQUE—A force or combination of forces VALVE, SELECTOR—A directional control
that produces or tends to produce a twisting or valve whose primary function is to selectively
rotary motion. interconnect two or more ports.

TUBING—A type of fluid line whose VALVE, SEQUENCE—A valve whose

dimensions are designated by actual measured primary function is to direct flow in a pre-
outside diameter and by actual measured wall determined sequence.
thickness.
VALVE, SERVO—A directional control valve
that modulates flow or pressure as a function of
TURBINE—A rotary motor actuated by its input signal.
the reaction, impulse, or both, of a flow of
pressurized fluid. VALVE, SHUTOFF—A valve that operates
fully open or fully closed.
VALVE—A device that controls fluid flow
direction, pressure, or flow rate. VALVE, UNLOADING—A pressure control
valve whose primary function is to permit a pump
VALVE, CHECK—A directional control or compressor to operate at minimum load.
valve that permits flow of fluid in only one
direction. VELOCITY—The rate of motion in a
particular direction. The velocity of fluids is
usually expressed in feet per second.
VALVE, COUNTERBALANCE—A pressure
control valve that maintains back pressure to VENTURI—A tube having a narrowing
prevent a load from falling. throat or constriction to increase the velocity of
fluid flowing through it. The flow through the
VALVE, DIRECTIONAL CONTROL—A venturi causes a pressure drop in the smallest
valve whose primary function is to direct or section, the amount being a function of the
prevent flow through selected passages. velocity of flow.

VALVE, FLOW CONTROL—A valve whose VISCOSITY—A measure of the internal

primary function is to control flow rate. friction or resistance of a fluid to flow.

VISCOSITY INDEX—A measure of the

VALVE, HYDRAULIC—A valve for con- viscosity-temperature characteristics of a fluid as
trolling liquid. referred to that of two arbitrary reference fluids.

VALVE, PILOT—A valve used to operate VISCOSITY, SAYBOLT UNIVERSAL

another valve or control. SECONDS (SUS)—The time in seconds for 60
milliliters of oil to flow through a standard orifice
VALVE, PNEUMATIC—A valve for con- at a given temperature.
trolling gas.
VISCOSITY, KINEMATIC—The absolute
viscosity divided by the density of the fluid. It is
VALVE, PRESSURE REDUCING—A
usually expressed in centistokes.
pressure control valve whose primary function is
to limit outlet pressure.
VOLUME OF FLOW—The quantity of fluid
that passes a certain point in a unit of time. The
VALVE, PRIORITY—A valve that directs volume of flow is usually expressed in gallons per
flow to one operating circuit at a fixed rate and minute for liquids and cubic feet per minute for
directs excess flow to another operating circuit. gases.

VALVE, RELIEF—A pressure control valve WORK—The transference of energy from one
whose primary function is to limit system body or system to another. That which is
pressure. accomplished by a force acting through a distance.

AI-8
 APPENDIX II

MECHANICAL SYMBOLS OTHER THAN

AERONAUTICAL FOR FLUID
POWER DIAGRAMS

AII-1
AII-2
AII-3
AII-4