Foundry Technology

Foundry Technology is a branch of manufacturing engineering that deals with the production of
metal castings by melting metal and pouring it into molds to form complex shapes. This
technology plays a critical role in various industries, including automotive, aerospace,
construction, and heavy machinery, as it allows for the mass production of parts that are difficult
or impossible to create through other manufacturing processes.
Key Components of Foundry Technology
1. Pattern Making: Patterns are replicas of the final product, made from wood, metal, or
plastic. These patterns are used to create molds where molten metal will be poured.
2. Molding: The mold is a hollow form made from sand, metal, or other refractory materials.
It is created by packing the molding material around the pattern.
3. Melting: Metal is melted in furnaces (like cupola, induction, or electric arc furnaces) until
it reaches the desired temperature and composition for casting.
4. Pouring: The molten metal is poured into the mold cavity, which is designed to shape the
metal as it cools and solidifies.
5. Solidification and Cooling: The metal cools within the mold, taking on the shape of the
cavity. Solidification control is crucial to ensure proper grain structure and to minimize
defects.
6. Shakeout and Cleaning: Once the metal has solidified, the mold is broken away (shakeout)
and the casting is cleaned of sand, scale, and excess material.
7. Finishing and Inspection: The casting is machined, ground, or otherwise finished to meet
dimensional and surface quality standards. Inspection is carried out to check for defects
and ensure quality.
Advantages of Foundry Technology
• Versatility: Can create complex shapes that are difficult to manufacture by other methods.
• Material Variety: Almost any metal can be cast, including ferrous and non-ferrous alloys.
• Cost-Effective: Suitable for large-scale production and can significantly reduce machining
and assembly costs.
Applications
Foundry technology is used to produce a wide range of products, including engine blocks, gears,
turbine blades, machine tool bases, and artistic sculptures. Its applications are critical in
industries like automotive, aerospace, construction, and heavy equipment manufacturing.

Metal Flow Analysis

Metal Flow Phenomenon
The flow of molten metal into a mold is a critical aspect of the casting process. Proper flow
ensures the metal fills the entire mold cavity, replicating the desired shape with minimal defects.
 • Laminar Flow: Characterized by smooth, orderly layers of metal moving parallel to each
other. This type of flow is ideal because it reduces the likelihood of air entrapment and
minimizes surface turbulence. Laminar flow is desirable because it helps avoid casting
defects like porosity or cold shuts.
• Turbulent Flow: Occurs when the flow becomes chaotic, often due to high velocities or
abrupt changes in the direction of flow. Turbulence can cause air entrainment, splashing,
and other flow-related defects. It’s crucial to design gating systems to minimize turbulence
to improve the quality of the cast.
Metallostatic Pressure
Metallostatic pressure is the pressure exerted by the molten metal due to its own weight within
the mold cavity. This pressure helps drive the metal into all areas of the mold, especially in
complex or deep sections.
• Significance: Ensures that metal fills the mold completely, overcoming resistance due to
mold friction and flow losses.
• High Metallostatic Pressure: Helps fill intricate mold details and forces out trapped gases,
reducing porosity.
• Low Metallostatic Pressure: Can result in incomplete filling, leading to defects such as cold
shuts or misruns.
Formula for Metallostatic Pressure:

P=ρ ⋅ g ⋅ h, Where:
• P = Metallostatic pressure (Pa)
• ρ = Density of molten metal (kg/m³)
• g = Gravitational acceleration (9.81 m/s²)
• h = Height of the molten metal column (m)
Metal Velocity
The velocity of molten metal as it enters and flows through the mold is critical for proper filling.
The speed at which metal flows must be balanced to ensure complete mold filling without causing
excessive turbulence.
• High Velocity: May cause splashing and turbulent flow, leading to defects.
• Low Velocity: Can cause metal to cool too quickly, resulting in incomplete mold filling
(misruns).
Equation for Metal Velocity:
Using Bernoulli’s principle for flow, the velocity of molten metal entering the mold can be
estimated as:
• v = Velocity of molten metal (m/s)
• g = Gravitational acceleration (9.81 m/s²)
 • h = Height of the molten metal column (m)
Flow Losses
Flow losses are resistances faced by molten metal as it moves through the mold, affecting its
velocity and pressure. These losses can occur due to friction, flow restrictions, and changes in
direction within the gating system.
• Friction Loss: Resistance between molten metal and the mold walls, slowing the flow.
• Inertial Loss: Occurs due to changes in the direction of flow, such as in bends or turns
within the gating system.
• Flow Restrictions: Narrow or constricted passages can limit flow and cause pressure drops,
hindering proper mold filling.
Equation for Pressure Losses Due to Friction:
• ΔP = Pressure loss (Pa)
• f = Friction factor (depends on surface roughness and flow regime)
• L = Length of flow path (m)
• D = Hydraulic diameter (m)
• ρ = Density of molten metal (kg/m³)
• v = Flow velocity (m/s)
Turbulence
Turbulence refers to the chaotic and irregular movement of molten metal within the mold, which
can lead to defects due to air entrapment, splashing, and poor surface finish.
• Causes of Turbulence:
o High metal velocity.
o Sharp changes in the flow path, such as bends or abrupt reductions in cross-section.
o Poor gating design that fails to promote smooth flow.
• Effects of Turbulence:
o Increased surface oxidation.
o Air entrapment, leading to porosity.
o Poor filling of mold cavities, resulting in cold shuts or misruns.
Avoiding Turbulence:
• Design gating systems with gradual transitions.
• Use ceramic filters to smooth the flow.
• Control the pouring speed to reduce the kinetic energy of the incoming metal.
Fluidity of Molten Metals
Fluidity is the ability of molten metal to flow and fill the mold cavity before it solidifies. Higher
fluidity allows better filling of intricate mold shapes and thin sections.
Factors Affecting Fluidity:
1. Pouring Temperature:
o Higher pouring temperatures increase fluidity but can also increase oxidation and
gas absorption.
o Lower temperatures can reduce fluidity, leading to incomplete mold filling.
2. Metal Composition:
o Alloys with lower melting points typically have higher fluidity.
o Additives like silicon can improve fluidity in some alloys, like aluminum.
3. Viscosity:
o Lower viscosity (thinner metal) enhances fluidity.
o Higher viscosity metals resist flow, making them harder to cast.
4. Superheat:
o Superheat is the difference between the metal’s pouring temperature and its
solidification temperature. More superheat means better fluidity.
5. Mold Material and Coating:
o Molds that absorb more heat can reduce metal temperature faster, decreasing
fluidity.
o Coatings on mold surfaces can improve flow by reducing friction.

Gas Evolution and Venting in Casting

In metal casting, gas evolution refers to the release of gases during the pouring of molten metal
into a mold, and venting is the process of allowing these gases to escape from the mold.
Effective management of gas evolution and venting is crucial to avoid casting defects such as
porosity, gas holes, and incomplete mold filling.
1. Gas Evolution in Casting
Gas evolution occurs when gases are generated or released during the casting process. These
gases can originate from various sources:
Sources of Gas Evolution:
1. Moisture in the Mold: Moisture trapped in the mold material (especially sand molds) can
vaporize due to the high temperatures of the molten metal, creating steam.
2. Decomposition of Mold Materials: Some mold materials, like organic binders or coatings,
decompose at high temperatures, releasing gases such as carbon dioxide, hydrogen, or
nitrogen.
3. Dissolved Gases in Molten Metal: Molten metals can absorb gases like hydrogen, oxygen,
and nitrogen during melting. When the metal is poured into the mold, these dissolved
gases can be released.
4. Chemical Reactions: Chemical reactions between the molten metal and mold materials,
or between different elements within the alloy, can produce gases.
Formulas Related to Gas Evolution:
The amount of gas evolved can be roughly estimated using chemical reaction equations or by
understanding the vapor pressure of water and other compounds at high temperatures.
For example, if steam is produced from water in the mold: H2O(l)→H2O(g)
• The volume of steam generated can be estimated using the Ideal Gas Law:

PV=nRT
Where:
o P = Pressure (Pa)
o V = Volume of gas (m³)
o n = Number of moles of gas
o R = Gas constant (8.314 J/mol·K)
o T = Temperature (Kelvin)
2. Venting in Casting
Venting involves creating pathways in the mold to allow gases to escape during the casting
process. Proper venting is crucial to prevent gas-related defects.
Types of Venting Techniques:
1. Vents: Small channels are created in the mold to provide escape paths for gases. These
vents are usually positioned at the highest points in the mold where gases naturally
accumulate.
2. Permeable Molds: Some mold materials, such as sand, are naturally permeable, allowing
gases to pass through the tiny gaps between particles.
 3. Venting Needles: In certain casting setups, needles or thin rods are inserted into the
mold to create extra venting paths, especially in areas prone to gas entrapment.
4. Filters: Ceramic or metal filters placed in the gating system can trap gas bubbles, helping
to reduce gas-related defects.
Design Considerations for Effective Venting:
• Positioning: Vents should be positioned at high points and along paths where gases are
likely to accumulate.
• Size and Number: Vents should be adequately sized and numerous enough to handle the
volume of gas evolved.
• Material: Vent materials should withstand high temperatures without collapsing or
causing contamination.
Effects of Poor Venting and Gas Evolution
If gases are not effectively vented, several defects can occur:
1. Porosity: Small gas bubbles trapped within the solidified metal, weakening the casting.
2. Gas Holes: Larger voids or cavities caused by trapped gases, leading to severe structural
weaknesses.
3. Blowholes: Gas bubbles near the surface of the casting, often visible as surface defects.
4. Incomplete Mold Filling: Gas pressure can resist the flow of molten metal, causing areas
of the mold to remain unfilled.
Preventing Gas-Related Defects:
1. Preheating the Mold: Preheating the mold can reduce moisture content, thereby
minimizing steam formation.
2. De-gassing the Metal: Processes such as vacuum degassing or adding de-gassing tablets
can help remove dissolved gases from the molten metal before pouring.
3. Using Dry Sand: Using mold materials with low moisture content, such as chemically
bonded sand, reduces gas formation.
4. Optimized Mold Design: Proper gating and venting design are essential to allow gases to
escape without disturbing the flow of molten metal.
Example Calculation for Gas Venting:
Assuming that 10 grams of water are present in the mold and completely vaporize, the gas
volume can be estimated:
This indicates that even a small amount of moisture can generate a significant volume of gas,
highlighting the need for effective venting.

Heat Flow During Solidification in Casting

Solidification in casting involves the transition of molten metal to a solid state as it loses heat
to the surrounding environment, primarily the mold. The nature of heat flow during this
process is crucial in determining the quality, structure, and properties of the final cast
product. Understanding the heat flow, thermal gradient, and cooling rate is essential for
controlling defects and achieving the desired microstructure.
1. Heat Flow During Solidification
Heat flow in casting occurs primarily through conduction as the molten metal transfers heat
to the mold. The effectiveness of heat removal during solidification determines the speed and
pattern of solidification, directly affecting the cast part's properties.
Mechanism of Heat Flow:
• Conduction: The primary mode of heat transfer where heat moves from the hot molten
metal to the cooler mold material.
• Convection: Although minor in solidification, convection may occur within the molten
metal before it solidifies, aiding in heat distribution.
• Radiation: Heat loss to the surroundings from the surface of the mold, though it has a
lesser effect compared to conduction.
Stages of Heat Flow in Casting:
1. Initial Cooling: As the molten metal is poured into the mold, it quickly loses heat to the
mold walls, establishing a solid-liquid interface.
2. Mushy Zone Formation: A zone where solid and liquid phases coexist, often near the
solidification front. This zone grows as heat continues to be extracted.
3. Complete Solidification: The metal fully transitions into a solid state once all latent heat
of fusion is removed.
Heat Transfer Formula:
The rate of heat transfer during solidification can be described using Fourier’s Law:
 • Q = Rate of heat transfer (W)
• K = Thermal conductivity of the metal or mold (W/m·K)
• A = Area through which heat is being transferred (m²)
• ΔT = Temperature difference between the molten metal and mold surface (K)
• Δx = Thickness of the mold wall or the distance over which heat is transferred (m)
Practical Insight:
• A higher thermal conductivity (k) means faster heat removal, leading to quicker
solidification.
• A larger temperature gradient (ΔT) increases the rate of heat loss.
2. Thermal Gradient in Casting
Thermal Gradient refers to the rate of temperature change across the distance from the molten
metal to the mold walls. This gradient plays a key role in determining the solidification pattern
and, consequently, the microstructure of the casting.
Definition:
• ΔT = Temperature difference between the molten metal and the mold (K)
• Δx = Distance between the hot and cold regions (m)
Importance of Thermal Gradient:
• High Thermal Gradient:
o Occurs when there is a rapid temperature drop from the molten metal to the mold
wall.
o Leads to directional solidification, where metal solidifies from the mold wall
inward, promoting columnar or dendritic grain growth.
o Helps minimize defects such as shrinkage porosity since the solidification front
moves uniformly.
• Low Thermal Gradient:
o Characterized by a slow temperature drop, resulting in a uniform temperature field
within the casting.
o Encourages equiaxed grain formation (random grain structure), which is beneficial
for mechanical properties but can cause uneven solidification.
Diagram of Thermal Gradient in Casting:
Visualize a mold with molten metal. The temperature is highest at the metal's center and drops
toward the mold walls, forming a gradient that controls solidification.
3. Cooling Rate in Casting
The Cooling Rate is the speed at which the temperature of the metal decreases during the
solidification process. It is a critical parameter because it directly influences the grain structure,
mechanical properties, and potential defects in the cast metal.
Definition:
Cooling Rate=
• ΔT = Change in temperature (K)
• Δt = Time interval during cooling (s)
Factors Influencing Cooling Rate:
1. Mold Material:
o Metal molds (e.g., die casting) have high thermal conductivity, leading to rapid
cooling.
o Sand molds have lower thermal conductivity, resulting in slower cooling rates.
2. Section Thickness:
o Thinner sections cool faster due to a higher surface-area-to-volume ratio.
o Thicker sections cool slower, increasing the risk of internal defects.
3. Pouring Temperature:
o Higher pouring temperatures increase the initial heat content, requiring longer
times to cool and solidify.
Effects of Cooling Rate on Microstructure:
• High Cooling Rate:
o Produces fine grains with improved strength and toughness.
o Can lead to higher residual stresses and distortion if not controlled.
o Rapid solidification often minimizes the size of dendrites, refining the
microstructure.
• Low Cooling Rate:
o Results in coarse grains with potentially lower strength.
o Can lead to segregation, where different alloying elements concentrate in certain
areas, affecting uniformity.
o May increase the risk of gas porosity due to slower solidification.
Graph of Cooling Rate vs. Microstructure:
Imagine a graph where the x-axis represents the cooling rate and the y-axis represents grain
size. As the cooling rate increases, the grain size decreases, indicating finer microstructure and
improved mechanical properties.
Chvorinov’s Rule and Solidification Time
Chvorinov’s rule integrates the concepts of thermal gradient and cooling rate, predicting the
solidification time based on the casting's shape and mold properties.

• ts = Solidification time (s)

• C = Mold constant (depends on mold material and metal properties)
• V = Volume of the casting (m³)
• A = Surface area of the casting (m²)
• n = Usually taken as 2 (depends on the heat flow conditions)
Implications:
• Castings with a high surface-area-to-volume ratio (thin walls) solidify faster due to
efficient heat extraction.
• Design changes that increase the volume relative to the surface area will increase
solidification time, requiring careful management to avoid defects like shrinkage.
Shrinkage During Solidification
Shrinkage occurs when the metal contracts as it cools from liquid to solid. Shrinkage can lead to
defects such as cavities, porosity, and cracks.
Types of Shrinkage:
1. Liquid Shrinkage: Reduction in volume as the metal cools in the liquid state before
solidifying.
2. Solidification Shrinkage: The contraction that occurs during the phase change from liquid
to solid.
3. Solid Shrinkage: Contraction as the solidified metal cools to room temperature.
Diagram of Shrinkage:
• A casting with insufficient feeding can develop shrinkage cavities, typically at the last
areas to solidify.
4. Cooling Stresses and Distortion
Cooling stresses develop due to uneven cooling rates in different sections of the casting. This
uneven contraction can lead to internal stresses, resulting in distortion or even cracking.

• Thermal Stress Formula: σ = E ⋅ α ⋅ ΔT

o σ = Thermal stress (Pa)
o E = Young’s modulus of the metal (Pa)
o α = Coefficient of thermal expansion (1/K)
 o ΔT = Temperature difference (K)
Effects:
• High stresses can cause warping, cracking, or failure of the casting.
• Controlled cooling (using controlled mold temperatures or slow cooling rates) helps
reduce stress.
5. Effect on Microstructure of Metals
The solidification rate has a significant impact on the microstructure of the metal, influencing its
mechanical properties.
• Fast Cooling Rate:
o Results in fine grains.
o Improved mechanical properties like strength and toughness.
o Reduces the likelihood of segregation (uneven distribution of alloying elements).
• Slow Cooling Rate:
o Results in coarse grains.
o May lead to lower mechanical strength.
o Higher chances of defects like porosity and segregation.
Microstructure Diagrams:
• Graph of Cooling Rate vs. Grain Size:
A typical graph shows that as the cooling rate increases, the grain size decreases, resulting in a
stronger material.

Classification of Defects in Casting

Casting defects are imperfections that occur during the metal casting process, affecting the
quality, appearance, and functionality of the final product. These defects can arise from various
sources, such as gas entrapment, improper solidification, mold issues, or cooling problems.
Below is a comprehensive classification of common casting defects, their causes, appearances,
and preventive measures.
1. Gas Defects
Gas defects occur when gases get trapped in the molten metal during the casting process,
forming cavities, pores, or blisters on the surface or within the casting.
Common Types of Gas Defects:
1. Blowholes:
o Appearance: Smooth, round cavities found on or below the surface of the casting.
o Causes: Trapped gases due to insufficient mold venting, excessive moisture in the
mold, or gas released from the molten metal.
 o Prevention: Improve mold venting, reduce mold moisture, and de-gas the molten
metal before pouring.
2. Pinholes:
o Appearance: Small, pin-sized cavities usually found near the surface of the casting.
o Causes: Absorption of hydrogen, nitrogen, or carbon monoxide during melting,
often from wet charge materials or contaminated melt.
o Prevention: Use clean, dry charge materials, proper melting practices, and de-
gassing techniques.
3. Porosity:
o Appearance: Tiny bubbles or pores within the metal, reducing the density of the
casting.
o Causes: Entrapped gases or shrinkage during solidification.
o Prevention: Control the cooling rate, improve mold venting, and use gas-free raw
materials.
4. Blisters:
o Appearance: Raised, smooth bumps on the surface of the casting.
o Causes: Gas trapped beneath the surface due to rapid cooling or poor mold
permeability.
o Prevention: Control the cooling rate, improve mold permeability, and ensure
proper venting.
2. Shrinkage Defects
Shrinkage defects occur due to the reduction in volume when the metal changes from liquid to
solid during cooling, leading to cavities, voids, or cracks.
Common Types of Shrinkage Defects:
1. Cavities:
o Appearance: Large voids or depressions often found in the thicker sections of the
casting.
o Causes: Insufficient feeding of molten metal to compensate for shrinkage during
solidification.
o Prevention: Use risers (feeders) to supply additional molten metal, and optimize
casting design to ensure uniform solidification.
2. Micro-shrinkage:
o Appearance: Fine, hairline cracks or small voids that occur within the metal.
o Causes: Uneven cooling and solidification, particularly in high-stress areas.
 o Prevention: Control the cooling rate and use chills (metal inserts) to promote
directional solidification.
3. Shrinkage Porosity:
o Appearance: Porous regions typically found at the center of thicker sections.
o Causes: Insufficient feeding of molten metal and rapid cooling of the outer layers
compared to the inner section.
o Prevention: Use properly designed risers, chills, and gating systems to ensure
balanced feeding and cooling.
3. Mold Defects
Mold defects arise from issues related to the mold, such as poor design, improper material, or
surface defects.
Common Types of Mold Defects:
1. Cold Shuts:
o Appearance: Visible lines on the surface where two streams of molten metal fail to
fuse properly, forming a weak spot.
o Causes: Inadequate pouring temperature, slow pouring speed, or turbulence in the
mold.
o Prevention: Increase the pouring temperature, modify gating design to minimize
turbulence, and ensure steady pouring.
2. Mold Shift:
o Appearance: Misalignment between the top and bottom parts of the casting,
leading to an offset.
o Causes: Misalignment of mold halves or incorrect mold assembly.
o Prevention: Ensure precise alignment of mold halves and use proper clamping to
hold the mold securely.
3. Cuts and Washes:
o Appearance: Grooves or indentations on the casting surface.
o Causes: Erosion of the mold surface due to high-velocity metal flow or weak mold
materials.
o Prevention: Strengthen mold material, reduce pouring speed, and modify gating
design.
4. Metal Penetration:
o Appearance: Rough, sandy surface due to molten metal penetrating into the sand
mold.
o Causes: High pouring temperature or low sand mold strength, causing metal to
seep into sand grains.
 o Prevention: Use high-strength sand molds, lower pouring temperatures, and apply
coatings to mold surfaces.
4. Metallic Projections
Metallic projections are unwanted extra metal attached to the casting, often caused by mold or
core-related issues.
Common Types of Metallic Projections:
1. Flash:
o Appearance: Thin layers of excess metal along the parting line or mold joints.
o Causes: Mold halves not tightly clamped, or excessive metal pressure forcing metal
through mold gaps.
o Prevention: Ensure tight mold clamping, adjust metal pressure, and improve mold
parting surfaces.
2. Swells:
o Appearance: Bulges or swellings on the casting surface.
o Causes: Weak mold material unable to withstand metal pressure, leading to mold
expansion.
o Prevention: Use stronger mold materials and ensure proper mold packing and
reinforcement.
3. Lugs:
o Appearance: Unwanted metal protrusions, usually around gating or riser areas.
o Causes: Improper gating system design or leakage at riser junctions.
o Prevention: Design gating and riser systems carefully to avoid overflow and
leakage.
5. Surface Defects
Surface defects affect the casting’s appearance and can also lead to structural weaknesses.
Common Types of Surface Defects:
1. Scabs:
o Appearance: Rough, scaly areas on the casting surface.
o Causes: Mold surface flaking or peeling due to rapid temperature changes or poor
mold material.
o Prevention: Improve mold material quality, control mold temperature, and avoid
rapid metal flow.
2. Crusts:
o Appearance: Thin, hard layers on the surface, often due to a reaction between the
mold and molten metal.
 o Causes: Chemical reactions between mold materials and the molten metal.
o Prevention: Use appropriate mold coatings and control metal composition to
prevent adverse reactions.
3. Run-Out:
o Appearance: Metal spills out of the mold, causing incomplete or malformed
castings.
o Causes: Mold cavity leakage due to cracks, gaps, or improper sealing.
o Prevention: Inspect mold integrity, ensure tight mold assembly, and avoid
excessive pouring pressures.
4. Misrun:
o Appearance: Incomplete filling of the mold cavity, leading to missing sections or
incomplete edges.
o Causes: Low pouring temperature, slow pouring rate, or poor mold design that
restricts flow.
o Prevention: Increase pouring temperature, adjust gating design, and pour metal at
a steady rate.
6. Hot Tears and Cracks
Hot tears and cracks occur when the casting is subjected to thermal stresses during
solidification and cooling.
Common Types of Hot Tears and Cracks:
1. Hot Tears:
o Appearance: Irregular, torn-like cracks, often appearing near sharp corners or areas
of high thermal stress.
o Causes: Restrained shrinkage during solidification and uneven cooling rates.
o Prevention: Design castings with gradual transitions, control cooling rates, and add
fillets to reduce stress concentrations.
2. Cracks:
o Appearance: Straight or jagged fractures in the casting.
o Causes: High residual stresses due to uneven cooling or excessive mold restraint.
o Prevention: Optimize casting design, control cooling rate, and use proper mold
support.
7. Dimensional Defects
Dimensional defects cause the casting to be out of specified tolerances due to problems in the
mold or pattern.
Common Types of Dimensional Defects:
 1. Mismatches:
o Appearance: Misalignment between different sections of the casting.
o Causes: Incorrect mold assembly or pattern misalignment.
o Prevention: Ensure proper alignment and secure positioning of mold halves.
2. Warpage:
o Appearance: Distortion or bending of the casting.
o Causes: Uneven cooling rates leading to thermal stresses and differential
shrinkage.
o Prevention: Control cooling rate uniformly and use balanced mold design to
minimize stress.
8. Inclusions
Inclusions are non-metallic particles trapped within the casting, affecting its mechanical
properties.
Common Types of Inclusions:
1. Slag Inclusions:
o Appearance: Non-metallic particles, often visible on polished sections of the
casting.
o Causes: Entrapped slag from improper molten metal filtering or turbulent pouring.
o Prevention: Use filters in the gating system, reduce turbulence, and clean the melt
properly.
2. Sand Inclusions:
o Appearance: Embedded sand particles, often causing rough surfaces.
o Causes: Erosion of the mold surface due to high-speed metal flow.
o Prevention: Strengthen the mold surface, improve gating design, and avoid
excessive metal velocity.