CPCL Instrumentation - I

Compiled by

Gowthaman.A
 PROCESS INSTRUMENTATION
PRESSURE

PRESSURE

Pressure can be defined as,

“The normal force per unit area exerted on a imaginary or real plane surface in afluid or a gas”.

Pressure = Force /Area

OR
Force = Pressure x Area

ATMOSPHERIC PRESSURE

The pressure exerted by the atmosphere is defined as the atmospheric pressure. This pressure
varies with the location. The standard atmospheric pressure is taken at average sea level and is 101.325 kPa
A.

GAUGE PRESSURE

Gauge pressure is the pressure measured above the atmospheric pressure. An ordinary pressure
gauge measures the difference between the pressure inside and outside the pressure-measuring element.

ABSOLUTE PRESSURE

Absolute pressure is the sum of gauge pressure and atmospheric pressure.

Absolute pressure = Gauge pressure + Atmospheric pressure

DIFFERENTIAL PRESSURE

The differential pressure is the pressure between two pressures. It is measured by separating the
two pressures by a diaphragm and measuring the net force or motion of the diaphragm, or by observing the
height of a column of liquid in a manometer.

VACUUM
 Vacuum is defined as the pressure below the atmospheric pressure and is usually expressed in mm
of mercury or mm of water. A full vacuum represents -760mm of Hg or -407.2 inches of H2O or -101.325
kPa.

GRAPHICAL REPRESENTATION OF COMMON PRESSURE TERMS

Pressure

Pascal
Pascal ( Pressure Difference )
( Absolute Pressure )

Pascal ( Gauge Pressure )

Atmospheric pressure Zero Gauge pressure

( 101. 325 kPa A )
Pascal ( suction )

Pascal ( Absolute Pressure )

Absolute Zero Pressure ( Perfect Vacuum )

STANDARD ENGINEERING UNITS AND THEIR INTER-CONVERSIONS

PSI (LB / in2) Kg /cm2 kPa Bar In. H2O mm Hg Atmosphere

1 0.07031 6.895 0.06895 27.70 51.71 0.06804
14.223 1 98.05 0.9805 394.0 735.5 0.9678
0.1450 0.0102 1 0.01 4.016 7.502 0.00987
14.50 1.020 100 1 401.6 750.2 0.987
0.03610 0.002456 0.2490 0.002490 1 1.867 0.002456
0.0193 0.001360 0.1333 0.001333 0.5357 1 0.001316
14.70 1.0333 101.3 1.013 407.2 760 1
 PRESSURE MEASURING DEVICES

SELECTION CRITERIA
Pressure Measuring Devices Selection criteria depends upon the following factors

 Range of the pressure to be measured

 Application
 Corrosive nature of the fluid
 Hot and slurry nature of fluids

Based on these factors following devices are used for pressure measurement applications.

 MANOMETERS

 PRESSURE GAUGES

 PRESURE TRANSDUCERS

 PRESURE TRANSMITTERS

 PRESSURE SWITCHES

 PRESURE REGULATORS

MANOMETERS
 Monometers are generally used for Low Range Pressure Measurement applications. If small, near
atmospheric pressures are to be detected, the manometers are the appropriate choice although manometers
are widely used in laboratories and calibration workshops. The types of Manometers are,

1. U - Tube manometer.
2. Single Limb Manometer.
3. Inclined Tube Manometer.

1. U- TUBE MANOMETER

` P1= HIGH PRESSURE

P2= LOW PRESSURE
h = DIFFERENTIAL PRESSURE

This is used to measure low range of Pressure measurement in Inches of H 2O Column and
normally used in the workshop facilities for calibration. This consists of a U- tube closed at one end or
open at both ends. A manometric liquid, such as mercury, glycerine or water is filled to half of the tube.
The liquid is generally coloured by ink or some dye. One of the ends of the U- tube is connected to the
pressure tapping and the other is open to the atmosphere. The height difference of the liquid will give the
pressure or vacuum applied. A scale fitted with the limbs is calibrated in centimeters or inches.
2. SINGLE LIMB MANOMETER

P1= HIGH PRESSURE

P2= LOW PRESSURE
h = DIFFERENTIAL PRESSURE

This is used to measure low range of Pressure measurement in Inches of H 2O Column and
normally used in the workshop facilities for calibration. The single limb well-type manometer does not
differ much from the U- tube manometer. However in place of one leg of the manometer, a well is installed
which has sufficient capacity to cause the level to remain practically constant regardless of the height of the
liquid column. This arrangement permits the use of only one glass column and makes it possible to read the
pressure directly on the graduated scale without making any zero adjustment of the scale as is necessary
with the U- tube.

3. INCLINED TUBE MANOMETER

This is used to measure very low range of Pressure measurement in Inches of H2O Column and
normally used in the workshop facilities for calibration. This is identical to Single limb manometer but is
used to measure very small range of pressure or vacuum. This is achieved by magnifying the level
difference. To increase the sensitivity, a less dense liquid may be used. Ranges of measurement using this
type of manometer are usually few millimeters of water column.

P1= High Pressure

P2= Low Pressure
h = Differential Pressure

PRESSURE GAUGES
 Pressure Gauges are generally used for Medium & High Range Pressure Measurement
applications. In fact, it will be found that in any industrial plant, the quantity of pressure gauges will far
out-number the other types of instruments. When local pressure indicators are required in the ranges
between 10” H2O column up to 100,000 Mpa, the conventional bourdon, bellows, diaphragm or capsule
sensors can be used.The types of Pressure gauges are,

1. Bourdon tube Pressure Gauge

2. Glycerine filled Pressure gauges
3. Bellows Type Pressure Gauge
4. Diaphragms Type Pressure Gauge
5. Capsules Type Pressure Gauge
6. Capillairy type Pressure Gauge

1. BOURDON TUBE PRESSURE GAUGE

There are mainly three types of bourdon tubes available namely

A. C-Type Bourdon Tube

B. Spiral Bourdon Tube
C. Helical Bourdon Tube
 We are normally using stainless steel bourdon tubes although other material of bourdon tubes are used
for specific applications in other industries because of their ruggedness, long life and corrosive nature of
crude oil. Stainless steel bourdon tubes are used to measure pressures from 0-200 Kg/cm2 to 0-1500
Kg/cm2. Brass bourdon tubes are used to measure pressures from 0-1 Kg/cm2 to 0-75 Kg/cm2.

Bourdon Tube pressure gauges are available with different dial sizes and different connections. We are
using normally 4” and 6” dial sizes with ¼” or ½” NPT (M) bottom and back connections. Most of the
pressure gauges are fitted with one main isolation valve either ball or gate valve and a block and bleed
valve to safely isolate the pressure gauge from service for calibration or replacement.

A. C- TYPE BOURDON TUBE

The bourdon in a pressure gauge is a C- shaped flattened or oval tube,

bent into an arc of about 250 degrees. One end of the tube is fixed onto a fitting
where the pressure to be measured is admitted and the other end is
sealed/brazed. When the applied pressure is increased, the two sides of the
tube are forced apart as a result of increase of the radius of curvature of the
tube.The movement or lift of the closed end of the bourdon tube resulting from
the internal pressure change is converted into rotary motion by means of a sector
and pinion arrangement. A pointer attached to the extension of the pinion moves
on a calibrated dial to read the pressure in the desired units.

The material of the tube should be

 Hard enough to withstand the pressure

 Stable enough to retain its calibration indefinitely.
 Immune to corrosion from the fluid.
 Easy to fabricate.

The most common material used for construction of the bourdon tubes are Phosphor
bronze, Beryllium Copper, Alloy Steel, Carbon Steel, Stainless Steel and Brass to name a few.
B. SPIRAL AND HELICAL BOURDON TUBES

Spiral bourdon tube is used to measure lower pressure from 0 to 14 bars while helical bourdon
tube is used for higher pressure from 0 to 5600 bars. The main advantage of this type over conventional C-
type bourdon tube is that it eliminates springs, sector and pinion arrangements thereby increasing the life
span of the instrument. This is achieved by increasing the number of turns in the spiral or helical type
bourdon tubes. In this way an enlarged movement of the free end of the tube is obtained. The movement of
the free end of the tube is transmitted to the pen or pointer through a flexible metal connecting strip, which
joins the free end of the tube with the pointer shaft.
2. GLYCERINE FILLED PRESSURE GAUGES
3. BELLOWS TYPE GAUGE

Bellows assembly is often compared to a spring. Available ranges on this type are from 0-5 in.Hg to 0-
3 bar. The material of construction of bellows is 80% Copper- 20% Zinc, Brass, Phosphor Bronze,
Beryllium Copper or Stainless Steel.

In actual construction, a thin- walled tube is taken and formed mainly by special hydraulic presses onto a corrugated
shape. One end of the bellows is completely sealed and the other end soldered/brazed to a fixture with an opening to
apply either pressure or vacuum.

4. DIAPHRAGM TYPE GAUGE

 Diaphragm type gauges are used for low- pressure measurement, between 25mm water column and 0.3
bars. Diaphragm seals are used along with C- type bourdon gauges to protect bourdon tubes against
corrosive/clogging fluids.

In construction, it consists of a hardened and tempered stainless steel corrugated diaphragm of

about 65mm diameter held between the two flanges. Pressure is applied to the underside in the chamber
shown, and movement of the center of the diaphragm is transmitted through the ball-and-socket joint and
high magnification link to the pointer as in the bourdon gauge.
5. CAPSULE TYPE

GAUGE
 This is the most precision type of pressure indicator. This instrument is
available in ranges from 0-30 kPa to 0-10 bar. This has a sensitivity of 0.01% of
full range and an accuracy of 0.1% of full scale. This instrument may be used to
measure both differential pressure and gauge pressure.

In case of differential pressure measurement, the higher pressure is applied to the inside of the
capsule and the lower pressure is applied to the pressure-tight case.

In case of gauge pressure measurement, the measured pressure is applied to the capsule and the
case is open to atmosphere.

In both cases the meter or pointer movement is similar to diaphragm type gauge which was
discussed earlier.

6. DRAFT PRESSURE GAUGE

PRESSURE GAUGE PROTECTION DEVICES
A pressure gauge is one that always requires special attention because the measuring element of
the instrument is usually exposed to the fluid whose pressure is to be measured. In the case of pressure
measuring elements, the fluid being measured usually fills the measuring system and it is likely to cause the
trouble if the installation is not carefully made. Furthermore, the instrument may be subjected to violent
pulsations in fluid pressure which can completely destroy the accuracy of the instrument or cut short the
life of the instrument.
Basically there are five types of protection of gauges against hot, slurry & corrosive fluids and to
protect the gauge sensor from damage, excessive wear, pulsation, oscillating deflections etc. They are,

1. Pressure Snubber
2. Condensing Chamber Type
3. U- Tube Siphon Type
4. Pig-Tail Type
5. Diaphragm Seal Type

1. PRESSURE SNUBBER

This is used as an attachment at the bottom of the pressure gauge

Wherever sudden or repetitive changes of pressures are anticipated, pressure
snubber or otherwise called pulsation dampener is used. Reciprocating pumps
and Compressors are typical examples in our applications where Snubber is
used.

Two types are available, one with a fixed throttle and the other with adjustable needle valve
throttling. Basically both these types reduce the pulsation thereby eliminating direct impact of the process
medium on the measuring element.
2. CONDENSING CHAMBER
 The Condensing Chamber type is made out of a 2” pipe welded onto ½” nipples tapped to take the
isolation valve of gauges at the top and a blow-down valve below.

3. U- TUBE SIPHON

The U-tube Siphon is generally made of a straight ½” or 3/8” pipe or tube itself to help condensation of hot
fluids.

4. PIG-TAIL

The Pigtail type is also generally made of a straight ½” or 3/8” pipe or tube. Both these U-tube
Siphon and Pigtail types trap a certain quantity of the condensed fluid always, say water in steam
applications.

5. DIAPHRAGM SEAL

The diaphragm seal type is used in such places where impulse line clogging can occur by hot, slurry and
corrosive fluids. The interconnecting piping and the space above the diaphragm is normally filled with the
silicon oil.

6. GAUGE SAVERS

Gauge Savers also known as over pressure protectors are applicable where pressures exceed the
maximum pressure rating of the pressure gauge.
 PRESSURE TRANSMITTERS

Transmitter is a device that responds to a measured process value and produces an output that
becomes the input to a receiver or a controller in a control room.

Transducer ( Pressure Element ) Transducer ( LVDT, flapper - nozzle etc. )

Converting pressure to movement Converting movement or electrical quantity
or electrical quantity ( v, A, etc. ) to a scaled output signal

Pressure
Input Scaled Output signal
4 to 20 mA ( Electrical )
20 to 100 kPa ( Pneumatic )

Block diagram of a transmitter

Pressure Transmitters are generally used for Medium & High Range Pressure Measurement applications.
The types of Pressure Transmitters are,

1. Pneumatic Flopper-Nozzle Pressure Transmitters

2. Electronic Pressure Transmitters
3. Diaphragms Type Pressure Transmitters
4. Capillary Type Pressure Transmitters
1. PNEUMATIC FLAPPER - NOZZLE PRESSURE TRANSMITTER

An increase in the measured pressure will move the force bar. The flapper is attached to the force
bar by means of a flexure strip (A spring). This movement of the force bar will make the flapper move
towards the nozzle. The nozzle backpressure will subsequently increase and this increased nozzle
backpressure will be amplified by the relay to produce the output signal. The output signal is also applied to
the feedback bellows. As the pressure increases in this bellows, the bellows will apply a force on the
bottom end of the range bar. This force makes the range bar to move in the opposite direction to that caused
by the force bar. The range bar is also attached to the flexure strip and the movement of the range bar will
cause the flapper to move away from the nozzle. During the stable condition of the transmitter, that is,
when the process pressure is not changing, the two forces are balanced. Any change in the measured
pressure will upset this balance.

The sequence of events that will follow such an upset is as follows.

 A change in the measured pressure will cause the forces to become unequal.
 This will change the flapper-nozzle relationship.
 The nozzle backpressure will change.
 The changed nozzle backpressure will be amplified by the relay and will be
given as the output and also to the feedback bellow.
  The output pressure will now create a new feedback force to counteract the force
created by the force bar.
 At the balanced condition the flapper-nozzle relationship is such that the
output will neither increase nor decrease. This specific position of the flapper
with respect to the nozzle is called as the throttle position.

The feedback force is said to be negative because this force is opposite to or opposes the force that
is produced by the diaphragm capsule and the force bar. The amount of the pressure required in the
feedback bellows to generate sufficient force to counteract the force produced by the feedback bellow
would depend upon the following.

 The effective area of the bellow (Usually a Constant)

 The distance between the bellow and the range wheel (Movable Fulcrum)

It can be seen from the drawing on the next page that as the distance is increased, the mechanical advantage
of the range bar will increase and a lesser pressure is required to balance a given force. Conversely, when
the distance is decreased, a larger pressure is needed to balance a given force. Changing the mechanical
advantage of the feedback mechanism is a convenient means of changing the gain or the span of the
transmitter.
A bias spring (reference adjustment) is provided to preload the feedback mechanism to
obtain a desired output when the pressure measured is zero. This is the zero adjustment provided by the
manufacturer of the device.

2. ELECTRONIC PRESSURE TRANSMITTERS

An electronic-type transmitter is shown in the figure above. This particular type utilizes a two-
wire capacitance technique.
 Process pressure is transmitted through isolating diaphragms and silicone oil fill fluid to a sensing
diaphragm in the center of the cell. The sensing diaphragm is a stretched spring element that deflects in
response to differential pressure across it. The displacement of the sensing diaphragm is proportional to the
differential pressure. The position of the sensing diaphragm is detected by capacitor plates on both sides of
the sensing diaphragm. The differential capacitance between the sensing diaphragm and the capacitor plates
is converted electronically to a 4-20 mA dc signal.

3. DIAPHRAGM PRESSURE TRANSMITTERS

4. CAPILLARY PRESSURE TRANSMITTERS

 PRESSURE SWITCHES

A pressure switch is an instrument that automatically senses a change in the measured pressure
and opens or closes an electrical switching element when a predetermined pressure is reached. In other
words, a pressure switch is a digital instrument as compared to other pressure gauges discussed so far,
which are analog instruments. Pressure switches have pressure-sensing elements that make a small
movement when the measured pressure varies. Most common sensing elements are

 Diaphragms
 Bourdon tubes
 Bellows

The pressure measuring elements (sensors) produce the necessary movement to actuate the
electrical switching element. These switches are normally snap acting single pole double throw (SPDT)
types. Since they are SPDT switches, they have one normally open (NO) and one normally closed (NC) and
one common (C) terminal to which electric power can be connected. The switch is said to change over
when the common pole changes from NC to NO. By doing this either the electric power can be connected
or disconnected instantly on actuation of the switch.
 COM NO NC
Electrical connections
Mounting
screw
Snap acting
micro switch
Switch button
Beam ( lever )
Pivot
F2 F1
Spring Piston
Sensing diaphragm ( rubber )
Spring support
Protecting diaphragm ( teflon )
Threaded base

Applied pressure
Set point adj:

 Pressure multiplied by the area of the diaphragm = F1

 Spring tension (varied by turning the set point adj.) = F2

When F1 > F2,

The beam actuates the switch button and switch contacts changes over. NO contact becomes
closed and NC contact becomes open.

The types of Pressure Switches are,

1. Standard Type Pressure Switches

2. Differential Pressure Switches
3. Diaphragm Type Pressure Switches

1. STANDARD TYPE PRESSURE SWITCH

2. DIFFERENTIAL PRESSURE SWITCH

3. DIAPHRAGM TYPE PRESSURE SWITCH

GLOSSARY OF TERMINOLOGIES RELATED TO PRESSURE SWITCHES

SET POINT

The point or the value at which the switch is actuated is called as the actuation point or the set point. This
point (value) is expressed in terms of an appropriate pressure unit (e.g. kPa, bar, psi etc.).

SWITCH DIFFERENTIAL

Due to practical reasons and constructional limitations the switching mechanism will not actuate
and re - actuate at the same pressure value. Normally there will be a difference between these two values
and this difference is called as the switch differential or dead band.

ACCURACY
 Accuracy is defined as the ability of a pressure switch to repetitively operate at its set point. For
example if a pressure switch is set to actuate at 100 kPa, repeatedly actuates from 99 kPa to 101 kPa then it
is considered to be accurate within  1%.

ADJUSTABLE RANGE

It is defined as the pressure range within which the actuation point of a pressure switch can be set.
For example, the adjustable range of a switch is given as 0.5 kPa (g) to 300 kPa (g) then this switch can be
set to actuate at any pressure value between 0.5 to 300 kPa (g).

TOLERANCE

Tolerance is the variation that may happen at the re - actuation point for pressure switches. For
example, three switches with the same specification have a set point of 100 kPa (g). They all will actuate at
the same pressure value of 100 kPa (g). However one pressure switch may re - actuate at 94 kPa (g),
another at 95 kPa (g) and the third one at 96 kPa (g).

PROOF PRESSURE

Proof pressure is the highest pressure (including transients) to which a pressure switch may be
subjected without damage.

CONTACT RATING

Contact rating is defined as the capacity of the contacts designed to pass the current at the given
voltage without burning out the contacts.
 AIR PRESSURE REGULATOR

Instrument air enters through the inlet port and then to the drip well. Any dirt or moisture carried
along with air will be collected at the bottom of the drip well and can be drained through the drain cock
(valve).

A supply cum exhaust valve supported by the inlet valve spring controls the air pressure. The inlet
valve spring and the supply cum exhaust valve are housed in spring housing. The valve sub-assembly
comprising of parts are separated by a filter element. Practically clean air is available at the supply valve
port.
 The upper section of the filter regulator comprises of an adjusting screw, a lock nut, spring case,
range spring, spring button and a diaphragm sub-assembly. The orifice (exhaust valve seat) at the center of
the diaphragm is in contact with the exhaust valve plug.

When the adjusting screw is turned clockwise it compresses the range spring, which applies a
definite amount of force on the diaphragm. This closes the exhaust port and pushes down the supply valve
to open the supply port admitting the filtered air to pass through the passage in the filter body and then to
the outlet port. The air pressure in the outlet port is also communicated to the underside of the diaphragm
through the aspirator hole to produce the necessary balancing force to counteract the force generated by the
range spring.

When the downward and the upward forces on the diaphragm are equal, the exhaust valve is
closed and the supply valve is open to supply the set pressure through the outlet port to the downstream
equipment. The outlet pressure is also tapped to a pressure gauge, which is mounted on the regulator to
indicate the set pressure.

In case of a decrease in air pressure in the outlet port, the force acting on the under side of the
diaphragm will reduce and the spring force will push the supply valve to open the supply port to admit
more air to meet the new requirement and the increased pressure will restore the equilibrium condition of
the diaphragm assembly.

In case of an increase in the output pressure, the force acting on the under side of the diaphragm
will overcome the force generated by the spring. This unbalance in forces will move the diaphragm
upwards to make the exhaust valve seat to lift off from the plug to allow the excess air to bleed to the
atmosphere through the bleed hole (B) in the spring housing. This process will continue automatically till
the forces acting on the diaphragm are in equilibrium. The lock nut on the adjusting screw prevents it from
turning due to vibration and not to cause any changes in the set point.
 CALIBRATION DEVICES

There are many calibration devices available within PDO or any other
industry depending on the range of the pressure measuring device and the
location to be used. Calibration devices are used mainly to simulate the
pressure required.

CALIBRATION ADJUSTMENTS

Generally instruments are provided with a system of linkages, screws, springs etc. in order to do
three basic adjustments namely Zero, Span and Linearity. Hence calibration is required to check and adjust,
if necessary, all these adjustments to maintain the reliability of the reading.

 Zero adjustment shifts the entire scale up or down by the same amount.

 Span adjustment progressively increases or decreases readings over the

range, without changing the Zero.

Linearity adjustment speeds up or slows down the calibration at either end of the scale to eliminate
intermediate errors.

COMMON CALIBRATION DEVICES

These are the following commonly used devices for calibration of pressure instruments.

1. Dead Weight Tester

2. Hydraulic Oil Pump
3. Pneumatic Hand Pump
4. Pneumatic Vacuum Pump
5. Pneumatic Calibrators

1. DEAD WEIGHT TESTER

USING TESTED GAUGE USING WEIGHT

Pressure gauges are calibrated on patented hydraulic screw pumps, which transmit the oil pressure
upon an accurately manufactured piston cylinder arrangement. The oil pressure is increased or decreased by
the screw pump and the piston top is loaded with known weights, which can be conveniently added or
subtracted. The weights themselves are manufactured in accordance to the exact cross sectional area of the
piston. The oil pressure is also fed to a suitable pressure gauge mounting on the tester itself.

With the gauge on the tester, the application of the hydraulic pressure is adjusted, continuously
rotating the stack of weights so as to maintain dynamic balance. Thus the pressure gauge can be checked
for zero, full-scale and other intermediate points. Necessary zero and range adjustments are done to make
the readings uniform on the scale. Alternately a hydraulic screw pump with standard gauge also can be
used for calibration.
SAFETY PRECAUTIONS

The following safety precautions are recommended while working with dead weight testers.

 Wear Personnel Protective Equipment namely safety shoes, coveralls and gloves.
 Pressure to be released slowly and carefully.
 Weights to be handled properly.
 Use Teflon tapes with pressure gauges for sealing against leaks.

2. HYDRAULIC OIL PUMP

The hydraulic Quick Test Hydraulic Pump is a portable source of hydraulic pressure (up to 14000
kPa) for field calibration. Internal parts are brass, aluminium and stainless steel, compatible with a variety
of hydraulic fluids including petroleum-based oils and water.

A transparent fluid reservoir permits a quick visual check of fluid level. The bleed-off valve
allows a slow bleed-off of pressure and fluid back to the reservoir.

Included with the pump is a rugged Test Gauge. Gauges are mounted in the same swivel fitting
and are easily removable. Gauges available include 0-1000, 1500, 2000 psi (0.5% full-scale accuracy). Also
available: 0-70 and 0-140 bar. The pressure probe is connected to the hose with a standard flare connection
facilitating replacement with a variety of fittings to meet the requirements.

SAFETY PRECAUTIONS

The following safety precautions are recommended while working with Hydraulic Oil Pumps.

 Wear Personnel Protective Equipment (PPE) namely safety shoes, coveralls and gloves.
 Pressure to be released slowly and carefully.
 Select the correct range of test gauge.
 Use Teflon tapes with pressure gauges for sealing against leaks.

3. PNEUMATIC AIR PUMP OR QUICK TEST AIR PUMP

 The Quick Test Air Pump is a portable, hand operated source of air pressure (up to 200 psi) for the
use in field calibration of pressure instruments.

Included with the pump is a rugged test Gauge. Gauges are mounted in a quick-change swivel
fitting which is easily removable from the pump assembly. This allows you to exchange gauges and match
the gauge range with calibration range. Gauges in the following ranges are available: 0-5, 15, 30, 60, 100,
160 and 200 psi (0.5% full-scale accuracy). Also available: 0-1, 2, 4, 7 and 14 bar.

The pressure probe is connected to the hose with a standard flare connection facilitating
replacement with a variety of fittings to meet the requirements. A bleed-off valve permits a slow bleed-off
of pressure to atmosphere for downside calibration.

SAFETY PRECAUTIONS

The following safety precautions are recommended while working with Pneumatic Air Pumps.
 Wear Personnel Protective Equipment (PPE) namely safety shoes, coveralls and gloves.
 Pressure to be released slowly and carefully.
 Select the correct range of test gauge.
 Use Teflon tapes with pressure gauges for sealing against leaks.

4. PNEUMATIC VACUUM PUMP OR QUICK TEST VACUUM PUMP

 The Quick Test Vacuum Pump is a portable lightweight pump, which will generate approximately
23” Hg vacuum. It includes 0.5% full scale accuracy, 0-30” Hg test gauge which makes it a convenient
method to field calibrate vacuum instruments.

It is complete with hose, bleed-off and pressure probe. Probe is identical to that discussed with Air
and Hydraulic pumps and fits all Quick Test Fittings.

SAFETY PRECAUTIONS

The following safety precautions are recommended while working with Pneumatic Vacuum Pumps.

 Wear Personnel Protective Equipment (PPE) namely safety shoes, coveralls and gloves.
 Pressure to be released slowly and carefully.
 Select the correct range of test gauge.
 Use Teflon tapes with pressure gauges for sealing against leaks.

5. PNEUMATIC CALIBRATOR
 This calibrator is a highly accurate, portable instrument, designed primarily for the field checking
of pneumatic instruments using non-corrosive gases, mainly compressed air. It is available in several
ranges, from as low as 0 to 300 mbar, up to 0 to 7 bars. Basically the Calibrator is a shock-mounted,
precision, dial manometer in a robust, suitcase type carrying case. The main component of this Calibrator is
the dial manometer. Its pressure-measuring element is a precision C type Capsule, specially formed and
heat-treated to minimize any change from aging.

When connected to a source of air pressure, the Calibrator can apply and measure accurately two
different pressures using two different regulators through ports P1 and P2. Port P3 is used to measure any
pressure within the range, for example, output of a pressure transmitter. The Calibrator can also be used to
measure the difference between two pneumatic signals where neither signal exceeds the Calibrator range.

SAFETY PRECAUTIONS

The following safety precautions are recommended while working with Pneumatic Calibrator.
 Wear Personnel Protective Equipment (PPE) namely safety shoes, coveralls and gloves.
 Pressure to be released slowly and carefully.
 Use clean, dry air of maximum 7 bars.
 Use Teflon tapes with pressure gauges for sealing against leaks.

MEASUREMENT - FLOW

TYPE OF FLOW METERS:

Various types of meters are used to measure flow in process industries. The
most important ones are classified as under.
 1. Differential Pressure Flow meters
2. Variable Area Flow meters - Rota Meter
3. Force Balance Principle - Target Flow Meter
4. Positive Displacement Meter
5. Turbine Flow Meter
6. Coriolis Principle - Mass Flow Meter
7. Ultrasonic Flow Meter

1. DIFFERENTIAL PRESSURE TYPES:

They are commonly called the DP cell type and are the most widely used flow
measuring instruments.

Bernoulli's Principle:-
Bernoulli's Principle states that for an ideal fluid (low speed air is a good
approximation), with no work being performed on the fluid, an increase in velocity
occurs simultaneously with decrease in pressure or a change in the fluid's
gravitational potential energy.

This principle is a simplification of Bernoulli's equation, which states that the sum
of all forms of energy in a fluid flowing along an enclosed path (a streamline) is
the same at any two points in that path. It is named after the Dutch/Swiss
mathematician/scientist Daniel Bernoulli. In fluid flow with no viscosity, and
therefore, one in which a pressure difference is the only accelerating force, the
principle is equivalent to Newton's laws of motion.

Principle of pressure drop:

When a fluid flows through a closed pipeline, whether it is by gravity or by force

(by a pump or compressor), there is a gradual pressure drop due to friction. The
pressure drop depends on the diameter, length and the rate of flow. If the
diameter of the pipe is restricted or reduced, the pressure drop increases
because of the increased velocity. (Energy can neither be created can be
converted to another). For a standard restriction in the flow-path, the pressure
drop varies proportional to the flow.

If the pressure drop can be measured the flow can be calculated. This is the
principle of flow measurement by the method of differential pressure.

Flow elements – different types:

There are different types of flow elements, which depend on the principle of
pressure, drop for measuring flow of fluids.
 A. ORIFICE PLATE
B. VENTURI TUBE
C. PITOT TUBE

A.ORIFICE PLATE:

The orifice meter is by far most common type used in flow measurement. The
primary measuring element in this case is the orifice plate secured in the line by
a suitable holder.

An orifice plate is a flat circular piece of metal (usually stainless steel) that has a
precision metering hole (orifice) bored into it. The diameter of this orifice is
carefully calculated using a complicated formula. Its purpose is to create a
restriction in the line and cause a drop in pressure of the fluid passing through it.
An increase in flow will cause a corresponding increase in pressure drop.

Therefore, the amount of flow passing through the orifice is related to the
difference in pressure measured across the orifice. The rate of flow is
proportional to the square root of the differential pressure across the orifice.

There are several specific features about an orifice plate that should be noted.

Information on the tab welded to the plate:

 SS 316

LINE SIZE
DIRECTION INDICATION
TAG NO
BORE DIA

There is a tab welded to the top edge of the plate. It has pertinent informations
stamped on the upstream side, such as instrument identification tag number and
orifice bore diameter. Sometimes the line size and identification number appear
also. This information always appears on the upstream side, so that it can be
determined if the plate is installed properly after it has been secured in the line.
This is important because special care is used in machining the upstream edge
of the orifice. Also, in some sizes the downstream side of the orifice is usually
beveled. Should the plate be installed back-wards a large flow error would result.

Weep hole in the orifice plate:

UsuallyLIQUID
an orificeSERVICE
plate will have a small hole GAS
drilled SERVICE
adjacent to the metering
hole. This is called a “weep” hole. Its purpose is to pass materials through, that
rate apt to be stopped by the orifice plate in the line. A concentric orifice plate
has the metering hole in the Centre so that a dam is formed. Without the “weep’
hole, any liquids in a gas line or any vapors in a liquid line can be trapped on the
upstream side of the plate. Metering accuracy is reduced when the orifice plate
traps any material. Whereas “weep” holes can take care of unwanted liquids or
vapors, it is necessary to pull the plate and clean out the line when trash or
debris is trapped.

Different shapes of the orifices:

Eccentric or segmental orifice plates are used where excessive amounts of

detrimental materials are in the line. The metering hole is offset to be tangent
with the bottom of the line to take advantage of the larger opening to permit
slurry, debris, etc., to pass on through.

These types of plates are used only when necessary because they are not as
accurate as concentric orifice plates. The normal flow pattern of fluid in a line is
for the maximum velocity to be in the centre of flow and decrease to zero out to
the wall of the pipe. The metering hole design formula is based on the hole being
in the middle of the line No adequate correction data are available for ecentric or
segmental orifice plates.
Install Orifice plates with tabs “UP”
Because of “weep” holes and ecentric type orifice plates it is imperative that the
plate be installed with the metal tab extending straight up.

The tab hole:

A hole usually appears also in the metal tab. This is for the purpose of storing the
plate while waiting to be installed. Protruding nails on the walls are used to hang
the plates. Since the metering hole is manufactured so precisely, rubbing against
a metal object can damage the required sharp edge of the orifice. Therefore, a
special hole is provided so that the metering hole will not be used to hang on the
nail.

Orifice flanges:
The most common type of orifice flanges are those with the pressure measuring
taps drilled into the flange and extended all the way into the pipe. This type of
flange permits measuring the pressure in the line both upstream and downstream
of the orifice plate.

Meter run:

The orifice plate and flanges and the piping immediately upstream and
downstream are called the meter run.
Although a meter run may be located in either a horizontal or a vertical line,
installation in a horizontal line is preferred. For liquid metering, location of an
orifice plate in a vertical line with down ward flow is not advisable since under
some conditions the liquid can fall free and may not fill the line. However, when
gases contain condensable constituents, downflow installation may be desirable
in that it allows any condensed liquid to be blown through the orifices.
INSTALLATION:

LIQUID SERVICE GAS SERVICE

The Transmitter installations for the lquid and gas ervices are shown above.

B. VENTURI TUBE:

The Venturi effect is an example of Bernoulli's principle, in the case of fluid

flow through a tube or pipe with a constriction in it. The fluid velocity must
increase through the constriction to satisfy the equation of continuity, while its
pressure must decrease due to conservation of energy: the gain in kinetic energy
is supplied by a drop in pressure or a pressure gradient force. The effect is
named after Giovanni Battista Venturi, (1746–1822), an Italian physicist.
Another method of measuring flow using the same D.P.principle is a Venturi
tube. The pressure drop across the reduced section can be correlated with flow
rate. A Venturi is generally used when the system pressure is low and further
pressure drop is undesirable. These are also used in heavier fluids, which might
plug up an orifice plate.

C. PITOT TUBE:

A Pitot tube is a pressure measuring instrument used to measure fluid flow

velocity. The Pitot tube was invented by Italian-born French engineer Henri Pitot
in the early 1700s, and was modified to its modern form in the mid 1800s by
French scientist Henry Darcy.
The orifice plate and the Venturi tube were based on the principle of pressure
drop. A Pitot tube converts velocity directly into pressure to measure flow. This
type is primarily used to measure flows in large diameter pipes (20” and above)

2. ROTAMETERS:

Rota meters are classified as variable orifice meters.

Principe:
It works on the principle of varying the orifice diameter for the same pressure
drop.

The common name for this type of instrument is rotameter. In its simplest from it
consists of s “float’ and a calibrated glass tube of varying inside diameter. The
tube has its smallest diameter at the bottom and increases continuously, having
the largest diameter at the top. When the “float” is inserted into the tube there is
very little clearance at the bottom and more clearance at the top.

With the float in the tube and the assembly mounted vertically the flow enters the
bottom of the tube. The float is lifted off its bottom stop and carried up the tube.
The higher it goes the more free passage exists between the float and the tube
wall, until the differential pressure above and below the float is just sufficient to
support the weight of the float.

The rate of flow is then read off the calibrated markings on the glass tube.
Rota meter are suitable for metering small rates of flow, below the practical range
of the orifice meter or for special applications such as very waxy oils, which must
be kept moving, to stay in the fluid state. The rotameter may be made
considerably more complicated for other applications but its basis of operation
remains the same.

3. THE FORCE BALANCE PRINCIPLE - TARGET FLOW METER:-

This type of instrument operates by measuring the force exerted by the moving
fluid, on a disc held centrally in the line by a lever. The lever is connected
through a flexible membrane to a sensor. Movement of the lever actuates
sensor assembly generating 4 to 20 ma signal, which is fed back to the lever until
balance occurs.
This type of instrument is comparatively inexpensive, but since part of the
instrument itself is in the fluid stream, valves for isolation and bypass are
required in order to service it. Further, the instrument itself is in close proximity to
the line, which may be kept cool.

4. POSITIVE DISPLACEMENT TYPE:

When positive displacement meters are used, the entire flow must pass through
the meter, filling a calibrated chamber on its path through. The number of times
the chambers is filled is counted and displayed as a total volume having passed
through the meter. The cost of this type meter goes up rapidly with the size of the
pipeline and meters for high-pressure service are very expensive.
5. TURBINE FLOW METER:

The turbine meter has a limited range of uses in refineries as it is either very
simple in construction or subject to inaccuracies or it is rather sophisticated in
design and construction and expensive. The turbine meter employs a multi-
vaned rotor mounted in an in-line housing. The total flow passes through the
meter and causes the rotor to spin at a speed, which is proportional to the
velocity of the flow. In its simplest form the rotor motion is transmitted to an
external gear train, which operates a simple counting mechanism. The counter
indicates the total flow that has passed through the meter. In its more complex
form the rotations are electronically measured and converted to a flow reading.

6. MASS FLOW METER:-

ELECTRICAL
JUNCTION BOX FLANGE
CONNECTIONS

TORSION ROD

MASS BAR
DRIVE COILS

TUBE LOOPS

PICK-UP COILS
CORIOLIS FORCE:-

A person standing on a rotating turntable was only to lean slightly inward

to counteract centrifugal force (left). A person moving from the centre of the
rotation towards the edge of the turntable (Right), encounter steadily increasing
rotation speed and inertia comes in to play has to overcome a force known as
coriolis force. This coriolis force acts to deflect the person from the shortest route
from the turntable.

The coriolis force is therefore proportional to the moving Mass (m),

Angular velocity (w) and Radial Velocity (Vr) in the rotating system. The rotary
motion described above that generates the coriolis force is replaced in the flow
meter by exciting the measuring tube to oscillate at its resonance frequency.

At zero flow, when the fluid is at a standstill, there is no linear movement hence
no coriolis force occurs. Once the mass is flowing, the movement induced by
oscillation in the measuring tube superimposes itself on the linear movement of
the flowing fluid. The coriolis force causes the measuring tube to twist.
CORIOLIS FORCE IN MASS FLOW METER:-

FLUID FORCES REACTING

VIBRATING FLOW TUBE TOVIBRATING FLOW TUBE

TWIST ANGLE

TWIST ANGLE END VIEW OF FLOW TUBE

SHOWING TWIST

Fluid mass has a linear velocity as it flows through the sensor tube.
Vibration of the tube, as its natural frequency about an axis generates an angular
velocity. These vibrational tube forces, proportional to fluid flow, cause the fluid to
Accelerate on the inlet side and Decelerate on the outlet side. The fluid exerts
an opposing force at its own whish resists the proportional tube forces, causing
the tube to twist. A et of pick-up coils is mounted on either side of the tube.
Electronic unit measures this very small twist force induced by the flowing
process fluid on the vibrating sensor tube. The fluid force is proportional to the
mass flow rate.

5. ULTROSONIC FLOW METER:

 FLOW METER SELECTION
CONCENTRIC
VARIABLE CORIOLIS
ORIFICE TARGET MAGNETIC TURBINE
SEGMENTAL VENTURI FLOW AREA TYPE MASS
METER TYPE PLATE FLOW FLOW FLOW
WEDGE TUBE NOZZLE FLOW FLOW
(SQUARE METER METER METER
METER METER
EDGED)

CLEAN LIQUID
DIRTY LIQUID
SLURRY
VISCOUS LIQUIDS
CORROSIVE /
EROSIVE LIQUID
CLEAN GAS
DIRTY GAS
STEAM
FULL BORE SIZE > 1 in. > ½ in > 2 in. > 2 in. > 1/2 in < 3 in. > 1/16 in > 1/4 in < 6 in
AVAILABILITY >25 mm >15 mm >50 mm >50 mm >15 mm <75 mm < 1 mm >6 mm <150 mm
Linear
TYPE OF Square Root Square Root Square Root Square Root Square Root Linear Linear Linear
Mass
MEASUREMENT Volumetric Volumetric Volumetric Volumetric Volumetric Volumetric Volumetric Volumetric
Volumetric

ACCURACY 0.5% to 3% 0.5% to 5% 0.5% to 1.5% 1% to 2% 0.5% To 5% 0.5% To 5% 0.2% To 2% 10:1 To 50:1 0.15% To 2%

TYPICAL RANGE
3:1 to 5:1 3:1 to 5:1 3:1 to 5:1 3:1 to 5:1 3:1 To 20:1 10:1 30:1 To 100:1 10:1 To 50:1 40:1 To 100:1
ABILITY
REYNOLDS NO.
Fluids under Fluids under
OTHER >10,000 >500 >100,000 >75,000 >1,000 None NONE
3 Cp 10 CST
LIMITATION
SENSITIVITY TO
INSTALLATION High LOW LOW MED HIGH NONE LOW HIGH NONE
EFFECTS
100 to 400 Up 50 to 100 p Upstream Same as for Same as for None 5 To 100 Up Similar to NONE
20 to 60 Down 20 to 50 Down Runs Shorter Orifice Plate Orifice Plate 3D Down Orifice Plate
STRAIGHT PIPING
REQUIREMENT
than Orifice by
Factor of 2-9
limes
Drain. Vent, with Remote Same as Same as Jock Valves Strainers, Special
Blow-off and Seal Version Orifice, Air Orifice Plate May Be Filters. Air Supports May
TYPICAL
Shut-down Purge and Required to Eliminators. Berequired for
ANCILLARY -- --
EQUIPMENT Valves vent Isolate Meter Steam Traps Meter
cleaners on for Servicing May Be required
dirty liquid
Pressure and/or Same as Same as Same as Viscosity AC Designs Viscosity Can Entrained Air
Temperature Orifice plate Orifice plate Orifice plate Affects May Give Affect May Cause
OTHER Compensation Performance Better Performance Problems
--
CONSIDERATIONS May be Required Below Performance
Critical Rd. On Some
Slurries
Pressure Tap No limitations Same as Same as Zero May Can Only Be Electrodes Some Designs Specific
Orientation on Orifice Plate Orifice Plate Need Installed In Must Be In Must Be Orientations
PREFERRED
Depends on Pipe Remote Seal Adjustment in Vertical Pipe Horizontal Oriented as Vary With
METER
ORIENTATION Orientation Elements Vertical with Flow Up Plane. Flow Calibrated Meter Designs
and Fluid Being Installations Should Be Up
Metered ard In Vertical
INITIAL COST
L To H H M To H M To H L To M L To M M To H L To H H
INSTALLATION
COST
M To H L M M L L L To M M To H L To M
MAINTENANCE
COST
M To H L L L M To H L L To M M To H L
OPERATING
COST
M To H L To M L M M M L M L To H
Performance Performance Performance
Affected by edge Affected Affected by
PERFORMANCE and Tap by Wear of Wear of
GOOD GOOD GOOD GOOD GOOD GOOD
STABILITY Wear Target Bearings and
Other
parameters
AGA3, ANSI/API AGA3, AGA3, AGA 7, API
2530 ANSIIAPI2530 ANSIIAPI2530 2534, ISO 2715 ANSI/AS ME
ANSI/ASME ANSIIASME ANSIIASME ASME Fluid MFC 11M,
STANDARDS OR
MFC 3M. ISO MFC 3M. ISO MFC 3M. ISO Meters, API California
RECOMMENDED ... ... ... ISO 6817
PRACTICES 5167 ASME Fluid 5167 ASME 5167 ASME Manual for Weights and
Meters Fluid Meters Fluid Meters Petroleum Standards
Measurement Bureau
Standards
 TEMPERATURE INSTRUMENTS:

There are two type of temperature measuring instrument in general process use:

1. Non – electrical thermometers

2. Electrical thermometers

1. NON – ELECTRICAL THERMOMETERS:

The most important classes of non electrical thermometers are the expansion
type:

A. Liquid expansion
B. Gas expansion
C. Vapor pressure
D. BI - Metallic (solid expansion)

A. LIQUID EXPANSION THERMOMETERS:

 These thermometers are made in a variety of forms from the common glass tube
thermometer to the more elaborate remote recorder controller. The glass tube
thermometer is common enough to require no explanation. The more elaborate
type of liquid expansion thermometer is made up of a bourdon tube connected to
a metal bulb by small bore metal up of a bore metal tubing called ‘Capillary
tubing’, the whole being filled with a suitable liquid. A completely sealed system
is formed. The size of the bulb depends on the range of the instrument. To avoid
troubles with vapor pressure effects, the systems are filled and sealed at a very
high pressure.

When the bulb is heated the liquid expands, this expansion is transmitted through
the capillary and in to the bourdon tube. The increase in volume causes the
bourdon tube to deflect in a similar manner to the pressure gauge. This deflection
is amplified by linkage and it causes a pointer to sweep over a calibrated scale
indicating the temperature at the bulb is so large that temperature change of the
tube will give only negligible effect on the indicated temperature.

B. GAS EXPANSION & VAPOR PRESSURE THERMOMETER:

The operation of these types is very similar to that described above, Except that
gas or vapor is used instead of liquid.

Care of expansion type Thermometers:

The capillary tubing used in these instruments has a bore approximately 0.01”
and it may or may not armored. It must never be bent at a short radius or cut.
These instruments are susceptible to permanent damage by “Over – ranging”
and this must be avoided.
C. BI-METALLIC THERMOMETERS:

Bi-metallic thermometers are widely used for local temperature indication. A bi-
metal strip consists of two metals welded has an expansion co-efficient much
greater that the other. With one end of the helix fixed and the other left free, the
latter can be made to give a rotary movement to a spindle when heat is applied.
Attaching a pointer to the spindle and adding a scale may make thermometers.

2. ELECTRICAL THERMOMETERS

These are two main types of electrical measuring instruments in general use and
two types of temperature sensitive elements used with these instruments. The
more common is the thermocouple used with a potentiometer type instrument the
second one is a resistance bulb used with a Wheat-stone bridge type instrument.

A. THERMOCOUPLES:
PRINCIPLE:

A thermocouple is made up of two dissimilar metal wires jointed at one end

(known as hot junction) and connected to a potentiometer at the other end (Cold
junction). If heat is applied to the hot junction a mill volt is generated which is
proportional to the difference in temperature between the hot and the cold
junction may be determined.

TYPES OF THERMOCOUPLES FOR DIFFERENT TEMPERATURE RANGES:-

The three most common types of thermocouples are iron-constantan, Chromel-

Alumel, and Copper-Constantan.

An Iron-Constantan thermocouple is one made by joining a pure iron wire and a

constantan (an alloy of copper and nickel) wire. It is generally used in
temperature measurement in the minus 0 to 200 o C range. Iron-constantan is the
most efficiency thermocouple commonly used in that its emf or voltage output is
higher (10.779 millivolts at 200o C).

A Copper-Constantan thermocouple is one made by joining a pure Copper wire

and a Constantan wire. It is generally used to measure temperatures that are
below Oo C and up to 200o C. As a comparison it has a 9.288 millivolt output at
200o C through it is seldom used at this high a temperature.

A Chromel-Alumel thermocouple is one made by joining a Chromel (an alloy of

Nickel, Manganese, Aluminium, and Silicon) wire. It is generally used to measure
 temperatures that are over 200o C up to about 1000o C. As a comparison it has a
8.138 millivolt output at 200o C through it is seldom used at this low a
temperature.

Each of the three types of thermocouples covered here has unique features that
dictate their use. Though Ion-Constantan is the preferred thermocouple because
of its high efficiency pure iron wire is easily damaged by extreme heat or cold. It
oxidizes and deteriorates rapidly at high temperatures (above 650 o C) and
becomes extremely brittle at low temperatures approaching-15o C. therefore, a
Chromel-Alumel thermocouple is used at high temperatures because it holds up
well up to 1000o C, and a Copper-Constantan thermocouple is used at low
temperatures because it stands up well down to – 150o C.

For temperatures above 1000o C, special thermocouples of Platinum-Platinum

Rhodium are used.

USABLE PRACTICAL
MELTING POINT
TYPE LEG METALLIC COMPOSITION TEMPERATURE RANGE
°C
+ PLATINUM - 30% RHODIUM
B 1825 200 TO 1680 ° C
- PLATINUM - 6% RHODIUM
+ (TUNGSTEN - 5% RHENIUM)
C* 2480 0 TO 2300 ° C
- (TUNGSTEN - 26% RHENIUM)
+ CHROMEL
E 1220 -200 TO -450° C
- CONSTANTANT
+ IRON
J 1220 0 TO 400° C
- CONSTANTANT
+ CHROMEL
K 1400 -200 TO 1000° C
- ALUMEL
+ NICROSIL
N 1340 0 TO 1000° C
- NISIL
+ PLATINUM - 13% RHODIUM
R 1770 200 TO 1500° C
- PURE PLATINUM
+ PLATINUM - 10% RHODIUM
S 1770 200 TO 1500° C
- PURE PLATINUM
+ COPPER
T 1080 -270 TO 200° C
- CONSTANTAN,
CHARECTERISTICS OF DIFFERENT THERMOCOUPLES:-

C. POTENTIOMETER TEMPERATURES MEASURING INSTRUMENTS:

The Potentiometer is a null-balance type of measuring instruments, using its own

source of electric current and varying the voltage output of this source until it
exactly matches the voltage from the thermocouple. Since the potentiometer is
used only in a thermocouple circuit, the indicating scale is calibrated in
temperature units rather than in mill voltage units and it is then a direct reading
temperature instrument.
RESISTANCE BULB:
Temperature measuring by resistance bulbs is based on the fact that the
electrical resistance of a material changes with temperature. The most common
materials used for resistance bulbs are platinum, nickel or copper.

Resistance Thermocouple:

The resistance thermocouple is connected to the resistance bulb usually by three

wires. These wires connect the bulb into a whetstone bridge circuit. By varying
the bridge resistors in the instruments a null-balance may be obtained. At these
points the value of the variable resistor exactly equals that of the temperature
bulb. The indicating dial on the resistance thermocouple is calibrated in
temperature units and it becomes a direct thermometer. As a comparison it has a
76.8 OHMS resistance at 200o C

C. SPECIAL TYPES:
Special temperature measuring instruments such as the optical and Radiation
type pyrometers are used for periodic inspections of very hot surfaces like the
catalyst tubes in a hydrogen reformer furnace.

OPTICAL PYROMETER:
Optical pyrometer compares the brightness of a surface to that of a hot platinum
wire, which can be varied by an electrical resistance in a circuit.

RADIATION TYPE PYROMETER:

A black body connected to a thermocouple absorbing and transmitting heat by

radiation, measures the temperature in this type of instrument.
 MEASUREMENT – LEVEL

LEVEL MEASUREMENT DIFFERENT TYPES:

Different types of level instruments are used in process industries, to see,

indicate and record levels of vessels, towers and tanks.

The most common level measuring primary devices are:

 GAUGE GLASSES
 DISPLACERS
 BALL FLOATS
 LIQUID HEAD METERS (DP TYPE)
 RADAR LEVEL GAUGE

GAUGE CLASSES:

The principle of a gauge glass is that a liquid will tend to seek a common level as
in ‘U’ tube. They are only used for local indication and their reliability is very
important in crosschecking the secondary level instruments.
DISPLACER TYPE:

This type uses the principle of ARCHIMEDITS.

When a body is fully immersed or partly immersed in any liquid, it losses (the
effective) weight equal to the weight of the liquid displaced.

Displacement type level meters are suitable for use with a wide range of liquids
and are even suitable for interface measurements.

The principle parts of the meter consist of a weighted cylindrical float (displacer)
and a torque tube. The displacer is suspending from the end of the torque tube.
The weight of the displacer imparts a twisted motion to the torque tube and
results in an angular movement at the tip of the tube. This angular movement is
then used to actuate an Electronic system for indication and /or transmission,

Location of the displacers:

Displacer element is usually housed in a chamber and located outside the vessel
or column with isolation valves and on-stream repair facilities.

But in the service of liquids with high pour points and viscosity, the floats are
located inside the vessel or column where the liquid temperatures are high. Any
repairs or calibration of such displacers will warrant the shutdown of the vessel or
column.

FLOATING TYPE:

In this case, the float remains on top of the liquid. This system is used mostly in
the bottom of vessels containing heavy tarry substances. In severe services
where coke is apt to be formed, the float is mounted inside of the vessel without
the case. Large cages are however used sometimes, to prevent the float getting
severed from the links in case of excessive level fluctuations.
CAUTION DURING INSPECTION:

When inspection tower internals, particulars attention should be paid to floats of

the level instruments. The float arm should move easily, and float should be in
good operable condition.

THE FLOAT ARM:

The float arm extending outside the vessel or column is a visual indication of the
float position.

FLOATS FOR TANK LEVELS:

Another common use of floats is measuring levels in storage tanks. Using a

precision motion transmitter, which feeds information to a receiver in a remote
location, further extends the usefulness of the float gauge.

LEVEL RANGE:
Usually the range of level extends over only a portion of the vessel. So when the
instrument shows zero level, this does not necessarily mean the vessel is empty.

STILLING WELLS:

Occasionally, the level being measured is at its boiling or bubble point and in
some service the liquid agitates violently and to true level is not discernible. In
this case a stilling well is used. It usually consists of a 3” pipe enclosed at each
end mounted on the level transmitter (displacer) are in turn connected to the
stilling well.

This type of installation is found most frequently on towers in the service of light
ends, kettle type exchangers in the service of refrigerants, reboilers and waste
heat steam generators.

LIQUID HEAD METERS:-

Meters to measure the head pressure of the liquid and so determine the level of
the liquid are used when: -

1. The level covers a wide range, making a displacer instrument impractical.

2. When the level to be measured is likely to certain solids or tars, which would
affect the displacer.

The meter used on these installations is of the differential pressure type. The
pressure on one side is the static pressure in the vessel, while the pressure on
the other side is the static plus the pressure due to the weight of the liquid. Since
the static pressures are the same they cancel out and the resultant measurement
is the pressure due to the height of the liquid.

USE OF RADIO ACTIVE MATERIAL:

In very special cases where a high level is very critical, this type of level
instrument is used as a double check to any other, installed on a vessel or
column. It generally has no control function, but is used to give an alarm when
the level goes high.
A radioactive source like cobalt-60 is used for this purpose to give out r-rays. The
rays penetrate the vessel and strike a GM tube kept diametrically opposite, on
the other side of the vessel. The rays are obstructed when the level rise to a
point, and a relay deenergises to give an alarm.

PIEZOMETRIC LEVEL METERS:

The principle of this type of level indicator is the backpressure created due
to the liquid level on a fixed flow of instrument air or inert gas through a tube. The
pressure increase with an increase in level.

This type of level instrumentation is very rarely used.

STATIC HEAD LEVEL INDICATORS:

Liquids exert a static pressure depending on their density and height.

A pressure gauge installed at the bottom of a tank or vessel can be

calibrated to read in terms of the height of liquid.

HEAVY OIL SERVICE – PROBLEMS:

Erroneous indications of levels results when any or both of the level leads
from a vessel / tower are plugged by coke or freezing of the oil. This kind of
problem is most common in the service of heavy oils especially where the solids
are possibly present.

To overcome these problems refineries to keep the leads clear use certain
methods.
SEAL POTS:

Seal pots filled with glycerin or any other suitable liquids are used for D.P.Cells.
PURGING & FLUSHING:

Continuous gas purging or light – oil flushing of the leads through

restriction orifices (for not interfering with the measurement) is another method to
keep the leads clear always.

STEAM TRACING:

The leads are steam traced to keep the liquid from freezing up especially
up to the seal pots, if seal pots are used.

RADAR LEVEL MEASUSUREMENT:-

 CONTROLLERS:

GENERAL:

There are four common types of process controllers:

A. On-off (two position) Control

B. Proportional Control
C. Proportional plus Reset Control and
D. Proportional plus Reset plus Rate Action Control.

As these are discussed it can be seen that the main difference in these is in how
their output signal changes with the change in the input signal the controller gets
from the transmitter.

A. On-off (Two Position) Control:

See the illustration of a level control loop.

Two-position controllers have only two positions. So that the controller either puts
out 4ma or 20ma to the control valve.

This type of controller may be used for non-critical control systems such as water
draw-off from a vessel on level control where wide flow fluctuations do not
matter. Let us say that the control valve opens with full air pressure and closes
with no air pressure on its diaphragm motor. If the water level rises above the
controller set point level, the controller send 20ma, which causes full air pressure
to be put to the control valve and it opens wide open. As the water level then
lowers to below the controller set point the controller send 4ma. This puts zero air
pressure on the control valve diaphragm to close the valve. If this type of up-and-
down, level is undesirable, a proportional controller must be used.

B. Proportional Control:
 W = P. (Ts – To)

The output of a proportional controller depends on two things, how far the
process variable move with respect set value, change in controller output. This
type controller, not like the on-off controller, can position a control valve
anywhere between full open and full closed.

Lets look at the water draw-off control using a proportional controller and say we
put the set point to control at mid level. With a proportional band setting of 100%
the vessel must fill to the upper limit of the transmitter range for the controller to
have full (20ma) output. The level in the vessel must drop to the lower limit of the
transmitter range for the controller to have its least (4ma) output. This is called
100% proportional band. At in-between levels, the controller output will be
between4ma to 20ma. For example, at zero level the output will be4ma, at 50%
level the output will be12ma, and so on upto 100% where the output will be
20ma.

Suppose now the proportional band setting is changed to 50% the vessel level
now must only change 50% for the controller output to make a full change. With
the vessel 75% full the controller will have a full (20ma) output, and at a 25%
vessel the controller will have its least (4ma) output. This is called 50%
proportional band.
The proportional controller may not always control at the set point setting. With
the set point and level at mid-level, the water flowing into the vessel is equal to
the water flowing out of the vessel. If the amount of water coming in increases,
the level must rise before the controller output can increase, which in turn opens
the control valve to increase the water going out. The water flowing in is again
equal to the water flowing out but the actual level is lined out above the controller
set point. This is known as controller offset, and it is always present with
proportional control. If offset is undesirable then a component called reset must
be added to the controller.

C. Proportional Plus Reset Control

W = P * [(Ts – To) + D * d/dt (Ts – To)]

The proportional plus reset controller will eliminate the controller offset of the just
discussed proportional controller. This controller is the same proportional
controller but with a reset component added to it. The purpose of the reset
component is to cause the controller to keep changing its output signal to the
control valve until the measurement signal is the same as the set point. Refer to
the level control loop again where, with the proportional controller, the reset on
this controller would cause its output to keep increasing until the control valve
opened enough to bring the water level back down to the controller set point at
mid-level. This means that however the incoming water changed, the controller
will change the control valve position so that the draw-off rate changes as
required to again return the level to the set point.

The reset adjustment setting determines how fast the process (level in our
discussion) is brought back to the set point. The more reset added, the more the
controller output will change to bring the process back to the set point faster.
Although only level is mentioned here this type controller can be used for other
purposes such as flow, pressure, temperature, etc.

D. Proportional Plus Reset Plus Rate Action Control

W = P * [(Ts – To) + D * d/dt (Ts – To) + I * INT (Ts – To)]

Like reset, rate action can be added to a controller to give better control than just
proportional or proportional plus reset alone. Rate action can cause the controller
output to make a bigger change as the measurement pen, or process, changes.
Rate action will change the controller output only when the measurement pen is
moving.
The faster the measurement pen changes, either up or down, the bigger the
controller output change is caused by the rate action. If the measurement pen is
not moving, rate action will not change controller output.

Only certain control loops need rate action. These are ones that inherently take a
longer time to change what is being measured. An example is the temperature of
liquid in a steam heated tube-type heater. If the temperature of the liquid drops, it
takes a valve for the thermo well and temperature measurement element to cool
down. As the to admit more steam. The element cools, the controller then
recognizes this and sends a signal to the control valve to admit more steam. The
steam heats up the tubes, which in turn finally heats u, the liquid. But even when
the liquid has again reached the desired temperature, it still takes a while for the
liquid to heat up the thermo well and then the measuring element (usually a
thermocouple). So the controller is always late in getting the actual temperature
and continues trying to correct. Therefore, the actual liquid temperature always
overshoots the set point after process change. Rate action minimises this
overshoot by making large correction for fast pen movements and progressively
smaller corrections for slower pen movements.

The rate control mode is adjustable as are the proportional and reset control
modes. Consider, for example, a controller with proportional – only control mode
where a process change is causing the controller output pressure to the control
valve diaphragm motor to increase at the rate of 2ma every minute. This same
controller with Rate control mode added and set at one minute of Rate Time
would advance the controller output one minute in time. That is, the controller
output would be 2 ma higher now, instead of having to wait until one minute from
now as with proportional – only control mode. Then as the process changes
more slowly, the rate of change would be correspondingly less. The rate mode of
control also works as well in the opposite direction when the process change is
demanding reduced air output from the controller. In this example Rate time was
taken, as one minute, but it can be set at two minutes or more, or even less. The
controller output is advanced in time by the amount set by the Rate adjustment
knob.
Operators often do the same thing that rate action does when they have a
controller on manual control. When they see the measurement pen slowing down
after a fast change they will change the air pressure to the control valve to keep
from going too far in the other direction.

Adjusting the settings of proportional band, reset, and rate action of a controller
to get the best control from it is called “tuning” a controller – Properly tuned
controllers will not prevent process upsets but will help to control them.

GENERAL:

The primary process variable measuring elements pass their information on in

the form of mechanical movement caused by thermal expansion, differential
pressure, liquid head, or voltage from a thermocouple. The secondary
instruments translate this movement into actual measurement. The mechanical
movement of the primary element is calibrated in the units of the process variable
being measured for direct indication on a scale. These are known as local
mounted indicators or recorders. However, transmitters to send the information to
a remote location like a control room also can use this mechanical movement.

TRANSMITTERS:

The use of remote transmission systems to send an instrument indication over

relatively long distances has many distinct advantages, among which are safety,
economy and convenience. Transmitters are designed to permit indication,
record, or control remote from the point of process measurement. This was first
done by long lead lines, primarily in pressure and flow measurements, where a
line was extended from the pressure point or orifice flanges into the control room.
As the lines were filled with hydrocarbons they would bring hazardous flammable
materials into the control room.

Remote transmission for safety:

Safety is an important consideration because of the many situations wherein
corrosive or inflammable fluids and liquids or vapors under dangerously high
pressure are present. In such cases, the use of remote transmission eliminates
hazards by permitting the process to be controlled from a safe location. Thus, an
operator can not only control the process but also take his instrument readings
from a safe point.

Remote transmission is economic and convenient:

Economy and convenience are realised with the use of remote transmission by
the
(1) elimination of long lengths of thermometer capillary or long leads of
connecting piping from pressure gauges, liquid level, and flow meters, and
(2) The possible grouping of instruments in a central location. The relatively large
measuring lag, inherent with long length of capillary or connecting piping, is also
avoided.

ELECTRONIC TRANSMITTER:

The elements of electronic transmitters are the same as those in pneumatic

transmitters.
Even the appearance of the transmitters is similar. However, in the electronic
transmitter the mechanical movement developed by the primary element is used
to regulate the electrical current output. This current moves a pointer on a meter
whose scale is graduated in the units of the primary measuring element.

Electric transmission has advantages over pneumatic where the transmission

lines are long, where a fast response is required for measurement and control,
and where a computer is used. Electrical signals are transmitted essentially
instantaneously so that so soon as the primary element has detected a change,
the receiver instrument gets the information without delay. In pneumatic systems
there are measurement time lags because the pressure in the transmission
tubing has to change before the receiver instrument can detect the change.
These lags are appreciable when the transmission lines are over 200 meter long.
INDICATORS:

Direct Connected Indicators:

Instrument indicators are devices that give a visual presentation of the condition
of the process. These can be field mounted and directly connected to the
process such as level gauges, pressure gauges, dial thermometers and bellows
type differential pressure indicators. Except for the reflex or through vision level
gage, indicators present the information be using an appropriately graduated
scale and a pointer.

Receiver Gauge Indicators:

Transmitters permit indicators to be remotely located. In these cases the

indicators are connected to the output of transmitters and are known as receiver
type instruments. In electronic instruments the receiver indicator is a milli -
ammeter that is calibrated to move the pointer full scale with a current flow in the
measurement circuit from 4-20 milli amperes D.C.

Scale of the receiver instruments:

The scale of indicator must be graduated in the units and range of the process-
measuring element of the transmitter. For example, a pressure transmitter with
an element range of 0-100 Kg per centimeter square will require a receiver
indicator with a scale graduated 0-100 linear.

Linear scales for pressure, temperature and level:

A temperature transmitter with an element range of 0-100o c will require a

receiver indicator with a scale graduated 0 – 100 linear. A level transmitter,
regardless of level range, also requires a receiver indicator with a scale
graduated 0-100 linear because it indicates 0-100% level. The same holds true
for a rotameter type flow transmitter with a flow range of 0-100 gallons per
minute. Since the rotameter transmitter output is linear, its receiver indicator
scale would also be 0-100 linear.

Therefore, if the indicator were moved from one service to the other only the
scale multiplying factor card would have to be changed. (For pressure service it
would read “SCALE READING X1-Kg per centimeter”, for level it would read
“SCALE READING X 1=% LEVEL, and for flow it would read “SCALE READING
X 1 =GPM”).

Square root scale for flow or linear when square root extractor are used

However, since most flow transmitters are the orifice meter type in which the
output is not linear (it is known as square root), the receiver indicators have a
square root scale. Some receiver flow instruments are provided with converters
to convert square root to linear scale. Therefore, two types of scale are
commonly provided for flow receiver indicators, 0 to 100 linear or 0 to 10 square
root. Then it is necessary only to provide the proper scale-multiplying factor.

RECORDERS:

Recorders are different from indicators in that there is a pen instead of an

indicator. The pen records variable in colors conforming to the plant standards.
Different colours are used if more than one variable is recorded in the same
instrument.

Advantages of recording variables:

Records of process variables find many uses, including

1. Collecting and evaluation of cost data:

2. Checking the operating performance of equipment;
3. Investigating the source of production difficulties;
4. Reproducing quality from batch to batch; and
5. Evaluating analytical determinations.
Recorders can be produced by manually plotting the readings taken from
indicating instruments. Where the record of a variable is desirable from hour to
hour, or day to day, however, it is often found much more efficient to rely upon
continuous automatic recording rather than manual logging. Frequently a curve
constructed from point to point based upon periodic manual readings will not give
the complete story since momentary variation, which may be of considerable
magnitude, will not appear.