ECHELON INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY

Faridabad
DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING

Subject- FLUID MECHANICS LAB

S.no. Experiments Name

1 Measurement of viscosity
2 Study of Pressure Measuring Devices
3 Stability of Floating Body
4 Hydrostatics Force on Flat Surfaces/Curved Surfaces
5 Verification of Bernoulli’s Theorem
6 Venturimeter
7 Orifice meter
8 Impacts of jets
9 Flow Visualization -Ideal Flow
10 Length of establishment of flow
11 Velocity distribution in pipes
12 Laminar Flow
 Experiment No.1
Aim: To Determine the Viscosity of Liquid using Viscometer

Apparatus required:
1- Ethanol
2- Glycerin
3- water
4- viscometer
6- Pipet

Theory:
1. Effect of Temperature: the temperature of the liquid fluid increases
its viscosity decreases. In gases its opposite, the viscosity of the gases
fluids increases as the temperature of the gas increases.
2. Molecular weight: the molecular weight of the liquid increases its
viscosity increases.
3. Pressure: when increase the pressure on liquids, the viscosity
increase because increase the attraction force between the molecules
of liquid.

Procedure:
1. Clean the viscometer by the water and ethanol and dry it.
2. Put a certain amount of liquid in the large bulge viscometer and
pull it by pipette until the small bulge is full.
3. Put viscometer vertically in the water bath at the desired
temperature.
4. Let the liquid to flow through the capillary tube with run time when
the liquid reaches the mark shown on the viscometer and then
stopped time when the liquid reaches the bottom mark.
5. Repeat the experiment and record the results (take average of
results).
6. Repeat the experiment to other liquids.
7. Change the temperature and calculate the viscosity.

Calculation:
Calculate the viscosity by the relationships:
η1 is viscosity of liquid 1.
η2 is viscosity of water 0.891 poise.
t1 flow time of liquid 1.
t2 flow time of water.
d1 density of liquid 1.
d2 density of water 0.997 g/cm3 .
Can be calculate the Relative Viscosity by the relationships:

Liquid 1: ethanol (density of ethanol = 0.789 g/cm3 )

Results and Discussions:
 Experiment-2
Aim: Study of Pressure Measuring Devices

Apparatus required: Pressure Measuring devices(Pressure gauge), flask

Experimental Procedure

L Using the syring connects its plastic tubing to Pressure gauge. Push the syring arm to generate pi‘essure.
Observe the deflection on the gauge
Now connect the syring tubing to vacuum gauge. Release the arm of syring to generate vacuum and
observe the chang•e in deflection.
U tube Manometer can be connected to any of the flow metet‘ devices. Switch the pump and observe the
change in mercury levels in the manometer. Calculate the pressui‘e difference.
Similarly connect the Inclined U tube manometer to any of the flow meter and calculate pressure
difference

Observations:
Density of liquid flowing in pipe = Density of liquid flowing in pipe =
Sr. No. Type of Manometer Manometric Reading Pressure/Pressure Difference
h1 h2
1 U tube Manometer
2 Inclined Tube Manometer
3 Pressure Gauge
4 Vacuum Gauge

Calculations

Fluid
Density-
Fluid
Density
Manometer
Density p,

In the above figure, since the pressure at the height of the lower surface of
the manometer fluid is the same in both arms of the manometei, we can
write the following equation:
P I + P1 gd1 = P, p?gd9 + Pf g h
Here, p = — Density of water;
Pz = gP
Ph - Pt =
Pf s h —
Also d l- dz —
 — Ph P, ' (Qf * Qw) g h
— Here Qj’ = Density of Mercui‘y;
— Substituting Standard Values
— PI -P2 = 13580 — 1000 (kg/m ) x g (mls') x h/1000 (m) = 12.58 g h (in N/m')
— Where g =9.81 mls ; h in mm
Results and Discussions:
 Experiment-3
Aim: To Determine the Stability of a Floating Body

Apparatus Required: Buoyancy Apparatus There are three components of the

experimental set-up: 1. Large vertically-standing cylinder containing fresh
water 2. Small cylinder with a detachable cap at one end 3. Sand and a metric
balance to weigh the cylinders

Introduction: It is designed to demonstrate the stability of a floating cylinder and

to familiarize the student with the concept of buoyancy, metacenter, and
metacentric height. It is also an experimental verification of the theory
presented in the textbook. The center of the buoyancy (C, the centroid of the
displaced volume of fluid) of a floating body depends on the shape of the body
and on the position in which it is floating. If the body is disturbed by a small
angle of heel, the center of buoyancy changes because the shape of the
submerged volume is changed. The point of intersection of the lines of action of
the buoyancy force before and after heel is called the metacenter (M) and the
distance between the center of gravity (G) and M, is called the metacentric
height.

Procedures
1. Weigh the small cylinder and its cap together (mc)
2. Place the small empty cylinder into the large vertical cylinder containing
fresh water and observe that it is unstable.
3. Pour a small amount of sand into the small cylinder (to give some ballast)
and note if it is still unstable. Estimate how much of the cylinder is submerged,
h, and then measure the height of sand, hb.
4. Continue adding sand until the small cylinder remains vertical, i.e., stable.
Measure the amount of cylinder that is submerged. Make sure that the open
end of the small cylinder is capped when stability is reached.
5. Remove the small cylinder and measure its weight. Also measure the height
of sand and record your results on the data sheet.

Measurements According to procedures described above, measure the

following quantities:

Results and Discussions:

 Experiment-4

Aim: To Determine the Hydrostatics Force on Flat Surfaces/Curved Surfaces

Apparatus Required: Hydrostatic Pressure Apparatus,

A jug, and
Calipers or rulers

Theory: Hydrostatic forces are the resultant force caused by the pressure
loading of a liquid acting on submerged surfaces. Calculation of the
hydrostatic force and the location of the center of pressure are
fundamental subjects in fluid mechanics. The center of pressure is a point
on the immersed surface at which the resultant hydrostatic pressure force
acts.

Procedures:
 Wipe the quadrant with a wet rag to remove surface tension and
prevent air bubbles from forming.
 Place the apparatus on a level surface, and adjust the screwed-in feet
until the built-in circular spirit level indicates that the base is
horizontal. (The bubble should appear in the center of the spirit
level.)
 Position the balance arm on the knife edges and check that the arm
swings freely.
 Place the weight hanger on the end of the balance arm and level the
arm, using the counter weight, so that the balance arm is horizontal.
 Add 50 grams to the weight hanger.
 Add water to the tank and allow time for the water to settle.
 Close the drain valve at the end of the tank, then slowly add water
until the hydrostatic force on the end surface of the quadrant is
balanced. This can be judged by aligning the base of the balance arm
with the top or bottom of the central marking on the balance rest.
 Record the water height, which displayed on the side of the quadrant
in mm. If the quadrant is partially submerged, record the reading in
the partially submerged portion of the Raw Data Table.
 Repeat the steps, adding 50 g weight each time, until the final
weight of 500 g is reached. When the quadrant is fully submerged,
record the readings in the fully submerged part of the Raw Data
Table.
 Repeat the procedure in reverse by progressively removing the
weights.
 Release the water valve, remove the weights, and clean up any
 spilled water.

Observation Table:

Results and Discussion:

 Experiment-5

Aim:-
To verify Bernoulli’s equation.

Apparatus:-
The setup consists of a pipe of varying cross section with manometer tubes at
regular intervals. The pipe has a section of 71mm x 38 mm at the entrance and
converges uniformly to 38 mm x 19mm and then diverges uniformly to 71mm x
38mm at the end of the pipe. The inlet valve controls the flow of water from
inlet pipe into the inlet tank. The outlet valve regulates the outflow of water . A
stop watch is also needed.

Concept:-
For steady, frictionless, incompressible flow along a streamline, the Bernoulli
theorem states that the sum of velocity, pressure and elevation heads remains
constant at every section.
P + V2 + Z = constant
PG 2g

Where P/pg = pressure head, V2 /2g = velocity head , and Z= elevation head

Procedure:-
1. Remove air bubbles if any from the system by allowing overflow.
Establish a constant flow of water through the pipe by opening the inlet
valve and adjusting the outlet valve in such a way that an appreciable
gradient of water level is maintained in the manometric tubes
2. Wait till the level of water in the inlet tank becomes constant
3. Find the piezometer heads (P/PG)+z ) in nine manometric tubes by
choosing a suitable horizontal line as datum.
4. Velocity heads (V2 /2 g) at every point can be found out by measuring the
discharge through the pipe and calculating the area of cross section of
the pipe at corresponding points

Observation Table:-
Area of collecting tank = 40 x 40 = 1600cm2
Increase in height of water for 10 secs=
Discharge=
Tappi Dischar Piezome Area of cross Veloci Kinet P+Z+
ng ge Q tric section M2 ty ic V2
No. Height V=Q/ Head W
m P/w+z A v2 /2g 2g

Source of error:-

Error may be defined as the difference between the definite or true value of a

quanity and measured value. Error may be due to imperfection of the

instrument or the system, to operator error, to experimental effects, or because

the introduction of the instrument has altered the variable it is measuring.

Results and Discussions:

 Experiment-6 and 7
Aim:
To calibrate venturi meter and orificemeter by establishing the relationship
between flowrate
and pressure difference and to find its coefficient of discharge

Equipment:-
Venturi meter and orifice meter fitted in a horizontal pipe line with means
of varying flow rate, U tube differential monometer.

Concept:-
The venturi meter and orifice meter are devices used for measurement of rate
of flow of fluid through a pipe. The basic principle on which a venturi meter
and orifice meter work is that by reducing the cross sectional area of flow
passage, a pressure difference is created and the measurement of the pressure
difference enables the determination of the discharge through the pipe.

A venturi meter consists of (i) an inlet section followed by a convergent cone, (2) a

cylindrical throat and (3) a gradually divergent cone. Since the cross –sectional area

of the throat is smaller than the cross sectional area of the inlet section, the velocity of

flow at the throat will become greater than that at the inlet section, according the

continuity equation. The increase in the velocity of flow at the throat results in the

decrease in the pressure at this section. A pressure difference is created between the

inlet section and throat section which can be determined by connecting a differential

U-tube manometer between the pressure taps provided at these sections. The
measurement of pressure difference between these sections enables the rate of flow of

fluid (Q) to be calculated as

Q = Cd x a x 2gΔh / (1 – a/A)2

Where a is the area of cross section of throat, A is the area of cross section of inlet section, g is the
acceleration due to the gravity, h is the difference of head and Cd is the coefficient of discharge of
venturimeter.

An orifice meter is a cheaper arrangement for measurement of discharge

through pipes and its installation requires a smaller length as compared with
venturi meter.
An orifice meter consists of flat circular plate with a circular hole called orifice
which is concentric with the pipe axis. The upstream face of the plate is
bevelled at an angle lying between 30o and 45o . The plate is clamped between
the two pipe flanges with bevelled surface facing downstream. Two pressure
taps are provided, one on the upstream side of plate and other on the
downstream side of the orifice plate. A pressure difference exists between two
sections which can be measured by connecting a differential manometer to the
two pressure taps. The discharge coefficient can be calculated using formula
Q = Cd x ao x a1 x 2g Δ h / (a21 – a20)

Where Cd is coefficient of discharge of the orifice, ao is cross-sectional area of

orifice, a1 is cross-sectional area of pipe, g is the acceleration due to the gravity
and h is the difference of head in terms of water

Experimental set up:-

The experimental set up consist of a circuit through which the fluid is circulated

continuously having a venturi meter or an orifice meter of 25 mm dia and having a d/D

= 06. A regulating valve is provided on the downstream side of the circuit to regulate

the two. The venturi meter is provided with two tappings one each at upstream and at

the throat sections. The orifice meter also have two pressure tappings at upstream and

downstream. A U tube differential manometer with common manifold is provided to

measure the pressure difference between two sections. A collecting tank is used to

find the actual discharge through the circuit.

Experimental procedure:-
1. Note down the relevant dimensions as diameter of pipelines, throat dia of
venturimeter and dia of orifice, Area of collecting tank, room temperature
etc.

2. Keep pressure tappings of orifice meter open while those of venturimeter

are closed.
3. Adjust flow rate to its maximum value.
4. By maintaining suitable amount of steady flow in the pipe circuit,
establishe a steady uniform flow in the conduit. Time is allowed to
stabilize the levels in the manometer tube.
5. The discharge flowing in the circuit is recorded together with the water
levels in left and right limbs of manometer tube.
6. The flowrate is reduced in stages by means of flow control valve and the
discharge and readings of manometer are recorded
7. This procedure is repeated by closing the pressure tappings of orifice
meter and for opening of venturi. meter.

Venturimeter-Data
Diameter of main line D=25 mm
Ratio d/D=0.6
Area of cross section of throat section a= 176mm2
Area of cross section of inlet section A= 490mm2
Area of collecting tank = 40 x 40 = 1600cm2

Orifice meter-Data
Diameter of main pipe line,D =25 mm
Ratio d/D =0.6
Area of cross section of orifice ao= 170mm2
Area of cross section of inlet section a1= 490mm2
Area of collecting tank = 40 x 40 = 1600cm2

Precautions:-
1. Readings must be taken in steady or near steady conditions.
2. For the measurement of correct discharge there must not be any leakage
near the notch. Also take care that notch is not running in overflow
conditions.
3. For measurement of correct head over the notch, the pointer gauge must
be kept little distance away from the crest of the notch]
4. Discharge must be varied very gradually from a higher value to smaller
values.

Observation Table for Venturimeter and Orificemeter:-

S.N Discharge Dischar Manome Δh=12.6(h1- C

o Measurement ge ter h2) d
Initi Fin Time h1 h2
al al

Source of error:-
Error may be defined as the difference between the definite or true value of a
quanity and measured value. Error may be due to imperfection of the
instrument or the system, to operator error, to environmental effects, or
because the introduction of the instrument has altered the variable it is
measuring.

Results and Discussions:

 Experiment-8

Aim :
To verify the momentum equation experimentally with jet Apparatus

Equipment:
Collecting tank, transparent cylinder, nozzle of dia 10 mm, vane of
semicircular shape (hemispherical), and a set of weights
Concept:

Momentum equation is based on Newton’s second law of motion which states that the algebraic
sum of external forces applied to control volume of fluid in any direction is equal to the rate of
change of momentum in that direction. The external forces include the components of the weight of
the fluid and of the forces exerted externally upon the boundary surface of the control volume.

If a vertical water jet moving with velocity V is made to strike a target, which is
free to move in the vertical direction, then a force will be exerted on the target
by the impact of jet. According to momentum equation, this force (which is also
equal to the force required to bring back the target to its original position)
must be equal to the rate of change of momentum of the jet flow in that
direction.

Applying momentum equation

F = PQ V-(-Vcos β)

For hemispherical vane, β = 0o, hence the value of F becomes 2PQV or 2PQ2 / a.
Here, P is the mass density, Q the discharge through the nozzle, V the velocity
at the exit of nozzle (i.E. Q/a) and a is the area of cross section of nozzle. It is
assumed that the outgoing velocity of jet remains the same as incoming velocity
since there are no losses due to friction.

Experimental set up:

The experimental set up primarily consists of a nozzle through which a water
jet emerges vertically in such a way that it may be conveniently observed
through the transparent cylinder. It strikes the target vane positioned above it.
The force applied on the vane by jet can be measured by applying weight to
counteract the reaction of the jet.
Vanes are interchangeable i.e. flat, inclined or curved vane.
Arrangement is made for the movement of the plate under the action of the jet
and also because of the weight placed on the loading pan. A scale is provided
for measuring the vanes at its original position i..e. as before the jet strikes the
vane. A collecting tank is used to find the actual discharge and hence velocity
through the nozzle.

Experimental procedure:-
1.Note down the relevant dimensions as area of collection tank, mass density
of water
and dia of nozzle
2.When jet is not running, note down the position of upper disc.
3.Admit water supply to the nozzle and the adjust flowrate to its maximum
value.
4.As the jet stikes the vane, position of the upper disc is changed. Now
place the
weights to bring back the upper disc to its original position.
5.Find out the discharge
6.Note down the weights placed on the upper disc.
7.Repeat procedure for each value of flowrate by reducing the water supply
in steps.

Data and calculation for semicircular vane.:-

Dig of nozzle=10mm
Density of water=1000 kg /m3
Area of collecting tank =40x 25 =1000 cm2
Time of water collection=10sec.

Table for observations:-

When jet is not running, position of upper disc=10.7 cm

S.N Balancing Theoriti Error

o Discharge Measurement cal =F-
force ‘F’ F’/F’
Initi Fin Volu Dischar Ma Force( 2PQ2/a
al al me ge ss F)

SOURCE OF ERROR:-

Error may be defined as the difference between the definite or true value of a
quanity and measured value. Error may be due to imperfection of the
instrument or the system, to operator error, to enviromental effects, or because
the introduction of the instrument has altered the variable it is measuring.

Results and Discussions:

 Experiment-9
Aim: To carry-out the Flow Visualization -Ideal Flow

Apparatus required: 1. Hydraulic bench 2. Osborne Reynolds’s apparatus 3. Dye 4.

Thermometer

Procedure:
• Fill the reservoir with dye.
• Fix the apparatus on the bench and connect the inlet water supply pipe with
the bench feet.
• Lower the dye injector until it’s just above the bell mouth inlet.
• Open the bench inlet valve and slowly fill the head tank up to the overflow
level. And then close it. • Open the velocity control valve to enter water to the
flow visualization pipe.
• Open the control valve slightly and adjust the dye control valve until slow flow
with thin dye line is obtained (laminar flow).
• Increase the flow rate till the dye takes a wave form (transition flow).
• Further increase of flow rate will completely disappear the dye and form
eddies (turbulent flow).
Observations and Calculations:

Results and discussions:

Experiment-11
Aim: To Identify the Velocity distribution in pipes

Apparatus Required: Pipe Flow Apparatus, jar and Pipes

Procedure:
 Determine the room temperature, barometric pressure and the radius of
both pipe sections.
 Set the pitot tube at a reference position.
 Start the fan and set the control valve to obtain the desired speed.
 Move the pitot tube at suitable intervals and note the pressure difference
(po - ps) in the manometer at each interval. Also record the static pressure
and the temperature of the air stream.
 Record the pressure drop across the orifice meter.
 Calculate the velocity at different radii and plot the velocity profile.
 Compare this velocity profile to the expected velocity profile predicted by
theory. Is this profile symmetrical considering the uncertainty of the
measurements?
 Calculate the average velocity V from the experimental velocity profile
and from theory. If the flow is laminar, compare the radial location at
which the average velocity equals the actual air velocity. How does this
compare to the predicted value? Compare and discuss the values of V
obtained from the orifice meter and the two previously mentioned
methods.
 Verify the volume flow rate obtained by integrating the experimental
velocity profile with that obtained with the orifice meter. Discuss any
contributing factors that would cause a discrepancy between the values
of volume flow rate obtained by the two methods.
 Determine the wall shear stress using the definition of viscosity and from
the definition of u*. Discuss any differences.

Observations and Calculations:

The fluid in all of the manometers is Meriam D-2673 Red Oil. The specific
gravity of the red oil is temperature dependent and is given as

SG = 0.8497 - 0.00038T

where T = red oil temperature (°F).

The red oil specific gravity is referenced to the density of water at 4°C ( =
62.422 lbm/ft3)

Results and Discussions:

Experiment-12
Aim: To Examine the Laminar Flow

Apparatus Required:
 The following equipment is required to perform the Reynolds number
experiment:
 F1-10 hydraulics bench,
 The F1-20 Reynolds demonstration apparatus,
  Cylinder for measuring flow,
 Stopwatch for timing the flow measurement, and
 Thermometer

Introduction:
flow may occur under two very different regimes: laminar and turbulent. In
laminar flows, fluid particles move in layers, sliding over each other, causing a
small energy exchange to occur between layers. Laminar flow occurs in fluids
with high viscosity, moving at slow velocity. The turbulent flow, on the other
hand, is characterized by random movements and intermixing of fluid particles,
with a great exchange of energy throughout the fluid. This type of flow occurs
in fluids with low viscosity and high velocity. The dimensionless Reynolds
number is used to classify the state of flow. The Reynolds Number
Demonstration is a classic experiment, based on visualizing flow behavior by
slowly and steadily injecting dye into a pipe. This experiment was first
performed by Osborne Reynolds in the late nineteenth century.

Procedure:
 Position the Reynolds apparatus on a fixed, vibration-free surface (not on
the hydraulics bench), and ensure that the base is horizontal and the test
section is vertical.
 Connect the bench outflow to the head tank inlet pipe.
 Place the head tank overflow tube in the volumetric tank of the hydraulics
bench.
 Attach a small tube to the apparatus flow control valve, and clamp it to a
fixed position in a sink in the lab, allowing enough space below the end of
the tube to insert a measuring cylinder. The outflow should not be
returned to the volumetric tank since it contains dye and will taint the
flow visualisation.
 Start the pump, slightly open the apparatus flow control valve and the bench valve, and allow
the head tank to fill with water. Make sure that the flow visualisation pipe is properly filled.
Once the water level in the head tank reaches the overflow tube, adjust the bench control
valve to produce a low overflow rate.
 Ensuring that the dye control valve is closed, add the blue dye to the dye reservoir until it is
about 2/3 full.
 Attach the needle, hold the dye assembly over a lab sink, and open the valve to ensure that
there is a free flow of dye.
 Close the dye control valve, then mount the dye injector on the head tank and lower the
injector until the tip of the needle is slightly above the bellmouth and is centered on its axis.
 Adjust the bench valve and flow control valve to return the overflow rate to a small amount,
and allow the apparatus to stand for at least five minutes
 Adjust the flow control valve to reach a slow trickle outflow, then adjust the dye control valve
until a slow flow with clear dye indication is achieved.
 Measure the flow volumetric rate by timed water collection.
 Observe the flow patterns, take pictures, or make hand sketches as needed to classify the flow
regime.
 Increase the flow rate by opening the flow control valve. Repeat the experiment to visualize
transitional flow and then, at higher flow rates, turbulent flow, as characterized by continuous
and very rapid mixing of the dye. Try to observe each flow regime two or three times, for a
total of eight readings.
 As the flow rate increases, adjust the bench valve to keep the water level constant in the head
tank.

Observations and Calculations:

Results and discussions::