Mechanical Measurement

Unit No: -3
Pressure measurement & Vacuum Measurement
 Pressure Measurement
Pressure is the action of one force against another over,
a surface. The pressure P of a force F distributed over
an area A is defined as: [ P = F/A ] Units of pressure:
standard: N/m2 (Pa-Pascal), Kpa (Kilo Pascal)
1Bar=100kpa
 Pressure measurement

• Pressure measurement is the analysis of an applied force by

a fluid (liquid or gas) on a surface. Pressure is typically measured
in units of force per unit of surface area. Many techniques have been
developed for the measurement of pressure and vacuum.
• Instruments used to measure and display pressure in an integral unit
are called pressure meters or pressure gauges or vacuum gauges.
• A manometer is a good example, as it uses the surface area
and weight of a column of liquid to both measures and indicates
pressure. Likewise, the widely used Bourdon gauge is a mechanical
device, that both measures and indicates and is probably the best-
known type of gauge.
Pressure measurement
 Pressure Measurement Terms
• Absolute Pressure Measured above total vacuum or zero absolute. Zero absolute
represents a total lack of pressure.
• Atmospheric Pressure The pressure exerted by the earth’s atmosphere.
Atmospheric pressure at sea level is 14.696 psia. The value of atmospheric pressure
decreases with increasing altitude.
• Barometric Pressure Same as atmospheric pressure.
• Gauge Pressure The pressure above atmospheric pressure. Represents a positive
difference between measured pressure and existing atmospheric pressure. Can be
converted to absolute by adding actual atmospheric pressure value.
• Differential Pressure The difference in magnitude between some pressure values
and some reference pressure. In a sense, absolute pressure could be considered as a
differential pressure with total vacuum or zero absolute as the reference. Likewise,
gauge pressure (defined above) could be considered as Differential Pressure with
atmospheric pressure as the reference.
 Method of Pressure Measurement
• Balancing the pressure exerted by fluid (usual mercury) column like in
manometers, McLeod gauge, etc.
• Measurement of elastic deformations of elements like a membrane,
diaphragm, Bourdon tube, etc.
• Measurement of electrical quantities like in Pirani and Penning
gauges, Bridgman gauge, etc.
 Pressure Standard

 Classification of Pressure Standards

• An absolute pressure standard, usually referred to as a primary
standard, is an instrument whose calibration is calculated from the
knowledge of its significant dimensions and physical constants. The
calibration of such an instrument, therefore, needs no reference to
another instrument for pressure determination and remains unchanged
for all ideal gases.
• A secondary pressure standard referred to as a transfer gauge, is an
instrument that measures either gas pressure effects (e.g., the strain in
an elastic element) or some physical quantity of gas (e.g., viscosity or
ionization).
 Elastic Pressure Transducers
• The elastic pressure transducers are the mechanical elements that
are used for converting one form of energy into the other form of
energy that can be measured easily.
• This Pressure sensing system is based on the idea that bending of
flexible material is directly relative to the pressure being
considered.
• Types of Elastic Pressure Transducers
There are several mechanical transducers, some of the commonly
used ones are described below: Bourdon tube pressure transducers
Diaphragm pressure transducers Bellows pressure transducers.
 Bourdon Tube
• The bourdon tube pressure instrument is one of the oldest pressure
sensing instruments in use today.
• The bourdon tube consists of a thin walled tube that is flattened
diametrically on contrary sides to produce a cross-sectional area
elliptical in form, having two long flat sides and two short round sides.
• The tube is bent lengthwise into an arc of a circle of 270 to 300
degrees.
• Pressure applied to the inside of the tube causes distention of the flat
sections and tends to restore its original round cross-section.
 Bourdon Tube
A Bourdon gauge uses a coiled tube, which, as it expands due to
pressure increase causes a rotation of an arm connected to the tube.
bourdon are often used in harsh environments and high pressures, but
can also be used for very low pressures; the response time, however, is
slower than the bellows or diaphragm.
C-type bourdon psi Range as low as 0 15 psi up to 0-1500
Helical bourdon Range as low as (0) 200 psi up to 0 6000 psi
Spiral bourdon Range as low as 0-10 psi up 0-100,000 psi.
 Bourdon Tube Pressure Gauge
Principle:- The bourdon tube works
on a simple principle that a bent tube
will change its shape.
As pressure is applied internally, the
tube straightens and returns to its
original form when the pressure is
released.
The tip of the tube moves with the
internal pressure change and is easily
converted with a pointer onto a
scale.
(a common type of Bordon Tube Gauges)
Advantages :
• Simple construction.
• Low cost.
• High-pressure range.
• Good accuracy.
Disadvantages: -
• Susceptibility to shock and vibration.
• Gauges are subjected to hysteresis.
In a bourdon tube-type sensor:-
• System pressure is applied to the inside of a slightly flattened are
formed tube. As pressure increases, the tube tends to restore to its
original round cross-section. This change in cross-section causes the
tube to straighten.
• Since the tube is permanently fastened at one end, the tip of the tube
traces a curve that is the result of the change in angular position
concerning the center. The tip movement can then be used to position a
pointer or to develop an electrical signal.
 Diaphragm
• Diaphragm elements are made of circular metal discs or flexible
elements such as rubber, plastic, or leather.
• The material from which the diaphragm is made depends on whether it
takes advantage of the flexible nature of the material, or is opposed by
another element (such as a spring) Diaphragms made of metal discs
utilize flexible characteristics, while those made of flexible elements
are opposed by another flexible element. These diaphragm sensors are
very sensitive to rapid pressure changes.
• Examples of diaphragms include flat, corrugated, and capsule
diaphragms.
 Diaphragm
• A diaphragm is a circular-shaped convoluted membrane that is
attached to the pressure fixture around the circumference. The pressure
medium is on one side and the indication medium is on the other.
• Diaphragms provide fast-acting and accurate pressure indication.
However, the movement or stroke is not as large as the bellows
• When the applied pressure below the diaphragm exceeds the
atmospheric pressure the diaphragm is deflected upwards.
• The deflection causes the link attached to the diaphragm to deflect.
• The pointer attached to the link proportionally shows reading on a
graduated scale.
In Diaphragm pressure sensor:-
• They are used to measure gauge pressures over very low
ranges.
• They may be made up of Metallic diaphragms gauge (brass or
bronze) Slack diaphragms gauge(Rubber).
 Bellows Pressure Gauge

• Bellows elements are cylindrical in form and contain many folds. They
deform in the axial direction (compression or expansion) with changes
in pressure.
• The pressure that needs to be detected is applied to one side of the
bellows (either inside or outside) while atmospheric pressure is on the
contrary side.
• Absolute pressure can be detected by evacuating either the exterior or
interior space of the bellows and then sensing the pressure at the
contrary side.
• The need for a pressure sensing element that was extremely sensitive to
low pressures and provided power for activating recording and indicating
mechanisms resulted in the development of the metallic bellows pressure
sensing element.

(Basic Metallic Bellows) (Common Metallic Bellows)

 Bellows Pressure Gauge
• Bellows sensor is an axially flexible, cylindrical enclosure with folded
sides. When pressure is applied through an opening, the closed-end extends
axially.
• Bellows elements can measure absolute pressure, gauge pressure,
vacuum, or differential pressure.
• When pressure is sensed the free end of the bellows compresses against the
spring force.
• This movement is transmitted to the linkage.
• Linkage transmits it to the sector followed by the pinion.
• Lastly pointer attached to the pinion gives us the proportionate reading.
 Bellows Pressure Gauge
Advantages: -
• Simple and rugged construction.
• It can measure gauge, absolute and vacuum pressure.
• Moderate cost.
• Good in the low to moderate pressure range.
Disadvantages: -
• Not suitable for high pressure.
• Requires compensation for ambient high pressures.
• Not suitable for dynamic measurement.
In a bellows-type sensor:-
• System pressure is applied to the internal volume of a bellows
and mechanical linkage assembly.
• As pressure changes, the bellows and linkage assembly move
to cause an electrical signal to be produced or to cause a
gauge pointer to move.
 Piezoelectric Pressure Sensors
• These devices utilize the piezoelectric characteristics of certain
crystalline and ceramic materials (such as quartz) to generate an
electrical signal.
• Principle:- when pressure is applied to a crystal, an electrical charge is
generated. some of the piezoelectric materials are barium titanate
sintered powder, a crystal of quartz, tourmaline, and Rochelle salts.
• Piezoelectricity is the electric charge that accumulates in certain solid materials
(such as crystals, certain ceramics, and biological matter such as bone, DNA, and
various proteins) in response to applied mechanical stress. The word
piezoelectricity means electricity resulting from pressure.
• The piezoelectric effect is understood as the linear electromechanical interaction
between the mechanical and the electrical state in crystalline materials with no
inversion symmetry.
• pressure applied to the piezoelectric sensing element produces a separation of
charges within the atomic structure of the material, generating an electrostatic
output voltage. The polarity of the voltage generated depends on the atomic
structure of the material and the direction in which the pressure is applied.
• In a typical quartz-based pressure sensor, a charge- collection electrode is
sandwiched between two quartz- crystal elements. The quartz elements are
oriented to supply the same polarity voltage to the electrode when compressed,
while the opposite polarity is applied to the sensor housing.
• Piezoelectric sensors have proven to be
versatile tools for the measurement of
various processes. They are used for quality
assurance, process control, and for research
and development in many industries.
• In the automotive industry, piezoelectric
elements are used to monitor combustion
when developing internal combustion
engines.
• It has been successfully used in various
applications, such as in medical, aerospace,
nuclear instrumentation, and as a pressure
sensor in the touchpads of mobile phones.
• Piezoelectric sensors are also seen in
nature. The collagen in bone is piezoelectric
and is thought by some to act as a
biological pressure sensor.
Applications: -
i. pressure sensor in the touchpads of mobile phones.
ii. To measure the pressure inside the cylinder of a gasoline engine.
iii. In various applications such as medical, aerospace, and nuclear
instrumentation.
Advantages: -
i. The transducer needs no external power and is therefore self-generating.
ii. It has a very good high-frequency response.
iii. Though piezoelectric sensors are electromechanical systems that react to
compression, the sensing elements show almost zero deflection.
Disadvantages: -
i. This type of transducer cannot measure static pressure.
ii. The output of the transducer is affected by changes in temperature.
Therefore temperature compensating devices have to be used.
 High Pressure Measurement

• Pressure sensors are based on a measuring body that must be able to

tolerate high loading, especially in the high-pressure range.
• The design and the material used are key factors for the measuring
body’s accuracy, reliability, and service life.

(High-pressure measuring body in monolithic design)

• The appropriate high-pressure measurement enables optimum
measurement of both high and low pressure. The well-founded values
allow you to carry out a pressure measurement. This is a practical
manifold.
The high-pressure measurement has many advantages:
• Easy pressure measurements on industrial systems.
• Easy handling.
• Mobile design.
• Overview of the measuring values for analysis.
• Leak detector in combination with the pressure gauge.
 Vacuum Measurement
• Pressures below the atmosphere are generally termed low pressures or
vacuum pressures.
• When the term vacuum is mentioned it means that the gauge pressure
is negative.
• However, atmospheric pressure serves as a reference and absolute
pressure is positive. Low pressures are more difficult to measure than
medium pressures.
• Pressures above 1 Torr can easily be measured by the direct
measurement method, wherein the force applied causes a displacement.
• “Manometers, diaphragms, bellows, and Bourdon tubes are some
examples of the instruments used in direct measurement of pressure.”
• “These devices are generally employed to measure a pressure value of
about 10 mmHg.”
• “For measuring pressures below 1 Torr, indirect or inferential methods
are often employed.”
• “In these methods, pressure is determined by drawing indirect
references to pressure-controlling properties such as volume, thermal
conductivity, and ionization of the gas.”
• “Some of the devices that fall under this category include McLeod
gauge and ionization gauge.
 Vacuum Gauges
• In any vacuum system it is most
important to know accurately the
level of vacuum on a real-time
basis as even a minor change in a
vacuum can result in process
parameters going haywire and
product quality getting adversely
affected.
• In modern-day vacuum systems we
use sophisticated vacuum gauges to
know the vacuum accurately.
 McLeod Gauge
• Basic principle of McLeod vacuum gauge: -
a known volume gas is compressed to a smaller volume whose final
value indicates the applied pressure.
• The gas used must obey Boyle’s law given by;
p1v1=p2v2where,
P1 = pressure of the gas at initial condition (applied pressure).
P2 = pressure of the gas at final condition.
V1 = volume of gas at the initial condition
V2 = volume of gas at final condition.
 McLeod Gauge
Initial condition == before compression.
Final condition == after compression.

A known volume gas (with low pressure) is compressed to a smaller

volume (with high pressure) and using the resulting volume and
pressure, the initial pressure can be calculated. This is the principle
behind the McLeod gauge operation.
 McLeod Gauge
• “It is employed as an absolute standard
of vacuum measurement for pressures
ranging from 10 to 10−4 Torr.”
• “A McLeod gauge, which is also known
as a compression gauge, is used for
vacuum measurement by compressing the
low-pressure gas whose pressure is to be
measured.”
• “The trapped gas gets compressed in a
capillary tube. Vacuum is measured by
measuring the height of a column of
mercury.”
Applications: The McLeod gauge is used to measure vacuum pressure.
Advantages of the McLeod gauge:
• It is independent of the gas composition.
• It serves as a reference standard to calibrate other low-pressure gauges.
• A linear relationship exists between the applied pressure and there is no
need to apply corrections to the McLeod gauge readings
Limitations of McLeod gauge:
• The gas whose pressure is to be measured should obey the Boyle’s law
• Moisture traps must be provided to avoid any considerable vapor into the
gauge.
• It measures only on a sampling basis.
• It cannot give a continuous output.
 Ionization Gauge
• An electron passing through a potential difference will acquire kinetic
energy that is proportional to the potential difference
• If an electron strikes a gas molecule, the electron may knock out an
electron from the gas molecule leaving it positively charged
• Number of positive ions formed is dependent on the number of gas
molecules per unit volume -> pressure
• Ionization gauge measures vacuum by measuring the current produced
by ionized gas molecules. The gas molecules are ionized as a stream of
electrons collides with them.
• An electron passing through a potential
difference will acquire kinetic energy that is
proportional to the potential difference If this
energy is large and that is proportional to the
potential difference. If this energy is large and
the electron collides with a gas molecule, the
electron may knock out a secondary electron
from the gas molecule. Thus the gas molecule
will be a positively charged ion.
• Number of positive ions (ion current) depends
on electron current (no. of electrons emitted by
the cathode) and several gas molecules. For a
given gas and a constant electron current, ion
current becomes a direct measure of g, the
number of gas molecules per unit volume that
is pressure.
• Working of ionization gauge:
The construction of a hot cathode type ionization gauge consists of a
basic vacuum triode. The figure of an external control type hot cathode
gauge is shown below.
• The grid is maintained at a large positive potential concerning
the cathode and the plate.
• The plate is at a negative potential concerning the cathode.
• This method is also known as the external control type
ionization gauge as the positive ion collector is external to the
electron collector grid concerning the cathode.
• The positive ions available between the grid and the cathode
will be drawn by the cathode, and those between the grid and
the plate will be collected by the plate.
Advantages:
• Used for a wide range of pressure 10 to 10-¹¹ mm of hg.
• It gives a fast response to pressure change.

Disadvantages:
• High cost and complex electrical circuit. Its calibration varies with the
gas.
• Decomposition of the gas may take place by the hot filament.
• Its filament burns quickly if it is exposed to air.
• It is required to protect the gauge by cutting out to protect in the case
of a system leak or break.
 Thermal Conductivity Gauges
• Thermal conductivity of a gas is independent of
pressure at normal pressure. But at low pressure,
the thermal conductivity of a gas depends on
pressure (decreases with pressure).
• Heat loss from a heated conducting wire (or hot
thin metal surface) is dependent on the thermal
conductivity of the surrounding gas. Thus, the
equilibrium temperature of a heated conducting
wire(or hot thin metal surface)is a function of
pressure heated conducting wire (or hot thin
metal surface) is a function of pressure.
Thank you