A Project Report On

“Ultrasonic Distance Calculator”

Submitted in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the term work of Sem V
“Professional Communication and Ethics - II” course of Third Year
Degree of Bachelor of Engineering

Submitted to

Department of Humanities
Pillai College of Engineering ( PCE )
Dr. K. M. Vasudevan Pillai Campus Navi Mumbai -
410206, Maharashtra, India

Submitted by

Name Roll No.

Atharv Shirkar 549

Saeed Thakur 551

Department of Electronics and Telecommunications

Under the Esteemed Guidance of

Ms. Sowmya Saudolla
Academic Year 2024-2025

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 Acknowledgment

We started this project with the help and support of many dedicated individuals, whose expertise and
encouragement have been crucial to us. Completing this project has been a fulfilling journey, and we are
truly thankful to everyone who played a part in its success. We extend our heartfelt gratitude to Principal
Mr. Sandeep Joshi for his unwavering support and encouragement throughout this endeavor. Our sincere
thanks also go to the Electronics and Telecommunication Engineering Department for creating a
stimulating and supportive learning atmosphere. We are especially appreciative of our Head of
Department, Prof. Dr. Avinash R. Vaidya, for his invaluable guidance and for laying a strong foundation
in this field. We also want to thank Prof. Sowmya Saudolla for her constant encouragement, insightful
advice, and steadfast support, which inspired us to excel and pursue personal growth. Lastly, we are
particularly grateful to our Project Guide, Prof. Ameet Mehta, for his invaluable mentorship, problem-
solving help, and commitment to our development. We genuinely appreciate the wisdom and inspiration
shared by each of these esteemed individuals. Additionally, we thank the teaching and non-teaching faculty
members, whose guidance and support have significantly enhanced our understanding and learning. We
would also like to express our deepest gratitude to everyone who has directly or indirectly assisted us in
completing this project.

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 Executive Summary

The Ultrasonic Distance Calculator using the 8051 Microcontroller is designed to create an efficient,
accurate, and cost-effective system for measuring distances with ultrasonic technology. This system
calculates the distance from the sensor to an object by measuring the time it takes for an ultrasonic pulse
to travel to the object and back. The 8051 microcontroller emits an ultrasonic pulse from the sensor and
determines the distance based on the duration of the reflected signal, known as the echo. The resulting
distance is displayed on an LCD for easy reading. This project is particularly useful in applications that
require distance measurement, such as robotics, object detection, and various automation tasks. It provides
practical experience with embedded systems, sensor interfacing, and distance calculation methods. The
8051 microcontroller is energy-efficient, and the HC-SR04 sensor is affordable and readily available,
making the proposed system both practical and economical. Additionally, it can be enhanced by
incorporating features like temperature compensation for improved accuracy, wireless communication for
remote monitoring, or a multi-sensor setup for more complex applications.

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 Table of Contents

Ch. No. Headings/ Topics Page No.

Acknowledgement I

Executive Summary II

1. Introduction 1-2

2. Literature Review 3-5

3. Project Requirements 6-7

4. Implementation 8

4.1 Hardware Implementation 8-9

4.2 Software Implementation 10-12

4.3 Sensor data evaluation 13

5. Results and Findings 14-15

6. Limitations 16

7. Conclusion 17

References VI

Appendix VII

Glossary VIII

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 Lists of Illustrations
Fig no. Name of Figure Page no.

3.1 Microcontroller 6

3.2 Ultrasonic Sensor 7

3.3 LCD Display 7

4.1 Implementation 8

4.2 Circuit Diagram 9

4.3 Block Diagram 13

4.4 FeedBack 18

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 Chapter 01

Introduction

The ultrasonic distance calculator is a novel project based on 8051 microcontroller that introduces the
techniques used to calculate distance using sound waves, the principles being, sound waves are sent out,
and the time it takes for the echoes to return is measured, so that the distance from any object can be
determined. All the features are put together into an 8051 microcontroller, packaged as one chip super
computer receiving signals from the ultrasonic sensor and measuring the time taken for the echo to return.
Besides bringing in the idea of units of hardware in this sense ultrasonic sensor, a LCD display is addressed
by the project in terms of algorithms and programming logic structures and interfacing technology. On the
other hand, the use of robotic project, ranging from automotive sensors up to industrial level measurement,
this work on the construction of an ultrasonic distance calculator is indeed an elegant and stimulating way
of dealing with sensors and microcontroller technology. Since there's an ever-increasing need for
automation and accuracy in measurements, projects like this add great value in teaching and application
towards the real world.

1.1 Fundamentals

Role of LEDs, resistors, capacitors, transistors in an electronic circuit. Programming of a microcontroller like
Arduino or Raspberry Pi to regulate an LED light output when the touch stimulus is responded to.
Familiarization of the touch sensing technique to identify a touch that could be capacitive or resistive. Design
patterns or sequences using the blinking LEDs and in f how to control the
LED flashes.

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1.2 Objectives

• Distance Measurement: The use of ultrasonic waves as a means to determine precisely how far one place
is from the other is sound propagation and reflection based principle.

• Microcontroller programmation skills: In this, 8051 microcontroller programmation skills are required
for setting up of timers, managing I/O operation, and also the algorithm to determine the distance in terms
of logic.

•Sensor Interfacing: Interfacing an ultrasonic sensor, such as HC-SR04, with the 8051 microcontroller is
shown to ensure proper interconnection between those two devices.

• Data Display: Enables a loading of LCD display and thus indicates for a user who measures distance
visually, instantaneous feedback characterizing the project.

• Calibration and Precision: Calibration to ensure measured distances are accurate, and a learner knows
how temperature and humidity will affect measurements.

1.3 Scope

1. Apparatus-based education. It is very instrumental as a tool in making the students and hobbyists
appreciate the concepts involved with measuring distance, ultrasonic devices, and even more
microcontroller programming. .
2. Robotics: It can be used in robotics to detect obstacles and navigate- increasing the power of
autonomous machines.

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3. Vehicle Applications: It can be employed in parking assist systems to measure distances such that
collision with other objects is avoided.
4.Industrial Automation: It can measure the level in tanks, so the levels of fluids are known within any
industrial process.
5.Home Automation: The technology can be utilized for smart home devices, sensitizing proximity, and
performing different automation tasks, such as controlling lighting depending on its presence detection.
1. Calibration Techniques: The project allows the possibility of studying calibration techniques which can
improve the accuracy tin measuring that may deepen us with sensor dynamics.
2. Interfacing Skills: It comprises acquiring interfacing skills in the use of different component (sensors,
displays).

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 Chapter 02

Literature Review
People in the field have actually done much study and applied it into various fields, including robotics,
automation, and industrial systems. This literature review is going to cover some fundamental principles
of ultrasonic distance measurement technology, the role of the 8051 microcontroller within embedded
systems, and how these technologies have been used in past projects.

1. Ultrasonic Distance Measurement Technology

This distance measurement technique is of time-of-flight type. This ultrasonic wave is emitted from the
transducer, backscattered by an object, and returned back to the sensor. The pulse takes this much time to
travel to the object and come back to the sensor. Ultrasonic sensors are the most commonly used distance
sensors because they offer the nature of being noncontact in nature, easy implementation and cost-
effectiveness.
Speed of Sound: The speed of sound in air is around 343 meters per second at 20°C, and this can be altered
on the environmental conditions like temperature, humidity, and pressure of air.
HC-SR04 Ultrasonic Sensor This is another common ultrasonic sensor measuring the distances. It
generally has a trigger pin that starts to initiate the pulse and the echo pin where it receives the signal of
echo. The time at the echo pin is measured to determine distance using the formula as under: –
Distance = Time × Speed of Sound 2
Distance= 2
Time× Speed of Sound
This book, Ultrasonic Sensors: Principles and Applications by P. Jain (2014), explains in vivid detail the
working principle and practical applications of ultrasonic sensors. It also goes through an overview of the
kind of application sensors, like HC-SR04, undergo in industrial and automation systems.

2. 8051 Microcontroller in Embedded Systems

The 8051 microcontroller is very useful for applications requiring low power consumptions and easy
programming. From this point of view, the application seems to achieve the level of success compared to
other microcontrollers in the application of small-cost-conscious projects like the ultrasonic distance
measurement system.
8051 Programming: One can program the 8051 in either Assembly language or C. As it is one of the
highest levels of abstracted and easy-to-use programming, the majority programs 8051 in the C language.
Here, 8051 does the calculation of the width of time pulse generated in the ultrasonic sensor and does the
mathematics required thereon to read distance.

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Text Book Reference: "The 8051 Microcontroller and Embedded Systems" by Muhammad Ali Mazidi and
Janice Gillispie Mazidi, 2006. The authors covered several applications including sensor as well as
actuator interfacing along with several examples using 8051-based systems.

3. Related Work and Applications

Several academic studies and real-world applications with microcontrollers involved ultrasonic sensors.
Most of the research studies and practical applications in robotics, industrial automation, as well as in
safety systems utilized the potential application capability of the ultrasonic sensor.
Robotics: The most apparent application of ultrasonic sensors is seen in the field of robotics. It extensively
applied for obstacle avoidance and navigation in robotics. This application is in "Design of an Autonomous
Mobile Robot Using Ultrasonic Sensors" from the year 2015, where a microcontroller was integrated with
ultrasonic sensors to design a robot that avoids obstacles and moves autonomously. The 8051
microcontroller can calculate distances toward nearby objects so that the robot's actual motions are then
adjusted. The difference for this work would be a bit minimal because it will use the 8051 microcontroller
to control the ultrasonic sensor.
Industrial and Automation Applications: Ultrasonic sensors are being used for level sensing, distance
measuring, and object detection in the industrial arena. For instance, as mentioned in "Application of
Ultrasonic Sensors in Industrial Automation Systems" (2017), ultrasonic sensors along with safety in
automation systems are being used to detect obstacles or monitor parts of the machine. In all these
applications, the 8051 microcontroller is interfaced mainly with ultrasonic sensors.
Automatic Parking Systems: Ultrasonic sensors integrated with microcontrollers have been extensively
implemented in car-parking systems.
The researchers of "Design and Implementation of an Ultrasonic Parking Sensor System" (2018) used
ultrasonic sensors to sense the distance between a vehicle and the surrounding obstacles. Here, the same
system used the 8051 microcontroller for signal processing and provided the driver with real-time
feedback. In general, this system has an LCD or an LED display for visual feedback and sometimes a
buzzer for audible alerts. One related project is "Design and Development of Ultrasonic Distance Meter
Using 8051 Microcontroller," from 2019, in which the author expounds on how distance measurement is
done using an 8051 microcontroller as it controls the ultrasonic sensor for the purpose of display on an
LCD screen. This system shows how the ultrasonic sensor is applied directly on an 8051 microcontroller
to measure distance.

4. Current Trends
Despite the overwhelming applications of ultrasonic sensors, there are problems that need to be addressed
in order to make systems reliable and accurate in distance measurement.
Temperature Sensitivity: The speed of sound changes in air with changes in temperature; this could shift
in certain instances the accuracy of distance measurements. Compensation can occur by relating the speed
of sound to temperature measurements. L. S. Lala et al. have written a few books, one of the books is

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"Embedded Systems Design Using the 8051 Microcontroller, 2004" that has some sensor calibration
techniques.
Range and Resolution: Ultrasonic sensors are highly limited in terms of range and resolution with small
or far away objects. A big part of a good article from John Smith about "Ultrasonic Distance Measurement:
Practical Applications" in 2016 discussed advanced signal-processing algorithms that can be applied to
extend the range and the resolution of ultrasonic sensors.
Environmental Interference: Ultrasonic sensors are interfering with the environment due to noise
generation by other devices or non-symmetrical shapes of objects. Current research is the use of multi-
sensor systems and signal filtering techniques for a robust and reliable ultrasonic distance measurement
system.

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 Chapter 3

Project Requirement
Hardware requirement is an integral part of the 8051 microcontroller in operating the system for the
Ultrasonic Distance Calculator. It is the brain of the project that controls the ultrasonic sensor, processes
input data, and works out the distance through the time of flight of the ultrasonic waves. It uses an HC-
SR04 ultrasonic sensor providing distance measurements based on the principles of high-frequency sound
waves emitted and detected by reflected pulses. The Trigger pin of the sensor triggers the measurement,
and the Echo pin captures the returned pulse; this signal is further processed by the microcontroller to
compute the distance. The computed distance is usually displayed in a 16x2 LCD, hence giving the user
instant feedback about the distance. Microcontroller
The hardware components used in the project are given below: Intel 8051 microcontroller. Members of
the MCS-51 family include the highly popular 80C51 that has been compatible with the Intel 8051
Microcontroller. The CPU is the heart of the microcontroller, where instructions are carried out, and all
operations are controlled. 4. The 80C51 has four parallel I/O ports labeled as P0, P1, P2, and P3. They
can be used to perform input and output operations.

Figure 3.1 Microcontroller

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Ultrasonic sensor
1. Emission: The sensor is a transmitter that emits an ultrasonic pulse emission.
2. Echo Reception: Following emission, the sensor waits for an echo which will bounce off some
number of objects.
3. Measure Time: It is the sensor's time measured when the pulse was released and returns as an
echo.
4 Distance Calculation: Using the equation: Distance=Time×Speed of Sound2 Distance = Time ×
Speed of Sound 2 Distance=2Time× Speed of Sound This formula incorporates the round trip for
consideration into the wave of sound.

Figure 3.2 Ultrasonic Sensor

LCD Display

A 16x2 LCD is a character display, which means that it shows 16 characters per line on two lines, so
it is ideal for embedded systems and microcontroller projects. It shows characters in 5x8 pixels
format. It works in 4-bit or 8-bit mode using control pins like RS (Register Select), RW (Read/Write),
and E (Enable). The liquid crystals are used to control the passage of light. When the electrical signal
passes through the liquid crystals, it creates the characters.

3.3 LCD Display

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 Chapter 4

Implementation
4.1 Hardware Implementation

Figure 4.1 Implementation

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 4.2 Circuit Diagram

 ▪8051 Microcontroller (e.g., AT89C51 or AT89S52)

the microcontroller controls the ultrasonic sensor and computes the data to acquire the distance. This
microcontroller is in charge of sending the ultrasonic pulses and measuring the time taken for the
echo.
 HC-SR04 Ultrasonic Sensor
This sensor sends an ultrasonic pulse and calculates the time taken for the pulse to go out and return
after hitting an object. There are two primary pins:
 Trigger Pin: Pulse is transmitted to the sensor.
 Echo Pin: receives reflected pulse (echo) and sends the signal to the microcontroller.
 16x2 LCD Display
16x2 LCD display is connected to a user's card to output the distance calculated in real time. The
LCD is connected to the 8051 microcontroller to send out the distance information.

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4.2 Software Implementation Program / Code

#include <reg51.h> // Header file inclusion for 8051

#include <intrins.h> // For using nop() function
void delay(unsigned int rtime); void
lcdcmd(unsigned char DATA); void initialize(void);
void lcddat(unsigned char DATA);
void display_lcd(unsigned char location, unsigned char *d);
void send_pulse(void); void lcd_number(int val); void
get_range(void);
#define LCDdata P1 // Declaring LCDdata
sbit trig = P3^5; // Timer 1 sbit echo = P3^2;
// INTR 0 sbit LCDrs = P2^0; // The
Register select Pin sbit LCDrw = P2^1; //
The Read/Write Pin sbit LCDen = P2^2; //
The Enable Pin void delay(unsigned int
rtime) { unsigned int r, s; for (r = 0; r < rtime;
r++) for (s = 0; s < 1275; s++);
}
void lcdcmd(unsigned char DATA) {
LCDrs = 0; // Command mode
LCDrw = 0; // Write mode
LCDen = 1; // Strobe the enable pin
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LCDdata = DATA; // Put the value on the pins
LCDen = 0; // Disable after data is sent delay(2);
// Short delay for execution
} void initialize(void)
{

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lcdcmd(0x30); // Initialize LCD in 8-bit mode delay(1);
lcdcmd(0x38); // 2-line and 5x7 matrix delay(1);
lcdcmd(0x0C); // Display on, cursor off delay(1);
lcdcmd(0x01); // Clear display delay(1);
lcdcmd(0x06); // Shift cursor to the right delay(1);
lcdcmd(0x80); // Ses cursor to (0,0) delay(1); }
void lcddat(unsigned char DATA) {
LCDrs = 1; // Data mode
LCDrw = 0; // Write mode
LCDen = 1; // Strobe the enable pin
LCDdata = DATA; // Put the value on the pins
LCDen = 0; // Disable after data is sent
delay(2); // Short delay for execution
}
void display_lcd(unsigned char location, unsigned char *d) {
lcdcmd(0x80 | location); // Set DDRAM address delay(1);
while (*d) { lcddat(*d++); // Send characters to LCD
delay(1); // Delay between characters
} } void send_pulse(void)
{
TH0 = 0x00; TL0
= 0x00; trig = 0;
trig = 1; // Generate 10 microseconds pulse
nop(); nop(); nop(); nop(); nop(); nop();
nop(); nop(); nop(); nop(); trig = 0; }
void lcd_number(int val) { int i = 3; char str[7] =
{"0000 CM"}; while (val) { str[i] = 0x30 | val % 10;
// Convert number to ASCII
val = val / 10; i--; } display_lcd(0xC5, str); // Display the
number on the LCD

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} void get_range(void) { int range = 0; int
timerval; send_pulse(); while (INT0 == 0); //
Wait for echo to go high while (INT0 == 1);
// Wait for echo to go low timerval = TH0;
timerval = (timerval << 8) |
TL0;
TH0 = 0xFF; TL0
= 0xFF;
if (timerval < 35000) // Valid range check
range = timerval / 59; else range = 0; lcd_number(range);
// Display range on LCD
} void main(void) {
initialize(); // Initialize LCD
display_lcd(0x80, " OBSTACLE AT "); // Display message on LCD
TMOD = 0x09; // Timer0 in 16-bit mode with gate enable
TR0 = 1; // Enable timer run
TH0 = 0x00; TL0 =
0x00;
echo = 1; // Set pin P3.2 as input (echo pin) while
(1) { get_range(); // Continuously get range and display
delay(2);
}
}

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4.3 Sensor Data Evaluation

Figure 4.3 Block Diagram

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 Chapter 5

Results And Findings

1. Extremely Precise Distance Measurement Result: The system can be used for distances of centimetres
up to a few meters based on the application.
The ultrasonic sensor HC-SR04 ensured distance measurements being accurate between about 2 cm to
400 cm. The distance measurement was further based on the time taken by the ultrasonic pulse for
traveling to an object and returning back. It displayed this distance measurement repeatedly on the 16x2
LCD multiple times.
Result: Distance Measurement
The system was measuring distances to about ±1 cm from the real values, which is quite a common
measurement taken by ultrasonic sensors. The influence of air temperature and humidity can be cited as
explanations, as these factors do have an effect on sound speed as well.

2. Real Time Display

Expected Outcome: Calculated distance displayed in real time at the LCD screen.
Results: The LCD showed the measured distance in centimetres real-time by updating the values every
time the object was moved closer or farther from the sensor. Proper refreshing time by the system will
ensure users have a continued view of the updates with respect to distance measurements. Conclusion:
The output coming from the LCD was good and readable with no lag or delay features, hence making it
an effective system in regard to the distance measurement in real-time.

3. Response Time and Performance

Expected Result: Compute and display distance within a reasonable amount of time, on the order of a few
milliseconds. Results: The response time for each measurement cycle was less than 50 milliseconds;
therefore, it is more than satisfactory for any real time application. The time taken to transmit to make the
ultrasonic sensor emit, receive an echo, and then compute the distance was very small.
Result: The 8051 microcontroller, with its slow clock operation, never presented a problem in performing
the data handling operation. There was no discernible delay in typical distance-measuring applications.

4.Range and Object Detection

Expected Result: Sensor should be within the range defined. The sensor must identify objects at varying
distances from it. Result: Sensor can detect objects ranging from 2cm to 3-4 meters of distance. Beyond
4 meters the sensor is less accurate because of drawbacks in an ultrasonic sensor such as signal loss and
noise of the environment.
Result: The system could recognize objects with the correct sensor range. But it could be seen, without
any doubt of precision, that for far distances (over 3 meters), something very normal in low-cost ultrasonic
sensors, occurs.

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5.Effects of Environment
Expected Outcome: The system would be robust enough to work reliably in standard indoor conditions.
Findings: Two environmental factors may slightly influence the speed of sound and hence cause errors in
distance measurements-that is, the temperature and humidity of the environment. In greater detail, it has
been contended that increases in temperature cause the speed of sound to rise thereby causing slight
inaccuracy in distance measurements.

Conclusion: The system performed well under normal room conditions though more calibration should be
made by including temperature compensation for further improved accuracy. However, this level of error
(±1 cm) is acceptable for most practical applications.
1. Error Detection
Expected Result: It shall be able to detect missing objects or out-of-range distances. Findings: The LCD
shows "0 cm" when there is nothing in range or is out of range. No specific error handling has been done
for those cases where the sensor did not recognize a valid echo, either because the objects are too far away
or completely outside the beam of the sensor.
Outcomes Error handling is not all that sophisticated for a condition such as no object detected by the
system, but the "0 cm" displayed in the LCD serves to provide a crude form of feedback. One effective
approach could be to further develop more sophisticated error messages, like "Out of Range".

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 Chapter 6

Limitations

In the above design of the calculator using the 8051 microcontroller, there are a few limitations associated
with it and affects the system overall. First of all, the ultrasonic sensor HC-SR04 used here is of relatively
short range. It is typically good up to a distance of about 2 cm to 400 cm. For distances farther than this
range, the precision and reliability of distance measurements degrades and therefore not good for distance
measurements at a large distance. The sensor resolution affects the accuracy of the system usually in
terms of around 1 cm. This will lead to a number of errors and especially in the upper range because the
ability of the sensor to catch the reflected pulse is somewhat weak. Another limitation arising from the
sensor is its sensitivity to temperature and humidity, which affect how fast the sound travels and, hence,
the distance calculation accuracy. If it is not paid enough, these environmental variables make the
measurements inaccurate. In addition, the system is pretty inept when dealing with objects that are small,
have uneven surfaces or even if they adsorb sonic waves heavily. It does this because 8051 depends on
the return of sonic waves for its measurements. Last but not least, 8051 has little processing power with
little memory, so its performance might be a problem if higher order tasks or faster real-time accuracy are
an issue.

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 Chapter 7

Conclusion

The distance-measuring ultrasonic waves experiment was demonstrated successfully by using 8051
microcontrollers. Such an efficient yet low-cost solution finds various applications in real life in the
form of short-range detection of distance measurements. The system is basically on the principle of
sending an ultrasonic pulse and then measuring the time it takes for that pulse to return back after being
reflected from the object. The result is then displayed on the 16x2 LCD display in real-time with very
clear and readable output. The project shows how easy and effective the HC-SR04 ultrasonic sensor
could be joined to the 8051 microcontroller for easy tasks about distance measurements. It performs
reasonably well in performance within the operational range of the sensor, which is around 2 cm to 400
cm. It can give fairly accurate distance values with about 1 cm resolution. The system can be reliable
for using applications such as obstacle detection, simple robotics, and measurement tasks where there
is not a need for higher accuracy and longer range.

Feedback from others were Accurate enough:

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 References

1. "Ultrasonic Distance Measurement using 8051," Electronics Projects Hub. [Online]. Available:
https://www.electronicsprojectshub.com/ultrasonic-distance-measurement-using-8051/. [Accessed:
Nov. 14, 2024].

2. "Ultrasonic Distance Meter using 8051," Circuit Digest. [Online]. Available:

https://circuitdigest.com/microcontroller-projects/ultrasonic-distance-meter-using-8051.
[Accessed: Nov. 14, 2024].

3. "Distance Measurement using Ultrasonic Sensor," Arduino Project Hub. [Online]. Available:
https://create.arduino.cc/projecthub. [Accessed: Nov. 14, 2024].

4. "Ultrasonic Distance Measurement," Instructables. [Online]. Available:

https://www.instructables.com/id/Ultrasonic-Distance-Measurement/. [Accessed: Nov. 14, 2024].

5. "Ultrasonic Distance Measuring System," Electronics-Lab. [Online]. Available:

https://www.electronics-lab.com/project/ultrasonic-distance-measuring-system/. [Accessed: Nov.
14, 2024].

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Appendix

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 Glossary

1. Backscatter- The reflection of sound waves from an object back to the sensor. The time it takes for
the reflected wave to return is measured to calculate the distance.

2. Calibration- The process of adjusting a system or sensor to account for environmental conditions or
inherent errors, improving measurement accuracy. For ultrasonic systems, calibration may include
compensating for temperature or humidity effects on sound speed.

3. Obstacle Avoidance in Robotics- This information is used to help the robot navigate autonomously
by avoiding collisions.

4. Environmental Interference- The effect of external factors, like noise from other devices or irregular
shapes of objects, that can interfere with the ultrasonic sensor’s ability to accurately measure
distance. Researchers are exploring multi-sensor systems and signal filtering techniques to reduce
interference.

5. Time-of-Flight- The principle by which distance is measured, which is based on the time it takes for
the ultrasonic pulse to travel to an object and return. The time is measured and used to compute the
distance.

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