CHAPTER 6

Rational Functions

Introduction: Rational Functions

A rational function is created by dividing two polynomials. Technically, a
rational function takes the form
N (x)
f (x) =
D(x)
where N (x) and D(x) are both polynomials. Essentially, these functions are
division problems.

The following are all examples of rational functions

1 x2 3x 4 5x2 15x
x 4 x2 + 5x 14 10x2

183
184 6. RATIONAL FUNCTIONS

Supplement: Rational Arithmetic

In this section, we’ll review simplifying, multiplying, dividing, adding, and
subtracting with rational functions.

In general, to “simplify” a rational expression means:

• Find common factors of the numerator and denominator

• “Cancel” those factors to 1 or 1

Example 6.1. Simplify

x2 2x
x2 4

Solution.
x2 2x x(x 2) x
= =
x2 4 (x + 2)(x 2) x+2

Example 6.2. Simplify

3x 5x2 2x3
6x2 5x + 1

Solution.
3x 5x2 2x3 x(3 5x 2x2 )
=
6x2 5x + 1 (3x 1)(2x 1)
x(3 + x)(1 2x)
=
(3x 1)(2x 1)
x(3 + x)
=
(3x 1)
 SUPPLEMENT: RATIONAL ARITHMETIC 185

Example 6.3. Divide

x2 4x+3
x+2
x2 x 6

Solution.
x2 4x+3
x+2 x2 4x + 3 x2 x 6
= ÷
x2 x 6 x+2 1
2
x 4x + 3 1
= · 2
x+2 x x 6
2
x 4x + 3
=
(x + 2)(x2 x 6)
(x 3)(x 1)
=
(x + 2)(x + 2)(x 3)
x 1
=
(x + 2)2

Example 6.4. Rewrite as a single fraction

3 2
2
x +x 6 x 2 3x + 2

Solution. Combining fractions using addition or subtraction requires a

common denominator.
3 2
2 2
x + x 6 x + 3x + 2
3 2
=
(x + 2)(x 3) (x + 2)(x + 1)
3(x + 1) 2(x 3)
=
(x + 2)(x 3)(x + 1) (x + 2)(x + 1)(x 3)
3(x + 1) 2(x 3)
=
(x + 2)(x 3)(x + 1)
3x + 3 2x + 6
=
(x + 2)(x 3)(x + 1)
x+9
=
(x + 2)(x 3)(x + 1)
186 6. RATIONAL FUNCTIONS

Rational Arithmetic Problems

Problem 6.1.
Simplify.
x(x 1) (x 1)2
(a) (x 2)2
÷ x 2
4x2 1 x 2
(b) x2 4
· 2x 1
x2 4 2x2 3x 2
(c) 2x2 5x+2
÷ 4x2 1
x4 y 4
(x+y)2
(d) x2 +y 2
x2 y x2 +2xy+y 2
(e) x+y
÷ (x + y) · xy 2 x2 y
3x2 +xy 2y 2 3x2 +7xy 6y 2 3x+y
(f) 3x2 xy 2y 2
÷ 3x2 2xy y 2
÷ 3x+2y
x2 +4x+3 1 x+1
(g) x2 +5x+6
· x+2
÷ x2 +4x+4

(h) (x4 + 2x2 + 1) ÷ (x4 1) · (x 1)

(i) (x4 + x2 + 1) ÷ (x6 1) · (x2 1)

Problem 6.2.
Simplify.
x 1 x+1 1 1
(a) x
+ x2
(g) x2 1 (x 1)2
x 4 x 6
(b) 2x 3x (h) 1 1
x2 +2x+1 x2 1
a b c
(c) bc
+ ac
+ ab (i) a+b
+ a b
+ b a
+ b a
a b a+b a b a+b
1 1 1
(d) x2
+ x
+ 4 (j) 3
+ 2
x2 5x+6 x2 4
1 1
(e) x 4 x+4 (k) 1
+ 1
2x2 3x+1 4x2 1
1 1
(f) + x x2 +a2 a
x2 +x x2 x (l) x a x2 a 2
+ x+a
 SUPPLEMENT: RATIONAL EQUATIONS 187

Supplement: Rational Equations

Example 6.5. Solve

3 x 4
+2=
x2 7x + 10 x 5

Solution.
3 x 4
+2=
(x 5)(x 2) x 5

3 x 4
(x 5)(x 2) · +2 = · (x 5)(x 2)
(x 5)(x 2) x 5
3 + 2(x 5)(x 2) = (x 4)(x 2)
2 2
3 + 2(x 7x + 10) = x 6x + 8
3 + 2x2 14x + 20 = x2 6x + 8
x2 8x + 15 = 0
(x 3)(x 5) = 0
x = 3, 5
The strategy we used in this solution involved multiplying the equation so
that we could work with polynomial expressions rather than rational ones.
Polynomials have no restriction on their domain while rationals do. This is
what makes it possible for extraneous solutions to arise.

Checking our solutions with the original equation, we see that x = 5 is not in
the domain of either the left or right hand sides of the equation:
3 5 4
2
+2=
5 7 · 5 + 10 5 5
3 1
+2=
0 0

Therefore 5 is extraneous and should not be included in our final result. The
solution 3 is ok (check for yourself).

So this equation has only one solution, x = 3.

188 6. RATIONAL FUNCTIONS

Rational Equations Problems

Problem 6.3.
Solve and check.
3 1 2
(a) x 3x
= 3
1 2
(b) x
= x 3
2 1
(c) x+3 x 3
=0
x x+2
(d) x 1
= x
6x2 x 1
(e) 3(x2 +1)
=2
x 1
(f) x+3
+ x 3
=1
1 1 4
(g) x 2
+ x+2
= x2 4
3 1 1
(h) x+1 x 2
= x2 x 2
6 2
(i) x x 1
=1
x 30
(j) x 2
+ x+2
=9
2 x 6
(k) x 1 x+3
= x2 +2x 3
5 x 3
(l) x2 +x 6
=2 x 2
x 1 3
(m) x 1
= x+2
+ x2 +x 2
x 3 2 x 3
(n) x+1
=2· x+1
+3
 1. COMPLEX FRACTIONS 189

1. Complex Fractions
A fraction is called complex if its numerator or denominator (or both) has one
or more fractions.

For example,
1 1
x 6
1
x2
+ 49

These fractions share a name with complex numbers but are unrelated.

To “simplify” a complex fraction, we wish to rewrite so the numerator and

denominator do not contain fractions. There are two methods we can use to
do so. Each sample problem demonstrates one of those methods.

Example 6.6. Simplify

1
x x
1
1 x

Solution. In this method, we first combine each of the numerator and de-
nominator as a single fraction. Then we interpret the whole fraction as a
division problem.
1 x2 1
x x x x
1 = x 1
1 x x x
x2 1
x
= x 1
x
2
x 1 x 1
= ÷
x x
x2 x1
= ·
x x 1
2
x(x 1)
=
x(x 1)
x(x + 1)(x 1)
=
x(x 1)
=x+1
190 6. RATIONAL FUNCTIONS

Example 6.7. Simplify

1 + x3 + 2
x2
1 + x2

1
Solution. In this method, we multiply the fraction by a form of 1
in order
to “clear” all the denominators
1 + x3 + x22
1 + x2
1 + x3 + 2
x2 x2
= ·
1 + x2 x2
x2 + 3x + 2
=
x2 + 2x
(x + 1)(x + 2)
=
x(x + 2)
x+1
=
x
 1. COMPLEX FRACTIONS 191

Complex Fractions Problems

Problem 6.4.
Simplify.
x+1
(a)
1 + x1
a b
(b) 1 1
a b
1 1
x2 y2
(c) 1 1
x y
1 1
x2 y2
(d) 1 2 1
x2
+ xy
+ y2
2
y+2
1
(e) 1
y+2
+1

Problem 6.5.
Simplify.
1 1
a+1
+ a 1
(a) 1 1
a+1 a 1
1
1+ x 1
(b) 1
1+ x2 1
a a b
b a+b
(c) a a+b
b
+ a b
1
2
1 x
x

(d) 1
1 x
192 6. RATIONAL FUNCTIONS

Problem 6.6.
Given each f (x), write f (f (x)) as a single fraction.
1
(a) f (x) =
x+1
x
(b) f (x) =
x+1
1+x
(c) f (x) =
1 x
1
(d) f (x) =
1 x

Problem 6.7.
Solve each equation.
1 1
x
+ x+1
(a) 1 1 =5
x x+1
1
x+ 1+ x1
(b) 1 =8
x+1
 2. 1/x AND ITS TRANSFORMATIONS 193

2. 1/x and Its Transformations

We begin our study of rational functions with the reciprocal function x1 . This
function exhibits two features that are common for rational functions but that
do not exist with polynomial functions: a vertical and horizontal asymptote.

Definition (Asymptote). An asymptote is a line that is related to but sepa-

rate from a function. We say a function “has an asymptote” when the graph
of the function approaches and becomes almost indistinguishable from the
asymptote.

1
The function x
has two asymptotes:

• It has the vertical asymptote x = 0: for values of x close to 0, the

value of 1/x is very large. So the graph of x1 rises (or falls) very steeply
close to x = 0 and becomes almost indistinguishable from x = 0.
• It has the horizontal asymptote y = 0: for large values of x (both
positive and negative), the value of 1/x is very small. So the graph
of x1 flattens and becomes almost indistinguishable from y = 0.

The fact that x1 becomes almost indistinguishable from these two lines is a
direct result of the division and so asymptotes are a property of rational func-
tions but not polynomial functions.
194 6. RATIONAL FUNCTIONS

Example 6.8. Sketch the graph of f (x) = x1 . Sketch f (x + 4) 1

2x 5
Example 6.9. Sketch the graph of f (x) = x 3

Solution. Because this is a division by x 3, we can use synthetic division.

2 5
3 6
2 1

In this problem, we have a remainder of 1. Division problems with remainders

can be represented as mixed numbers. For example 7 ÷ 3 = 2 13 . The mixed
number 2 13 is implicitly 2 + 13 .
1
Using this idea, the result of the division problem above is 2 + x 3
.

This is a transformation of x1 : right 3 units and up 2.

• The asymptotes will be at y = 2 and x = 3

1 5
• The y-intercept will be 2 + 0 3
= 3

• The x-intercept is found by solving 2 + x 1 3 = 0 which results in x = 5

2
 2. 1/x AND ITS TRANSFORMATIONS 195

Transformations of 1/x Problems

Problem 6.8.
Let f (x) = x1 . Write a formula for each transformation and then sketch the
transformed function.

(a) y = f (x) + 3
(b) y = f (x + 3)
(c) y = f (x + 1) + 1
1
(d) y = f (x 1) 2

Problem 6.9.
Sketch a graph of each function.
1
• a(x) = x
1
• b(x) = x

Problem 6.10.
Sketch a graph of each function.
1
• a(x) = 2 x+1
1
• b(x) = x 1
2

Problem 6.11.
Sketch a graph of each function.
x+4
• a(x) = x 1
x 5
• b(x) = x+2
3x 2
• c(x) = x+1
x+1
• d(x) = 3x 2
196 6. RATIONAL FUNCTIONS

Problem 6.12.
Let f (x) be a rational function with a horizontal asymptote at y = 2 and a
vertical asymptote at x = 5. Write a formula for f (x):

(a) in mixed number form

(b) as a single fraction

Problem 6.13.
Sketch the graph of
8
> 1
< x+5 if x  4
1
f (x) = 4
x if 4<x<4
>
: 1
x 5
if x 4

Problem 6.14.
Let g(x) be the continuous piecewise function defined below.
(
mx + b if x < 3
g(x) = 1
x 2
+ 1 if x 3
If g( 6) = 1, find m and b.

Problem 6.15.
Consider the function
1
f (x) =
x2
6x 7
This function has two vertical asymptotes. Make a hypothesis about where
they are and then check your hypothesis using Desmos.

Problem 6.16.
Find the vertical asymptotes of
1
g(x) =
x3 + x2 9x 9

Problem 6.17.
Write a rational function with vertical asymptotes at 5, 0, and 23 .
 3. VERTICAL ASYMPTOTES AND HOLES 197

3. Vertical Asymptotes and Holes

Example 6.10. Examine the following functions in Desmos. Describe simi-

larities and di↵erences especially at x = 1 and x = 7.
x+3
a(x) = 2
x 6x 7
2
x 4x 21
b(x) = 2
x 6x 7
x+3
c(x) =
x+1

Solution. In factored form, a(x) = (x x+37)(x+1)

. On its graph, we see that
a(x) has an x-intercept at x = 3, a y-intercept at 37 , and vertical asymptotes
at x = 1 and x = 7.

In factored form, b(x) = (x+3)(x 7)

(x 7)(x+1)
. b(x) has an x-intercept at x = 3 just
like a(x). It does not have an x-intercept at x = 7 though. b(x) has a vertical
asymptote at x = 1 but not one at x = 7. Somehow, the factor of x 7 in
the numerator and denominator has eliminated what we might expect to be
either an x-intercept or a vertical asymptote.

If we use Desmos to check what happens at x = 7, we see that the y-value is

undefined.

We call this a hole in the graph of a function. The function skips this single
point because x = 7 is not in the domain of the function. Otherwise, the
function looks like its continuous.

Finally, when we look at c(x), we see a graph that is almost identical with
b(x). This makes sense because c(x) is the simplified form of b(x). However,
c(x) does not have the same domain restrictions as b(x) and therefore does
not have a hole at x = 7.
198 6. RATIONAL FUNCTIONS

In general for rational functions:

• If the numerator and denominator share a root, then the graph of the
function will have a hole at that root.
• All other roots of the denominator are vertical asymptotes.

What about roots of the numerator? All other roots of the numerator are
x-intercepts.
 3. VERTICAL ASYMPTOTES AND HOLES 199

Vertical Asymptotes and Holes Problems

Problem 6.18.
Each rational function below has a hole. Find the coordinates of the hole.
2x2 +4x 6
• a(x) = x+3
x2 16
• b(x) = x2 5x+4
x3 1
• c(x) = x2 +2x 3
x3 +2x2 +x+2
• d(x) = x3 +2x2 2x 4

Problem 6.19.
Identify the intercepts, vertical asymptotes, and holes of each function (if any
of those exist for the given function). Find the coordinates of holes.
x 6
• a(x) = x 3
x2 +2x 8
• b(x) = x2 3x+2
1
• c(x) = 2x2 +5x 3
x2 +2x 15
• d(x) = 4x+20
x2 16
• e(x) = x2 4x
x3 1
• f (x) = x2 1
x2 +x+2
• g(x) = x2 +x 2
x2 9
• h(x) = x2 +9

Problem 6.20.
Consider the two functions below.
x2 + 2x 8 3(x2 + 2x 8)
a(x) = 2 b(x) =
x x 2 x2 x 2
(a) Find the coordinates of the hole in each function.
(b) Change one number in b(x) so that the coordinates of the hole are
(2, 1).

Problem 6.21.2
Let f (x) = a(2x +9x 5)
2x2 3x+1
. If f (x) has a hole at 1
2
, 22 , find a.
200 6. RATIONAL FUNCTIONS

Problem 6.22.
Write a function that has a vertical asymptote at x = 5 and a hole at ( 2, 3).

Problem 6.23.
For each part, write a function that has the given properties.

(a) vertical asymptote at x = 4

(b) vertical asymptote at x = 4; hole at (1, 1)
(c) vertical asymptotes at x = 2 and x = 1; hole at (0, 1)
(d) no vertical asymptotes; hole at (3, 4)
(e) no vertical asymptotes; denominator has degree 5; hole at (2, 2)

Problem 6.24.
Does the following function have any holes? If yes, find the coordinates. If
not, how can you be sure?
x2 x 2
h(x) = 4
x 4x3 + 2x2 + 4x 3

Problem 6.25.
The graphs of two polynomial functions g(x) and h(x) are shown below. Let
g(x)
f (x) = h(x) . Identify the x-intercepts, vertical asymptotes, and x-coordinates
of holes of f (x).
 4. HORIZONTAL ASYMPTOTES 201

4. Horizontal Asymptotes
Vertical asymptotes and holes are the results of domain restrictions in a ra-
tional function. On the other hand, horizontal asymptotes describe the end
behavior of that function.

For example, let f (x) = 2 + x1 and let’s consider what will happen when we
plug larger and larger numbers in for x. The value 2 will remain constant no
matter what x is while the fraction x1 will get smaller and smaller. Therefore,
we can say that the y values of this function will get closer and closer to 2.

In general, a rational function will share an end behavior with its quotient
when written in mixed number form.

Example 6.11. Determine whether each function has a horizontal asymp-

tote.
x3 3x2 +3x 1
• f (x) = x3 +x2 +x+1
x3 3x2 +3x 1
• g(x) = x2 +x+1

Solution. To write each of these functions in mixed number form, we need

to use long division. For f (x):

1
3 2 3 2
x +x +x+1 x 3x + 3x 1
x3 x2 x 1
2
4x + 2x 2
2
So f (x) = 1 + x34x +2x 2
+x2 +x+1
. Since 1 is the quotient of this rational function, it
has a horizontal asymptote at y = 1. For g(x):

x 4
x2 + x + 1 x3 3x2 + 3x 1
x3 x2 x
4x2 + 2x 1
4x2 + 4x + 4
6x + 3
202 6. RATIONAL FUNCTIONS

So g(x) = x 4 + x26x+3+x+1
. So g(x) shares an end behavior with y = x 4,
which is not a horizontal line. Therefore, g(x) has no horizontal asymptote.

Example 6.12. Write a rational function with a horizontal asymptote at

y = 2, a hole at x = 1 and a vertical asymptote at x = 3.

Solution. It is more convenient to work with a rational function in mixed

number form when we are trying to construct one with specific properties.
The mixed number form consists of:
remainder
f (x) = quotient +
denominator

Keep in mind:

• The quotient determines the horizontal asymptote.

• To include a hole, the remainder and denominator must share a fac-
tor.
• To include a vertical asymptote, the denominator must have a factor
that is not in the remainder.

So the rational function will look like:

(x + 1)
f (x) = 2 +
(x + 1)(x 3)
 4. HORIZONTAL ASYMPTOTES 203

Horizontal Asymptotes Problems

Problem 6.26.
Write each rational function in mixed number form and state its horizontal
asymptote if it has one.
3x2 +16x+17
• a(x) = x2 +5x+6
2x3 +x2 5x+3
• b(x) = x2 +x 2
2x2 +4x+21
• c(x) = 3x2 6x 9
x+2
• d(x) = x2 +6x 7

Problem 6.27.
Amy has once again spilled co↵ee on her math homework. Can you help her
determine whether the following functions have horizontal asymptotes?

Problem 6.28.
Let f (x) be a rational function. Consider the following three cases:

• the numerator has a higher degree than the denominator

• the numerator has a lower degree than the denominator
• the numerator and denominator have the same degree

For each case, will f (x) have a horizontal asymptote?

204 6. RATIONAL FUNCTIONS

Problem 6.29.
Determine the horizontal asymptote of each function. If the function does not
have one, say so.
x
• a(x) = x2 +5x+6
3x2
• b(x) = x2 +5x+6
8x3 1
• c(x) = (x+1)(2x 1)(3x+2)
x2 (x+2)2 (x 1)3
• d(x) = (x 1)3 (x+4)3

Problem 6.30.
x+9
Let f (x) = 1 + x2 x 6
.

(a) Write f (x) as a single fraction.

(b) Identify the intercepts and asymptotes (both horizontal and vertical).

Problem 6.31.
Let f (x) = 4 + x12x+12
2 +3x+2 . Identify the intercepts, asymptotes (both vertical and

horizontal), and holes. Find the coordinates of the holes.

Problem 6.32.
Write a function that has

• a horizontal asymptote at y = 2
• vertical asymptotes at x = 1 and x = 3.

Problem 6.33.
Write a function that has

• a horizontal asymptote at y = 2
• vertical asymptotes at x = 1 and x = 3.
• a hole at (2, 3)
 4. HORIZONTAL ASYMPTOTES 205

Problem 6.34.
The graphs of two polynomial functions g(x) and h(x) are shown below. Let
g(x)
f (x) = h(x) . Is it possible for f (x) to have a horizontal asymptote of y = 43 ?
Why or why not?

Problem 6.35.
Write a function that has a horizontal asymptote at y = 0 and x-intercepts at
x = 2 and x = 2.

Problem 6.36.
Let g(x) = 2(x+4)(x
(x+1)2
1)
.

(a) Solve the equation g(x) = 2.

(b) How is your solution related to the graph of g(x) and the horizontal
asymptote of g(x)?
206 6. RATIONAL FUNCTIONS

5. Crossing Horizontal Asymptotes

3x2 +x 5
Example 6.13. Write f (x) = x2 1
in mixed number form.

Example 6.14. Find the points at which the function f (x) = 3+ xx2 2
1
crosses
its horizontal asymptote.

Solution. We have a function f (x) written in mixed number form so we

know that its horizontal asymptote is y = 3.

If f (x) were to cross this asymptote, the y-coordinate of that crossing point
must be 3. We can use that idea to solve for x:
x 2
3=3+ 2
x 1
x 2
0= 2
x 1
0=x 2
x=2
Therefore f (x) crosses its horizontal asymptote at (2, 3).

From the above example, it becomes clear that a rational function will cross
its horizontal asymptote at the roots of its remainder term.
 5. CROSSING HORIZONTAL ASYMPTOTES 207

Crossing Asymptotes Problems

Problem 6.37.
Determine where each of the following rational functions crosses its horizontal
asymptote.
x2 +5x 14
• a(x) = x3
2x2 x 3
• b(x) = x4 4
x2 +4x
• c(x) = x2 +3x+2
2x2 +9x 2
• d(x) = x2 4x+3
2x3 +7x2 +8x 1
• e(x) = x3 +3x2 +3x+1
x3 +x2 2x+8
• f (x) = x3 8
x2 7x 18
• g(x) = 4 + x3 +1

Problem 6.38.
Write a rational function that has the following properties.

• horizontal asymptote at y = 3
• vertical asymptotes at x = 0 and x = 2
• crosses its horizontal asymptote at x = 1

Problem 6.39.
Write a rational function that has the following properties.

• horizontal asymptote at y = 1
• vertical asymptotes at x = 0 and x = 3
• hole at x = 1
• crosses its horizontal asymptote at x = 2

What are the coordinates of the hole?

208 6. RATIONAL FUNCTIONS

Problem 6.40.
Write a rational function that has the following properties.

• horizontal asymptote at y = 3
• vertical asymptote at x = 0 and x = 1
• hole at (2, 3)

Problem 6.41.
Determine where the following rational function crosses its horizontal asymp-
tote.

x2 + 3x 10
h(x) = 3+
x3 2x2 9x + 18

Problem 6.42.
Write a rational function that matches the graph below.

Problem 6.43.
Let f (x) = xN3(x)1 . Write di↵erent versions of f (x) that cross its horizontal
asymptote

• 0 times
• 1 time
• 2 times

Why is it impossible for f (x) to cross its horizontal asymptote 3 times or

more?
 5. CROSSING HORIZONTAL ASYMPTOTES 209

Problem 6.44.
If a rational function crosses its horizontal asymptote 4 times, what is the
minimum degree of its denominator?

Problem 6.45.
Write a rational function that matches the graph below.

Problem 6.46.
Write a rational function that matches the graph below.

Problem 6.47.
Write a rational function that has the following properties.

• has a horizontal asymptote at y = 5

• crosses its horizontal asymptote at x = 3
• bounces o↵ its horizontal asymptote at x = 1
• has one vertical asymptote at x = 0
210 6. RATIONAL FUNCTIONS

6. Graphing Rational Functions

Now, we put everything together to sketch the graphs of rational functions by
hand. Our sketches should reflect the following:

• dotted lines for all asymptotes, and the graph is shown to approach
each asymptote
• accurate locations of holes with coordinates labeled
• accurately represent whether a function is above, below, or crosses its
horizontal asymptote
• if there is an asymptote crossing, those coordinates should be labeled
• (sometimes) accurate locations of all intercepts with coordinates la-
beled

1
Example 6.15. Graph the rational function f (x) = x2 x 2
.

Solution. From examining the function, we know that f (x) has a horizontal
asymptote at y = 0 and vertical asymptotes at x = 2 and x = 1. We also
know that it doesn’t have any x-intercepts or asymptote crossings.

However, this does not give us a complete picture. For example, all 6 of the
graphs below fit the description in the previous paragraph.

The key insight here is that our rational function x2 1x 2 has the same sign
analysis as x2 x 2. That is because taking the reciprocal of a number does
not change its sign.
 6. GRAPHING RATIONAL FUNCTIONS 211

Here is the sign analysis of f (x).

And so the graph of f (x) will look like this.

x 1
Example 6.16. Graph g(x) = x2 +6x+9
.

Solution. In general, if f (x) = N (x)

D(x)
, it will have the same sign analysis
as N (x) · D(x). This means that if the horizontal asymptote of a rational
function is y = 0, we can apply the same principles of sign analysis we used
for polynomial functions.
x 1 x 1
Factor x2 +6x+9 = (x+3)2
and then create the sign analysis diagram for (x
2
1)(x + 3) :

When using the sign analysis diagram to sketch the graph, be aware of which
points are x-intercepts and which are vertical asymptotes. There is a vertical
asymptote at x = 3 whereas there is an x-intercept at x = 1.
212 6. RATIONAL FUNCTIONS

x2 +8x+16
Example 6.17. Graph h(x) = 3 + x3 +x2 4x 4

Solution. When we have a rational function written in mixed number form,

we can create a sign analysis diagram of the fractional part. The interpretation
of the sign analysis diagram changes in this context. Rather than indicating
whether a function is negative, the sign analysis diagram now indicates whether
the function is above or below its horizontal asymptote.

Here is the sign analysis and graph of h(x).

 6. GRAPHING RATIONAL FUNCTIONS 213

Graphing Rationals Problems

Problem 6.48.
Create a sign analysis diagram and sketch the graph of each function below.
1
• a(x) = x3 +x2 4x 4
x 3
• b(x) = x2 +2x 8
x2 2x+1
• c(x) = x3 2x2 9x+18
2x 5
• d(x) = x2 +6x+9
x+3
• e(x) = x4 +4x3 +4x2
x3 1
• f (x) = x4 13x2 +36

Problem 6.49.
Create a sign analysis diagram and sketch the graph of each function below.
1
• a(x) = 2 x3 +x2 4x 4
x 3
• b(x) = 1+ x2 +2x 8
x2 2x+1
• c(x) = 3 + x3 2x2 9x+18
2x 5
• d(x) = 4+ x2 +6x+9
x+3
• e(x) = 1 + x4 +4x3 +4x2
x3 1
• f (x) = 2 x4 13x2 +36

Problem 6.50.
Compare and contrast the following two functions in terms of their sign anal-
ysis diagrams and their graphs.
x+2 x+4
f (x) = 2 g(x) = 2
x + 10x + 24 x + 8x + 12

Problem 6.51.
A rational function has a horizontal asymptote at y = 0 and the following sign
analysis diagram. Write two possible functions that could fit this description.
214 6. RATIONAL FUNCTIONS

Problem 6.52.
A rational function has a horizontal asymptote at y = 0 and the following sign
analysis diagram. Write two possible functions that could fit this description.

Problem 6.53.
Write a rational function that has the following properties.

• has asymptotes at x = 2 and y = 1

• crosses its horizontal asymptote at x = 5
• lies above its horizontal asymptote only on (5, 1)

Problem 6.54.
Write a rational function that has the following properties.

• has asymptotes at x = 3, x = 2, and y = 1

• always lies above its horizontal asymptote

Problem 6.55.
Write a rational function that matches the graph.
 6. GRAPHING RATIONAL FUNCTIONS 215

Problem 6.56.
Write a rational function that matches the graph.

Problem 6.57.
Write a rational function that matches the graph.

Problem 6.58.
Sketch the graph of each function below.
x2 +x 6
• a(x) = x2 5x+6
x2 5x+6
• b(x) = x2 2x 3
216 6. RATIONAL FUNCTIONS

3x2 5x 2
• c(x) = x3 8
x2 1
• d(x) = x3 1
x3 x2 x+1
• e(x) = x3 +x2 x 1

Problem 6.59.
The function
3x3 + x2 38x 47
g(x) =
x3 12x 16
lies below its horizontal asymptote from ( 1, 2), ( 2, 1), and (1, 4). It lies
above its horizontal asymptote from (4, 1). Sketch the graph of g(x).
 7. PRACTICE TEST 217

7. Practice Test
3x+24
1. Sketch the graph of y = x 6
.

1
2. Let f (x) = x
and g(x) = f (x + 2) 1. Sketch the graph of g(x).

3. The graph of h(x) is shown below. If h(x) is a transformation of x1 ,

what is its vertical asymptote and y-intercept?

2
4. Let f (x) = ax +x 3
x2 +x+c
. The graph of f (x) has a hole at x = 1. Find the
vertical asymptote and x-intercept of f (x).

2
5. Let g(x) = 3x 7x+2
x3 3x 2
. The graph of g(x) has at least one hole. Find
the vertical asymptote and x-intercept of g(x).

3 2
6. Let h(x) = x3x+5x3x +4
2 +8x+4 . The graph of h(x) has a vertical asymptote

at x = 2 and a x-intercept at x = 2. Find the coordinates of the

hole of h(x).

7. Write a rational function that has the following properties.

• horizontal asymptote at y = 5
• vertical asymptotes at x = 1 and x = 2
• crosses its horizontal asymptote at x = 4
218 6. RATIONAL FUNCTIONS

• hole at (3, 4)

8. Write a rational function that has the following properties.

• horizontal asymptote at y = 7
• vertical asymptotes at x = 1
• crosses its horizontal asymptote at x = 4
• hole at (3, 5)

9. Write a rational function that has the following properties.

• horizontal asymptote at y = 0
• no vertical asymptotes
• does not cross its horizontal asymptote
• hole at (4, 1)

10. Write a rational function that fits the following graph.

3x2 +11x 2
11. Find where f (x) = 2x2 +6x 8
crosses its horizontal asymptote.

2x2 3x 5
12. Find where g(x) = 5 + x3 +3x2 +3x+1
crosses its horizontal asymptote.
 7. PRACTICE TEST 219

6x2 +4x+k
13. The function f (x) = 2x2 +x 3
crosses its horizontal asymptote at
x = 5. Find k.

2
14. The function g(x) = 4xx2+24x+21
+bx+c
has no holes or asymptote crossings.
If one of the vertical asymptotes of g(x) is x = 1, find the other one.