FUNDAMENTALS OF COMPUTERS

FUNDAMENTALS OF COMPUTERS
UNIT – I:
Introduction to computers: What is a computer, Characteristics of computers, Generations of
computers, Classifications of computers, Basic computer organization, Applications of
computers. Input and Output devices: Input devices, Output devices, Softcopy devices,
Hardcopy devices. Computer Memory and Processors: Introduction, Memory Hierarchy,
Processor, registers, Cache memory, Primary Memory, Secondary storage devices, Magnetic
tapes, floppy disks, hard disks, optical drives, USB flash drivers, Memory cards, Mass storage
devices, Basic processor architecture.
CHAPTER - I: INTRODUCTION TO COMPUTERS
1. WHAT IS A COMPUTER ?
Computer is an electronic device, which accepts data from the user, stores it, process it and
gives out accurate information at a faster rate according to the user instructions.
Data means the raw facts and figures entered into the system. Information means processed
data. A computer is a data processor.
2. CHARACTERISTICS OF COMPUTERS
The characteristics of the computer system are as follows −

Speed: A computer works with much higher speed and accuracy compared to humans while
performing mathematical calculations. Computers can process millions (1,000,000) of
instructions per second. The time taken by computers for their operations is microseconds and
nanoseconds.
Accuracy: Computers perform calculations with 100% accuracy. Errors may occur due to data
inconsistency or inaccuracy.
Diligence: A computer can perform millions of tasks or calculations with the same consistency
and accuracy. It doesn’t feel any fatigue or lack of concentration. Its memory also makes it
superior to that of human beings.
Versatility: Versatility refers to the capability of a computer to perform different kinds of works
with same accuracy and efficiency.
Reliability: A computer is reliable as it gives consistent result for similar set of data i.e., if we
give same set of input any number of times, we will get the same result.
Automation: Computer performs all the tasks automatically i.e. it performs tasks without
manual intervention.
Memory: A computer has built-in memory called primary memory where it stores data.
Secondary storage are removable devices such as CDs, pen drives, etc., which are also used to
store data.

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3.HISTORY AND GENERATIONS OF COMPUTERS

HISTORY:
• The first mechanical calculating apparatus was the abacus, which was invented in
500B.C in Babylon.
• In 1642, Blaise Pascal designed a calculator, called as Pascal’s calculator.
• In 1823, Charles Babbage, aided by Augusta Ada Byron, designed a programmable
calculating machine, named as Analytical Engine, input was given through Punched cards.
Charles Babbage was referred as “Father Of Computers”
• With the availability of electric motors in 1800, a host of motor-operated calculating
machines based on pascal’s calculator was developed.
• A mechanical machine driven by single electric motor was developed in 1889 by Herman
Hollirith to count, sort, and collate data stored on punched cards.
• In 1941, Konrad Zuse developed the first electronic calculating computer, Z3. It was used
by Germans in World War II.
• Alan Turing is credited with developing the electronic computer in 1943, named as
Clossus, it was a fixed program computer, it was not programmable.
• J.W.Mauchly and S.P.Eckert of Pennsylvania university completed the first general
purpose electronic digital computer in 1946. It was called the ENIAC, Electronic Numerical
Integrator And Calculator.
• It used 17000 vacuum tubes, over 500 miles of wires, weighed 30 tons and performed
around 100000 operations per second.
• The IAS(Institute for Advanced Study) computer system, under development till 1952 by
John von Neumann and others at the Princeton Institute, designed the structure of general
purpose computers.
• In the early 1950’s, Sperry-Rand Corporation launched UNIVAC I, UNIVAC II,
UNIVAC 1103 series, IBM brought out Mark I and 701 series. All these machines used vacuum
tubes.
• The transistor was invented at Bell labs in 1948. In 1958, IBM(International Business
Machines), ICL(International Computers Limited), DEC(Digital Equipment Corporation) and
others brought out general purpose computers using transistor. These were faster, smaller in size,
weighed less, needed less power and were more reliable.
• At Texas Instruments, Jack Killby invented the Integrated Circuit in 1958, that led to the
development of digital IC’s in the 1960’s. This led to the development of IBM 360/370, PDP 8/1
and HP 9810 in 1966, these computers used medium and small scale integrated circuits(MSI and
SSI).
• In 1971, Intel Corporation announced the development of single chip microprocessor
4004, a VLSI circuit.
• In 1972, the 8008 8-bit microprocessor was introduced. The improved 8-bit
microprocessors Intel 8080 and MC6800 appeared in 1973.
• Intel 8085, 8-bit microprocessor was introduced as a general purpose processor in 1974.
In 1978, the 8086, and in 1979, the 8088 microprocessor was released.
• Desktop computers were available from 1975onwards. In 1981, IBM used the 8088 in the
personal computer.
• The 80286 16-bit microprocessor cam in 1983, the 32-bit microprocessor 80386 arrived
in 1986 and 80486 arrived in 1989.

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• With the introduction of the Pentium in 1993, a highly improved personal computer was
available at an affordable price.
• With the development of the desktop computers, in the form of PC’s, and networking the
scenario of computing has undergone a sea change. Now portable computers such as laptops, palm
tops, PDA’s , Tablet PC’s and smart phones are available.
• Along with the development of hardware, programming languages were developed. In
the 1950’s, Assembly language was developed for UNIVAC computers.
• In 1957, IBM developed FORTRAN language. Later several programming languages,
such as ALGOL, COBOL, BASIC, Pascal, C, C++, ADA, JAVA and PYTHON were developed.
• With the creation of Operating System(OS), a supervisor program for managing
computer resources and controlling the CPU to perform various jobs.
• Different OS’s are UNIX, MS-DOS, MS-WINDOWS, and LINUX
GENERATIONS OF COMPUTERS
Generation Technology Operating System Year Specific Computers
1 Vacuum Tubes None 1945 Mark 1
2 Transistor None 1956 IBM1401, ICL 1901,
B5000, MINSK-2
3 SSI and MSI (IC) Yes 1964 IBM S/360/370, UNIVAC
1100, HP 2100A, HP 9810
4 LSI and VLSI Yes 1971 ICL 2900, HP 9845A,
(Microprocessor) VAX 11/780, ALTAIR
8800, IBM PC
5 HAL (Hardware Yes Present --
Abstraction Layer) and
Beyond
4. CLASSIFICATION OF COMPUTERS
Most designs of today computers are based on concepts developed by John von Neumann
and are referred as the von Neumann architecture.
Computers can be classified in to various types based on size and capacity, purpose and
Technology. Based on Technology computers are of Analog Computers, Digital Computers,
and Hybrid computers.
Analog Computers:
• Analog computers use continuous physical quantities like pressure, temperature, length,
voltage etc. and convert them into numeric values.
• They are specifically used for scientific and engineering applications.
• Analog computers are used to measure analog signals. These are used in hospitals,
weather forecasting centres, navy, military, rocket launching centres etc.
Digital Computers:
• Most commonly used computers are digital computers. They represent data like numbers,
letters, or symbols in binary form.
• Digital computers are used to measure digits, used to do calculations. These are used in
business, education, reservations, home applications etc.
Hybrid Computers:
• Hybrid computers have the combined features of analog and digital computers. These are
used to measure analog and digitals.

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• They are used in hospitals, weather forecasting centres, navy, military, rocket launching
centres etc.
Characteristics Analog computers Digital computers Hybrid computers
Type of signal Continuous signal Discrete binary Continuous and
binary
Accuracy Very low Very high Intermediate
Speed High speed and Lower speed & series Intermediate speed
parallel operation processing of instructions
Time to get results Output is continuously Results available only after Much lesser than
available entire computation process digital computer
is over
Precision Limited High Limited
Based on purpose computers are of General purpose and special purpose computers.
General purpose computers :
• These are used to perform variety of tasks ranging from scientific, business applications.
They are multipurpose computers. They are generally found in homes and offices.
• They are used to prepare documents, letters, reports, financial reports, data recording and
analysis and for playing games etc.
Special purpose computers:
• These are designed to perform only specialised tasks like weather forecasting, space
research, air traffic control, medical diagnostic stc.
• They are designed with specific instructions to perform specific type of work only.’
Based on size and capacity, computers are of micro, mini, main frame and super computers.
Micro computers:
• The micro computer has been intended to meet the personal computing needs of an
individual.
• It consists of a microprocessor chip, a memory system, interface units and various I/O
ports , typically resident in a mother board.
• Desktop computer is a micro computer sufficient to fit on a desk, also called PC.
• Laptop computer is a portable computer with an integrated screen and keyboard. These
are smaller in size and can be carried to anywhere. They are costlier than desktops.
• Palmtop computers/digital diary/notebook/PDAs are hand sized microcomputers having
no keyboard. The screen serves both as an input and output device.
• Tablet computer has features of the notebook but it can accept input from a pen. It is also
a portable computer.
• Smart phones are cellular phones that function both as a phone and a small PC. They may
use a stylus or a pen, or may have a small keyboard. They can be connected to the
internet wirelessly. They are used to access the e-mail, download files, play gamesetc.
Mini computers:
• A mini computer is powerful enough to be used by multiple users between 10 to 100 but
is smaller in size and memory capacity and cheaper than mainframes.
• These are generally known as servers.
• Main examples were the DEC VAX and the IBM AS/400.

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Mainframe computers:
• A mainframe computer supports a vast number of users to simultaneously and remotely.
It provides multi-user facility, if can process large amounts of data at very high speeds
and support many input, output and auxiliary storage devices.
• These computers are very large in size, and expensive.
• Mainframe uses its power to execute many programs concurrently.
• The IBM 370 and IBM 3090 are examples of mainframe computers.
Super computers:
• Supercomputer is the most expensive and fastest type of computer that performs at or
near the currently highest operational rate for computers.
• A Cray super computer is a typical example. India is using Param and ANURAG super
computers.
• These are employed for specialized applications that require immense amounts of
mathematical calculations such as weather forecasting, nuclear energy research and
petroleum explorations etc.
5. BASIC COMPUTER ORGANIZATION
Computer is an electronic device, which accepts data from the user, stores it, process it
and gives out accurate information at a faster rate according to the user instructions.
Data means the raw facts and figures entered into the system. Information means
processed data. A computer is a data processor.

CPU

Main Memory

INPUT OUTPUT
Control Unit
DEVICE DEVICE

Arithmetic &
Logical Unit

Secondary
memory

BLOCK DIAGRAM OF A COMPUTER

Input devices are used to enter data and instructions in to the CPU. Most commonly used
input devices are: keyboard, mouse, microphone, scanner, web camera, joystick, OMR,OCR,
MICR, Bar-code reader etc.

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The CPU is an IC silicon chip, also known as micro processor. It consists of Registers, ALU,
and CU.
Registers are high speed storage device, and reserved for special purposes. For example, the
Instruction Register(IR) holds current instruction being executed, PC (Program Counter) holds
the address of the next instruction to be executed, a set of general purpose registers used for
temporary storage.
ALU(Arithmetic and Logical Unit) performs all arithmetic and logical operations, such as
addition, subtraction, comparisons etc.
Control Unit(CU) coordinates the processing by controlling the transfer of data and
instructions between main memory and the registers in the CPU. It also coordinates the
execution of the ALU to perform operations on data stored in registers. A control and timing
circuit directs all the components of computer by generating control signals.
CPU speed is measured in Megahertz(MHz) means one million cycles per second or
Gigahertz(GHz) means one billion cycles per second.
Memory is used to store instructions and data either temporarily or permanently. Data is
stored in memory as binary digits, called bits.
Memory is of 1. Primary Memory 2. Secondary memory
1. Primary Memory: Primary memory is also known as Main Memory or Internal Memory. It
is of RAM and ROM.
RAM stands for Random Access Memory, it stores user instructions and data
temporarily. It has a limited capacity and it loses data when power is off. It is a semiconductor
memory. RAM is of Static RAM and Dynamic RAM.
A special type of memory is inserted between the RAM and the CPU is called Cache
memory. The Cache memory is high speed and smallest semi conductor memory, which can
speed up the CPU. It acts as a buffer between the CPU and the main memory. It holds the
frequently used data by the CPU. Cache memory is faster than the main memory. It takes less
access time than main memory. It works like a RAM. It is very expensive.
ROM stands for Read Only Memory, it stores system details permanently. It is of
PROM(Programmable Read Only Memory), EPROM(Erasable PROM), EEPROM(Electrically
Erasable PROM).
2. Secondary Memory: It is also known as external memory. It is a non-volatile/permanent
memory, slower than the main memory. Storage devices are used for storing data/information
permanently.
CPU does not access these memories directly, instead they are accessed via input-output
routines. The contents of storage devices are transferred to the main memory first, and then CPU
can access from RAM.
These are magnetic and optical memories, used as backup memory. It is a non-volatile
memory, data is permanently stored even the power is off.
They are used to store bulk amount of data permanently, slower than primary memories.
Secondary memory is used to store data, instructions permanently. It is of Hard disk,
Floppy disk, CD, DVD, Pen drive , Memory card etc.
Output devices are used to get the information from the CPU. Output devices mirror the
input data or show the output results of the operations on the input data or print the data.
Different output devices are monitor, speakers, printer, and plotter. Monitor and
speakers provide soft copy output. Printer and plotter provides hardcopy output.
Most common output device is monitor or VDU(Visual Display Unit).

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6. APPLICATIONS OF COMPUTERS
Computers play a role in every field of life. They are used in homes, business,
educational institutions, research organizations, medical field, government offices,
entertainment, etc.
Home: Computers are used at homes for several purposes like online bill payment, watching
movies or shows at home, home tutoring, social media access, playing games, internet access,
etc. They provide communication through electronic mail. They help to avail work from home
facility for corporate employees. Computers help the student community to avail online
educational support.
Medical Field: Computers are used in hospitals to maintain a database of patients’ history,
diagnosis, X-rays, live monitoring of patients, etc. Surgeons nowadays use robotic surgical
devices to perform delicate operations, and conduct surgeries remotely. Virtual reality
technologies are also used for training purposes. It also helps to monitor the fetus inside the
mother’s womb.
Entertainment: Computers help to watch movies online, play games online; act as a virtual
entertainer in playing games, listening to music, etc. MIDI instruments greatly help people in the
entertainment industry in recording music with artificial instruments. Videos can be fed from
computers to full screen televisions. Photo editors are available with fabulous features.
Industry: Computers are used to perform several tasks in industries like managing inventory,
designing purpose, creating virtual sample products, interior designing, video conferencing, etc.
Online marketing has seen a great revolution in its ability to sell various products to inaccessible
corners like interior or rural areas. Stock markets have seen phenomenal participation from
different levels of people through the use of computers.
Education: Computers are used in education sector through online classes, online examinations,
referring e-books, online tutoring, etc. They help in increased use of audio-visual aids in the
education field.
Government: In government sectors, computers are used in data processing, maintaining a
database of citizens and supporting a paperless environment. The country’s defense
organizations have greatly benefitted from computers in their use for missile development,
satellites, rocket launches, etc.
Banking: In the banking sector, computers are used to store details of customers and conduct
transactions, such as withdrawal and deposit of money through ATMs. Banks have reduced
manual errors and expenses to a great extent through extensive use of computers.
Business: Nowadays, computers are totally integrated into business. The main objective of
business is transaction processing, which involves transactions with suppliers, employees or
customers. Computers can make these transactions easy and accurate. People can analyze
investments, sales, expenses, markets and other aspects of business using computers.
Training: Many organizations use computer-based training to train their employees, to save
money and improve performance. Video conferencing through computers allows saving of time
and travelling costs by being able to connect people in various locations.
Arts: Computers are extensively used in dance, photography, arts and culture. The fluid
movement of dance can be shown live via animation. Photos can be digitized using computers.
Science and Engineering: Computers with high performance are used to stimulate dynamic
process in Science and Engineering. Supercomputers have numerous applications in area of
Research and Development (R&D). Topographic images can be created through computers.
Scientists use computers to plot and analyze data to have a better understanding of earthquakes.

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CHAPTER - II INPUT AND OUTPUT DEVICES

1. INPUT DEVICES
Input devices are used to enter data and instructions in to the CPU. Following are some of the
important input devices which are used in a computer −
• Keyboard
• Mouse
• Joy Stick
• Light pen
• Track Ball
• Scanner
• Graphic Tablet
• Microphone
• Magnetic Ink Card Reader(MICR)
• Optical Character Reader(OCR)
• Bar Code Reader
• Optical Mark Reader(OMR)
Keyboard
Keyboard is the most common and very popular input device which helps to input data to
the computer. The layout of the keyboard is like that of traditional typewriter, although there are
some additional keys provided for performing additional functions.

Keyboard is like a type-writer, it normally consists of 104 keys. These keys are
classified into character keys, function keys, control keys, navigation keys, toggle keys and
miscellaneous keys.
Character keys include letters, numbers and punctuation marks. There are 12 function
keys, used to perform certain functions depending on the OS or software.
Control keys are Alt, Ctrl, Shift, Insert, Delete, and Esc. Navigation keys include four
arrows, page up, page down, home and end. Toggle keys are Scroll lock, Num lock and Caps
Lock. Miscellaneous keys include Esc, Print screen etc.
Mouse
Mouse is the most popular pointing device. It is a very famous cursor-control device
having a small palm size box with a round ball at its base, which senses the movement of the
mouse and sends corresponding signals to the CPU when the mouse buttons are pressed.
Generally, it has two buttons called the left and the right button and a wheel is present
between the buttons. A mouse can be used to control the position of the cursor on the screen,
but it cannot be used to enter text into the computer.

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Advantages
• Easy to use
• Not very expensive
• Moves the cursor faster than the arrow keys of the keyboard.
Joystick
Joystick is also a pointing device, which is used to move the cursor position on a monitor
screen. It is a stick having a spherical ball at its both lower and upper ends. The lower spherical
ball moves in a socket. The joystick can be moved in all four directions.

The function of the joystick is similar to that of a mouse. It is mainly used in Computer
Aided Designing (CAD) and playing computer games.
Light Pen
Light pen is a pointing device similar to a pen. It is used to select a displayed menu item
or draw pictures on the monitor screen. It consists of a photocell and an optical system placed in
a small tube.

When the tip of a light pen is moved over the monitor screen and the pen button is
pressed, its photocell sensing element detects the screen location and sends the corresponding
signal to the CPU.
Track Ball
Track ball is an input device that is mostly used in notebook or laptop computer, instead
of a mouse. This is a ball which is half inserted and by moving fingers on the ball, the pointer
can be moved.

Since the whole device is not moved, a track ball requires less space than a mouse. A
track ball comes in various shapes like a ball, a button, or a square.
Scanner
Scanner is an input device, which works more like a photocopy machine. It is used when
some information is available on paper and it is to be transferred to the hard disk of the
computer for further manipulation.

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Scanner captures images from the source which are then converted into a digital form that can
be stored on the disk. These images can be edited before they are printed.
Digitizer
Digitizer is an input device which converts analog information into digital form.
Digitizer can convert a signal from the television or camera into a series of numbers that could
be stored in a computer. They can be used by the computer to create a picture of whatever the
camera had been pointed at.

Digitizer is also known as Tablet or Graphics Tablet as it converts graphics and pictorial data
into binary inputs. A graphic tablet as digitizer is used for fine works of drawing and image
manipulation applications.
Microphone
Microphone is an input device to input sound that is then stored in a digital form.

The microphone is used for various applications such as adding sound to a multimedia
presentation or for mixing music.
Magnetic Ink Card Reader (MICR)
MICR input device is generally used in banks as there are large number of cheques to be
processed every day. The bank's code number and cheque number are printed on the cheques
with a special type of ink that contains particles of magnetic material that are machine readable.

This reading process is called Magnetic Ink Character Recognition (MICR). The main
advantages of MICR is that it is fast and less error prone.

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Optical Character Reader (OCR)

OCR is an input device used to read a printed text.

OCR scans the text optically, character by character, converts them into a machine
readable code, and stores the text on the system memory.
Bar Code Readers
Bar Code Reader is a device used for reading bar coded data (data in the form of light
and dark lines). Bar coded data is generally used in labelling goods, numbering the books, etc. It
may be a handheld scanner or may be embedded in a stationary scanner.

Bar Code Reader scans a bar code image, converts it into an alphanumeric value, which
is then fed to the computer that the bar code reader is connected to.
Optical Mark Reader (OMR)
OMR is a special type of optical scanner used to recognize the type of mark made by pen
or pencil. It is used where one out of a few alternatives is to be selected and marked.

It is specially used for checking the answer sheets of examinations having multiple choice
questions
2. OUTPUT DEVICES - SOFTCOPY DEVICES and HARDCOPY DEVICES
Output devices mirror the input data or show the output results of the operations on the
input data or print the data.
Different output devices are monitor, speakers, printer, and plotter. Monitor and
speakers provide soft copy output. Printer and plotter provides hardcopy output.
Most common output device is monitor or VDU(Visual Display Unit).
Following are some of the important output devices used in a computer.
• Monitors & Speakers
• Graphic Plotter
• Printer

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Monitors
Monitors, commonly called as Visual Display Unit (VDU), are the main output device
of a computer. It forms images from tiny dots, called pixels that are arranged in a rectangular
form. The sharpness of the image depends upon the number of pixels. There are two kinds of
viewing screen used for monitors. 1) Cathode-Ray Tube (CRT) 2) Flat-Panel Display
Cathode-Ray Tube (CRT) Monitor
The CRT display is made up of small picture elements called pixels. The smaller the
pixels, the better the image clarity or resolution. It takes more than one illuminated pixel to
form a whole character, such as the letter ‘e’ in the word help.

A finite number of characters can be displayed on a screen at once. The screen can be
divided into a series of character boxes - fixed location on the screen where a standard character
can be placed. Most screens are capable of displaying 80 characters of data horizontally and 25
lines vertically. There are some disadvantages of CRT −
• Large in Size
• High power consumption
Flat-Panel Display Monitor
The flat-panel display refers to a class of video devices that have reduced volume, weight
and power requirement in comparison to the CRT. You can hang them on walls or wear them
on your wrists. Current uses of flat-panel displays include calculators, video games, monitors,
laptop computer, and graphics display.

The flat-panel display is divided into two categories −

• Emissive Displays − Emissive displays are devices that convert electrical energy into
light. For example, plasma panel and LED (Light-Emitting Diodes).
• Non-Emissive Displays − Non-emissive displays use optical effects to convert sunlight
or light from some other source into graphics patterns. For example, LCD (Liquid-
Crystal Device).
Speakers
Computer speakers, or multimedia speakers, are speakers sold for use with computers,
although usually capable of other audio uses, e.g. for an MP3 player. Most such speakers have an
internal amplifier and consequently require a power source, which may be by a mains power
supply often via an AC adapter, batteries, or a USB port.

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Computer speakers range widely in quality and in price. Computer speakers sometimes
packaged with computer systems are small, plastic, and have mediocre sound quality. Some
computer speakers have equalization features such as bass and treble controls. Bluetooth
speakers can be connected with a computer by using an Aux jack and compatible adaptor.
More sophisticated computer speakers can have a subwoofer unit, to enhance bass output.
The larger subwoofer enclosure usually contains the amplifiers for the subwoofer and the left and
right speakers.
Some computer displays have rather basic speakers built-in. Laptop computers have
built-in integrated speakers, usually small and of restricted sound quality to conserve space.
Printers
Printer is an output device, which is used to print information on paper.
There are two types of printers − 1) Impact Printers 2) Non-Impact Printers
1) Impact Printers
Impact printers print the characters by striking them on the ribbon, which is then pressed on the
paper. Characteristics of Impact Printers are the following −
• Very low consumable costs
• Very noisy
• Useful for bulk printing due to low cost
• There is physical contact with the paper to produce an image
These printers are of two types −
a) Character printers b) Line printers
Character Printers
Character printers are the printers which print one character at a time.
These are further divided into two types:
1) Dot Matrix Printer(DMP) 2) Daisy Wheel printer
Dot Matrix Printer
In the market, one of the most popular printers is Dot Matrix Printer. These printers are popular
because of their ease of printing and economical price. Each character printed is in the form of
pattern of dots and head consists of a Matrix of Pins of size (5*7, 7*9, 9*7 or 9*9) which come
out to form a character which is why it is called Dot Matrix Printer.

Advantages
• Inexpensive
• Widely Used
• Other language characters can be printed
Disadvantages
• Slow Speed
• Poor Quality
Daisy Wheel
Head is lying on a wheel and pins corresponding to characters are like petals of Daisy
(flower) which is why it is called Daisy Wheel Printer. These printers are generally used for

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word-processing in offices that require a few letters to be sent here and there with very nice
quality.

Advantages
• More reliable than DMP
• Better quality
• Fonts of character can be easily changed
Disadvantages
• Slower than DMP
• Noisy
• More expensive than DMP
Line Printers
Line printers are the printers which print one line at a time.

These are of two types − a) Drum Printer b) Chain Printer

Drum Printer
This printer is like a drum in shape hence it is called drum printer. The surface of the
drum is divided into a number of tracks. Total tracks are equal to the size of the paper, i.e. for a
paper width of 132 characters, drum will have 132 tracks. A character set is embossed on the
track. Different character sets available in the market are 48 character set, 64 and 96 characters
set. One rotation of drum prints one line. Drum printers are fast in speed and can print 300 to
2000 lines per minute.
Advantages --- Very high speed
Disadvantages --- Very expensive
---- Characters fonts cannot be changed
Chain Printer
In this printer, a chain of character sets is used, hence it is called Chain Printer. A standard
character set may have 48, 64, or 96 characters.
Advantages
• Character fonts can easily be changed.
• Different languages can be used with the same printer.
Disadvantages
• Noisy

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2.Non-impact Printers
Non-impact printers print the characters without using the ribbon. These printers print a
complete page at a time, thus they are also called as Page Printers.
These printers are of two types −
a) Laser Printers b) Inkjet Printers
Characteristics of Non-impact Printers
• Faster than impact printers
• They are not noisy
• High quality
• Supports many fonts and different character size
Laser Printers
These are non-impact page printers. They use laser lights to produce the dots needed to form the
characters to be printed on a page.

Advantages
• Very high speed
• Very high quality output
• Good graphics quality
• Supports many fonts and different character size
Disadvantages
• Expensive
• Cannot be used to produce multiple copies of a document in a single printing
Inkjet Printers
Inkjet printers are non-impact character printers based on a relatively new technology. They
print characters by spraying small drops of ink onto paper. Inkjet printers produce high quality
output with presentable features.

They make less noise because no hammering is done and these have many styles of printing
modes available. Color printing is also possible. Some models of Inkjet printers can produce
multiple copies of printing also.
Advantages
• High quality printing
• More reliable

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Disadvantages
• Expensive as the cost per page is high
• Slow as compared to laser printer
Plotters:
A plotter produces vector graphics drawings. Plotters draw lines on paper using a pen, or
in some applications, use a knife to cut a material like vinyl or leather. In the latter case, they are
sometimes known as a cutting plotter.
Plotters retained a niche for producing very large drawings for many years, but have now
largely been replaced by wide-format conventional printers. Cutting plotters remain in use in a
number of industries.
Electrostatic plotters used a dry toner transfer process similar to that in
many photocopiers. They were faster than pen plotters and were available in large formats,
suitable for reproducing engineering drawings. Electrostatic plotters are very fast with plotting
speed of 6 to 32 mm/s, depending on the plotter resolution
Cutting plotters use knives to cut into a piece of material (such as paper, mylar film,
or vinyl film) that is lying on the flat surface area of the plotter. In recent years the use of cutting
plotters (generally called die-cut machines) has become popular with home enthusiasts of paper
crafts such as card making and scrapbooking
III CHAPTER - COMPUTER MEMORY AND PROCESSORS
1.INTRODUCTION
Memory is used to store instructions and data either temporarily or permanently. Data is
stored in memory as binary digits, called bits.
Memory is of 1. Primary Memory 2. Secondary memory
1. Primary Memory: Primary memory is also known as Main Memory or Internal Memory. It
is of RAM and ROM.
RAM stands for Random Access Memory, it stores user instructions and data
temporarily. It has a limited capacity and it loses data when power is off. It is a semiconductor
memory. RAM is of Static RAM and Dynamic RAM.
A special type of memory is inserted between the RAM and the CPU is called Cache
memory. The Cache memory is high speed and smallest semi conductor memory, which can
speed up the CPU. It acts as a buffer between the CPU and the main memory. It holds the
frequently used data by the CPU. Cache memory is faster than the main memory. It takes less
access time than main memory. It works like a RAM. It is very expensive.
ROM stands for Read Only Memory, it stores system details permanently. It is of
PROM(Programmable Read Only Memory), EPROM(Erasable PROM), EEPROM(Electrically
Erasable PROM).
2. Secondary Memory: It is also known as external memory. It is a non-volatile/permanent
memory, slower than the main memory. Storage devices are used for storing data/information
permanently.
CPU does not access these memories directly, instead they are accessed via input-output
routines. The contents of storage devices are transferred to the main memory first, and then CPU
can access from RAM.
These are magnetic and optical memories, used as backup memory. It is a non-volatile
memory, data is permanently stored even the power is off.
They are used to store bulk amount of data permanently, slower than primary memories.

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 FUNDAMENTALS OF COMPUTERS

Secondary memory is used to store data, instructions permanently. It is of Hard disk,

Floppy disk, CD, DVD, Pen drive , Memory card etc.
2. MEMORY HIERARCHY
The various types of memory used in computer system differ in speed, cost, size, and
volatility. They can be organized in a hierarchy, as shown below:

REGISTERS
C
S CACHE MEMORY O
P S
E T
E MAIN MEMORY
D
SECONDARY MEMORY

The various memories above the secondary memory are volatile , secondary memory , ROM
are non-volatile.
3.PROCESSOR REGISTERS
A processor register is a quickly accessible location available to a computer's processor.
Registers usually consist of a small amount of fast storage, although some registers have specific
hardware functions, and may be read-only or write-only.
Processor registers are normally at the top of the memory hierarchy, and provide the
fastest way to access data.
Registers are normally measured by the number of bits they can hold, for example, an "8-
bit register", "32-bit register" or a "64-bit register" or even more.
A processor contains several kinds of registers, which can be classified according to their
content or instructions that operate on them:
User-accessible registers can be read or written by machine instructions. The most
common division of user-accessible registers is into data registers and address registers.
Data registers can hold numeric data values such as integer and, in some architectures,
floating-point values, as well as characters, small bit arrays and other data. In some older and
low end CPUs, a special data register, known as the accumulator, is used implicitly for many
operations.
Address registers hold addresses and are used by instructions that indirectly
access primary memory.
The stack pointer is used to manage the run-time stack. Rarely, other data stacks are
addressed by dedicated address registers, see stack machine.
General-purpose registers (GPRs) can store both data and addresses, i.e., they are
combined data/address registers.
Status registers hold truth values often used to determine whether some instruction
should or should not be executed.
Floating-point registers (FPRs) store floating point numbers in many architectures.
Constant registers hold read-only values such as zero, one, or pi. Vector registers hold
data for vector processing done by SIMD instructions (Single Instruction, Multiple Data).

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 FUNDAMENTALS OF COMPUTERS

Special-purpose registers (SPRs) hold program state; they usually include the program
counter, also called the instruction pointer, and the status register; the program counter and status
register might be combined in a program status word (PSW) register.
In some architectures, model-specific registers (also called machine-specific registers)
store data and settings related to the processor itself.
Internal registers – registers not accessible by instructions, used internally for processor
operations. Instruction register, holding the instruction currently being executed.
Registers related to fetching information from RAM, a collection of storage registers
located on separate chips from the CPU: Memory buffer register (MBR), also known as Memory
data register (MDR)
4. CACHE MEMORY
A special type of memory is inserted between the RAM and the CPU is called Cache
memory. The Cache memory is high speed and smallest semi conductor memory, which can
speed up the CPU.
It acts as a buffer between the CPU and the main memory. It holds the frequently used
data by the CPU. Cache memory is faster than the main memory. It takes less access time than
main memory. It works like a RAM. It is very expensive.
Whenever the CPU needs to access memory, it first checks the cache memory. If the data
is not found in cache memory, then the CPU moves into the main memory.

The cache is the fastest component in the memory hierarchy and approaches the speed of
CPU components. The basic operation of a cache memory is as follows:
1) When the CPU needs to access memory, the cache is examined. If the word is found in the
cache, it is read from the fast memory.
2) If the word addressed by the CPU is not found in the cache, the main memory is accessed to
read the word.
3) A block of words one just accessed is then transferred from main memory to cache memory.
4) The block size may vary from one word (the one just accessed) to about 16 words adjacent to
the one just accessed.
5) The performance of the cache memory is frequently measured in terms of a quantity
called hit ratio.
6) When the CPU refers to memory and finds the word in cache, it is said to produce a hit.
7) If the word is not found in the cache, it is in main memory and it counts as a miss.
8) The ratio of the number of hits divided by the total CPU references to memory (hits plus
misses) is the hit ratio.
5. PRIMARY MEMORY
Primary memory is also known as Main Memory or Internal Memory. The main features
of primary memory are
1) It is accessed directly by the processor
2)It is the fastest memory available
3)Each word is stored as well as volatile, i.e. its contents are lost once power is switched off.

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 FUNDAMENTALS OF COMPUTERS

As primary memory is expensive, technologies are developed to optimize its use. These are
broad types of primary memory available.

RAM
RAM stands for Random Access Memory. The processor accesses all memory addresses
directly, irrespective of word length, making storage and retrieval fast. RAM is the fastest
memory available and hence most expensive. These two factors imply that RAM is available in
very small quantities of up to 1GB. RAM is volatile but may be of any of these two types.
DRAM (Dynamic RAM): Each memory cell in a DRAM is made of one transistor and one
capacitor, which store one bit of data. However, this cell starts losing its charge and hence data
stored in less than thousandth of a second. So it needs to be refreshed thousand times a second,
which takes up processor time. However, due to small size of each cell, one DRAM can have
large number of cells. Primary memory of most of the personal computers is made of DRAM.
SRAM (Static RAM): Each cell in SRAM is made of a flip flop that stores one bit. It retains its
bit till the power supply is on and doesn’t need to be refreshed like DRAM. It also has shorter
read-write cycles as compared to DRAM. SRAM is used in specialized applications.
ROM
ROM stands for Read Only Memory. As the name suggests, ROM can only be read by
the processor. New data cannot be written into ROM. Data to be stored into ROM is written
during the manufacturing phase itself. They contain data that does not need to be altered, like
booting sequence of a computer or algorithmic tables for mathematical applications. ROM is
slower and hence cheaper than RAM. It retains its data even when power is switched off, i.e. it is
non-volatile. ROM cannot be altered the way RAM can be but technologies are available to
program these types of ROMs –
PROM (Programmable ROM)
PROM can be programmed using a special hardware device called PROM programmer
or PROM burner.
EPROM (Erasable Programmable ROM)
EPROM can be erased and then programmed using special electrical signals or UV rays.
EPROMs that can be erased using UV rays are called UVEPROM. EPROMs that can be erased
using electrical signals are called EEPROM. However, handling electric signals is easier and
safer than UV rays.

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 FUNDAMENTALS OF COMPUTERS

6. SECONDARY STORAGE DEVICES:

Processor memory, also known as primary memory, is expensive as well as limited. The
faster primary memory are also volatile.
If we need to store large amount of data or programs permanently, we need a cheaper and
permanent memory. Such memory is called secondary memory.
Characteristics of Secondary Memory
These are some characteristics of secondary memory, which distinguish it from primary memory
It is non-volatile, i.e. it retains data when power is switched off
It is large capacities to the tune of terabytes
It is cheaper as compared to primary memory
There are two types of secondary memory – fixed and removable.
MAGNETIC TAPES
In magnetic tape only one side of the ribbon is used for storing data. It is sequential
memory which contains thin plastic ribbon to store data and coated by magnetic oxide. Data
read/write speed is slower because of sequential access. It is highly reliable which requires
magnetic tape drive writing and reading data.

The width of the ribbon varies from 4mm to 1 Inch and it has storage capacity 100 MB
to 200 GB.
Advantages :
1. These are inexpensive, i.e., low cost memories.
2. It provides backup or archival storage.
3. It can be used for large files.
4. It can be used for copying from disk files.It is a reusable memory.
5. It is compact and easy to store on racks.
Disadvantages :
1. Sequential access is the disadvantage, means it does not allow access randomly or directly.
2. It requires caring to store, i.e., vulnerable humidity, dust free, and suitable environment.
3. It stored data cannot be easily updated or modified, i.e., difficult to make updates on data.
FLOPPY DISKS
A floppy or floppy disk, a floppy diskette is a type of storage media capable of storing
electronic data, like a computer file. The floppy diskette was first created in 1967 by IBM as an
alternative to buying hard drives, which were extremely expensive at the time.

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 FUNDAMENTALS OF COMPUTERS

Early computers did not have CD-ROM drives or USB, floppy disks were the only way
to install a new program onto a computer or backup your information.
A floppy disk is a magnetic media and stores and reads data on the floppy disk using a
read head. When a 3.5" floppy diskette is inserted into the drive, the metal slide door is opened
and exposes the magnetic disk in the floppy diskette. The read/write head uses a magnetic
polarity of 0 or 1. Reading this as binary data, the computer can understand what the data is on
the platter. For the computer to write information to the platter, the read/write head aligns the
magnetic polarities, writing 0's and 1's that can be read later.
8" floppy disk
The first disk was introduced in 1971. The disk was 8" in diameter with a magnetic coating,
enclosed in a cardboard case with the capacity of one megabyte.
5.25" floppy disk
The 5.25" floppy diskette first started development in 1976 and later became a standard in 1978,
these disks were first released with only 160 KB of disk space. These diskettes were commonly
used in the 1980s and stopped being used in the early 1990s.
3.5" floppy disk
The 3.5" floppy was created by IBM in 1984 and were first introduced with a total capacity of
720 KB. The 1.44 MB floppy diskettes were used widely in the 1990s and were seldom found or
used by 2000.
HARD DISK
Disks are made of non-magnetic material like aluminum alloy and coated with 10-20 nm
of magnetic material.

Standard diameter of these disks is 14 inches and they rotate with speeds varying from
4200 rpm (rotations per minute) for personal computers to 15000 rpm for servers. Data is stored
by magnetizing or demagnetizing the magnetic coating. A magnetic reader arm is used to read
data from and write data to the disks. A typical modern HDD has capacity in terabytes (TB).
OPTICAL DRIVES - CD Drive
CD stands for Compact Disk. CDs are circular disks that use optical rays, usually lasers, to
read and write data. They are very cheap as you can get 700 MB of storage space for less than a
dollar. CDs are inserted in CD drives built into CPU cabinet. They are portable as you can eject
the drive, remove the CD and carry it with you. There are three types of CDs −

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 FUNDAMENTALS OF COMPUTERS

• CD-ROM (Compact Disk – Read Only Memory) − The data on these CDs are
recorded by the manufacturer. Proprietary Software, audio or video are released on CD-
ROMs.
• CD-R (Compact Disk – Recordable) − Data can be written by the user once on the CD-
R. It cannot be deleted or modified later.
• CD-RW (Compact Disk – Rewritable) − Data can be written and deleted on these
optical disks again and again.
OPTICAL DRIVES -DVD Drive
DVD stands for Digital Video Display. DVD are optical devices that can store 15 times
the data held by CDs. They are usually used to store rich multimedia files that need high storage
capacity. DVDs also come in three varieties – read only, recordable and rewritable.

OPTICAL DRIVES -Blu Ray Disk

Blu Ray Disk (BD) is an optical storage media used to store high definition (HD) video
and other multimedia filed. BD uses shorter wavelength laser as compared to CD/DVD. This
enables writing arm to focus more tightly on the disk and hence pack in more data. BDs can
store up to 128 GB data.
USB FLASH DRIVERS - PEN DRIVE
Pen drive is a portable memory device that uses solid state memory rather than magnetic
fields or lasers to record data. It uses a technology similar to RAM, except that it is nonvolatile.
It is also called USB drive, key drive or flash memory.

MEMORY CARDS
A memory card or memory cartridge is an electronic data storage device used for
storing digital information, typically using flash memory.
These are commonly used in portable electronic devices, such as digital cameras, mobile
phones, laptop computers, tablets, PDAs etc., the card is usually contained within the device
rather than protruding like USB flash drives.
7. MASS STORAGE DEVICES
Mass storage refers to the storage of large amounts of data in a persisting and machine-
readable fashion.
Devices and/or systems that have been described as mass storage include tape
libraries, RAID systems, and a variety of computer drives such as hard disk drives, magnetic
tape drives, magneto-optical disc drives, optical disc drives, memory cards, and solid-state
drives. It also includes experimental forms like holographic memory. Mass storage includes
devices with removable and non-removable media. It does not include random access
memory (RAM).

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 FUNDAMENTALS OF COMPUTERS

There are two broad classes of mass storage: local data in devices such as smart
phones or computers, and enterprise servers and data centers for the cloud.
8.BASIC PROCESSOR ARCHITECTURE.
Computer is an electronic device, which accepts data from the user, stores it, process it and gives
out accurate information at a faster rate according to the user instructions.
Data means the raw facts and figures entered into the system. Information means
processed data. A computer is a data processor.

CPU

Main Memory

INPUT OUTPUT
Control Unit
DEVICE DEVICE

Arithmetic &
Logical Unit

Secondary
memory

BLOCK DIAGRAM OF A COMPUTER

Input devices are used to enter data and instructions in to the CPU. Most commonly used
input devices are: keyboard, mouse, microphone, scanner, web camera, joystick, OMR,OCR,
MICR, Bar-code reader etc.
The CPU is an IC silicon chip, also known as micro processor. It consists of Registers, ALU,
and CU.
Registers are high speed storage device, and reserved for special purposes. For example, the
Instruction Register(IR) holds current instruction being executed, PC (Program Counter) holds
the address of the next instruction to be executed, a set of general purpose registers used for
temporary storage.
ALU(Arithmetic and Logical Unit) performs all arithmetic and logical operations, such as
addition, subtraction, comparisons etc.
Control Unit(CU) coordinates the processing by controlling the transfer of data and
instructions between main memory and the registers in the CPU. It also coordinates the
execution of the ALU to perform operations on data stored in registers. A control and timing
circuit directs all the components of computer by generating control signals.
CPU speed is measured in Megahertz(MHz) means one million cycles per second or
Gigahertz(GHz) means one billion cycles per second.

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 FUNDAMENTALS OF COMPUTERS

Memory is used to store instructions and data either temporarily or permanently. Data is
stored in memory as binary digits, called bits.
Memory is of 1. Primary Memory 2. Secondary memory
1. Primary Memory: Primary memory is also known as Main Memory or Internal Memory. It
is of RAM and ROM.
RAM stands for Random Access Memory, it stores user instructions and data
temporarily. It has a limited capacity and it loses data when power is off. It is a semiconductor
memory. RAM is of Static RAM and Dynamic RAM.
A special type of memory is inserted between the RAM and the CPU is called Cache
memory. The Cache memory is high speed and smallest semi conductor memory, which can
speed up the CPU. It acts as a buffer between the CPU and the main memory. It holds the
frequently used data by the CPU. Cache memory is faster than the main memory. It takes less
access time than main memory. It works like a RAM. It is very expensive.
ROM stands for Read Only Memory, it stores system details permanently. It is of
PROM(Programmable Read Only Memory), EPROM(Erasable PROM), EEPROM(Electrically
Erasable PROM).
2. Secondary Memory: It is also known as external memory. It is a non-volatile/permanent
memory, slower than the main memory. Storage devices are used for storing data/information
permanently.
CPU does not access these memories directly, instead they are accessed via input-output
routines. The contents of storage devices are transferred to the main memory first, and then CPU
can access from RAM.
These are magnetic and optical memories, used as backup memory. It is a non-volatile
memory, data is permanently stored even the power is off.
They are used to store bulk amount of data permanently, slower than primary memories.
Secondary memory is used to store data, instructions permanently. It is of Hard disk,
Floppy disk, CD, DVD, Pen drive , Memory card etc.
Output devices are used to get the information from the CPU. Output devices mirror the
input data or show the output results of the operations on the input data or print the data.
Different output devices are monitor, speakers, printer, and plotter. Monitor and
speakers provide soft copy output. Printer and plotter provides hardcopy output.
Most common output device is monitor or VDU(Visual Display Unit).

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 FUNDAMENTALS OF COMPUTERS

UNIT – II
Number System And Computer Codes: Binary Number System, Working With Binary
Numbers, Octal Number System, Hexa Decimal Number System, Working With Fractions,
Signed Number Representation In Binary Form, BCD Code, And Other Codes.
Boolean Algebra And Logic Gates: Boolean Algebra, Venn Diagrams, Representation
Of Boolean Functions, Logic Gates, Logic Diagrams And Boolean Expressions Using
Karnaugh Map.
Computer Software: Introduction To Computer Software, System Software,
Application Software, Firm Ware, Middle Ware, Acquiring Computer Software, Design And
Implementation Of Correct, Efficient And Maintainable Programs.

CHAPTER – I --- NUMBER SYSTEM AND COMPUTER CODES

1.INTRODUCTION
A number is a way to represent arithmetic value, count or measure of a particular
quantity. A number system can be considered as a mathematical notation of numbers using a
set of digits or symbols. In simpler words the number system is a method of representing
numbers. Every number system is identified with the help of its base or radix.
Base or Radix of a Number System: The base or radix of a number system can be referred as
the total number of different symbols which can be used in a particular number system. Radix
means “root” in Latin.
Base equals to 8 implies there are 8 different symbols in that number system. Similarly,
base equals to “x” implies there are “x” different symbols in that number system.
Classification of Number System: The number system can be classified in to two types
namely: Positional and Non-Positional number system

1.Non-Positional (or Non-weighted) Number System: Non-positional number system is

also known as non-weighted number system.
Digit value is independent of its position. Non-positional number system is used for
shift position encodes and error detecting purpose.
Few examples of non-weighted number system are gray code, roman code, excess-3
code, etc.

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 FUNDAMENTALS OF COMPUTERS

2. Positional (or Weighted) Number System: A positional number system is also known
as weighted number system. As the name implies there will be a weight associated with each
digit.
Few examples of positional number system are decimal number system, Binary
number system, octal number system, hexadecimal number system, BCD, etc.
When we type some letters or words, the computer translates them in numbers as
computers can understand only numbers. A computer can understand the positional number
system where there are only a few symbols called digits and these symbols represent different
values depending on the position they occupy in the number.
The value of each digit in a number can be determined using −
• The digit
• The position of the digit in the number
• The base of the number system (where the base is defined as the total number of digits
available in the number system)

2.DECIMAL NUMBER SYSTEM

The number system that we use in our day-to-day life is the decimal number system.
Decimal number system has base 10 as it uses 10 digits from 0 to 9. In decimal number system,
the successive positions to the left of the decimal point represent units, tens, hundreds,
thousands, and so on.
Each position represents a specific power of the base (10). For example, the decimal
number 1234 consists of the digit 4 in the units position, 3 in the tens position, 2 in the hundreds
position, and 1 in the thousands position. Its value can be written as
(1 x 1000)+ (2 x 100)+ (3 x 10)+ (4 x l)
=(1 x 103)+ (2 x 102)+ (3 x 101)+ (4 x l00) = 1000 + 200 + 30 + 4 = 1234
As a computer programmer or an IT professional, you should understand the following
number systems which are frequently used in computers.
S.No. Number System and Description

Binary Number System

1
Base 2. Digits used : 0, 1

Octal Number System

2
Base 8. Digits used : 0 to 7

Hexa Decimal Number System

3
Base 16. Digits used: 0 to 9, Letters used : A- F

3.BINARY NUMBER SYSTEM

Characteristics of the binary number system are as follows −
• Uses two digits, 0 and 1
• Also called as base 2 number system
• Each position in a binary number represents a 0 power of the base (2). Example 20
• Last position in a binary number represents a x power of the base (2). Example
2x where x represents the last position - 1.

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 FUNDAMENTALS OF COMPUTERS

Example : Binary Number: 101012

Calculating Decimal Equivalent −
Step Binary Number Decimal Number

Step 1 101012 ((1 x 24) + (0 x 23) + (1 x 22) + (0 x 21) + (1 x 20))10

Step 2 101012 (16 + 0 + 4 + 0 + 1)10

Step 3 101012 2110

4.OCTAL NUMBER SYSTEM
Characteristics of the octal number system are as follows −
• Uses eight digits, 0,1,2,3,4,5,6,7
• Also called as base 8 number system
• Each position in an octal number represents a 0 power of the base (8). Example 80
• Last position in an octal number represents a x power of the base (8). Example
8x where x represents the last position - 1
Example : Octal Number: 12570 Calculating Decimal Equivalent −
Step Octal Number Decimal Number

Step 1 125708 ((1 x 84) + (2 x 83) + (5 x 82) + (7 x 81) + (0 x 80))10

Step 2 125708 (4096 + 1024 + 320 + 56 + 0)10

Step 3 125708 549610

5.HEXADECIMAL NUMBER SYSTEM
Characteristics of hexadecimal number system are as follows −
• Uses 10 digits and 6 letters, 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, A, B, C, D, E, F
• Letters represent the numbers starting from 10. A = 10. B = 11, C = 12, D = 13, E = 14,
F = 15
• Also called as base 16 number system
• Each position in a hexadecimal number represents a 0 power of the base (16). Example,
160
• Last position in a hexadecimal number represents a x power of the base (16). Example
16x where x represents the last position - 1
Example: Hexadecimal Number: 19FDE16
Calculating Decimal Equivalent −
Step Binary Decimal Number
Number

Step 1 19FDE16 ((1 x 164) + (9 x 163) + (F x 162) + (D x 161) + (E x 160))10

Step 2 19FDE16 ((1 x 164) + (9 x 163) + (15 x 162) + (13 x 161) + (14 x 160))10

Step 3 19FDE16 (65536+ 36864 + 3840 + 208 + 14)10

Step 4 19FDE16 10646210

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 FUNDAMENTALS OF COMPUTERS

6.DECIMAL TO BINARY CONVERSION:

• This is a straight forward method which involve dividing the number to be converted.
• Let decimal number is N then divide this number from 2 because base of binary number
system is 2. Note down the value of remainder, which will be either 0 or 1.
• Again divide remaining decimal number till it became 0 and note every remainder of
every step.
• Then write remainders from bottom to up, which will be equivalent binary number of
given decimal number.
Example − Convert decimal number 112 into binary number.
Division Remainder (R)

112 / 2 = 56 0

56 / 2 = 28 0

28 / 2 = 14 0

14 / 2 = 7 0

7/2=3 1

3/2=1 1

1/2=0 1
Now, write remainder from bottom to up, this will be 1110000 which is equivalent binary
number of decimal integer 112. 112(10)=1110000(2)
For decimal fractional part, the method is explained as following below.
• Performing Short Multiplication by Two with result (For fractional part)
• Let decimal fractional part is M then multiply this number from 2 because base of binary
number system is 2.
• Note down the value of integer part, which will be either 0 or 1.
• Again multiply remaining decimal fractional number till it became 0 and note every integer
part of result of every step.
• Then write noted results of integer part, which will be equivalent fraction binary number of
given decimal number. This is procedure for converting an fractional decimal number
Example − Convert decimal fractional number 0.8125 into binary number.
Multiplication Resultant integer part (R)

0.81252 x 2= 1.625 1

0.6252 x 2= 1.25 1

0.252 x 2= 0.50 0

0.52 x 2= 1.0 1

0x2=0 0

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 FUNDAMENTALS OF COMPUTERS

Now, write these resultant integer part, this will be 0.11010 which is equivalent binary fractional
number of decimal fractional 0.8125. 0.8125(10) = 0.11010(2)
7.DECIMAL TO OCTAL CONVERSION:
• Let decimal number is N then divide this number from 8 because base of octal number
system is 8. Note down the value of remainder, which will be − 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, or 7.
• Again divide remaining decimal number till it became 0 and note every remainder of every
step.
• Then write remainders from bottom to up (or in reverse order), which will be equivalent
octal number of given decimal number.
Example − Convert decimal number 210 into octal number.
Division Remainder (R)

210 / 8 = 26 2

26 / 8 = 3 2

3/8=0 3
Now, write remainder from bottom to up, this will be 322 which is equivalent octal number of
decimal integer 210.
Converting fractional part:
Let decimal fractional part is M then multiply this number from 8 because base of octal
number system is 8.
Note down the value of integer part, which will be − 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, and 7.
Again multiply remaining decimal fractional number till it became 0 and note every integer
part of result of every step.
Then write noted results of integer part, which will be equivalent fraction octal number of
given decimal number.
Example − Convert decimal fractional number 0.567 into octal number.
Multiplication Resultant integer part

0.56 x 8=4.48 4

.48 x 8 = 3.84 3

0.84 x 8 = 6.72 6

0.72 x 8 = 5.76 5

0.76 x 8 =6.08 6

and so on ....
Now, write these resultant integer part, this will be approximate 0.43656 which is
equivalent octal fractional number of decimal fractional 0.567.
8.DECIMAL TO HEXA DECIMAL CONVERSION:
• Let decimal number is N then divide this number from 16 because base of hexadecimal
number system is 16.

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 FUNDAMENTALS OF COMPUTERS

• Note down the value of remainder, which will be: 0 to 15 (replace 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15 by A,
B, C, D, E, F respectively).
• Again divide remaining decimal number till it became 0 and note every remainder of every
step.
• Then write remainders from bottom to up , which will be equivalent hexadecimal number of
given decimal number.
Example − Convert decimal number 540 into hexadecimal number.
Since given number is decimal integer number, so by using above method, performing short
division by 16 with remainder.
Division Remainder (R)

540 / 16 = 33 12 = C

33 / 16 = 2 1

2 / 16 = 0 2
Now, write remainder from bottom to up, this will be 21C, which is equivalent hexadecimal
number of decimal integer 540.
Converting with Remainders (For fractional part)
• Let decimal fractional part is M then multiply this number from 16 because base of
hexadecimal number system is 16.
• Note down the value of integer part, which will be − 0 to 15 (replace 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15
by A, B, C, D, E, F respectively).
• Again multiply remaining decimal fractional number till it became 0 and note every integer
part of result of every step.
• Then write noted results of integer part, which will be equivalent fraction hexadecimal
number of given decimal number.
• This is procedure for converting an fractional decimal number
Example − Convert decimal fractional number 0.56640625 into hexadecimal number.
Since given number is decimal fractional number, so by using above algorithm performing short
multiplication by 16 with integer part.
Multiplication Resultant integer part

0.56640625 x 16=9.0625 9

0.0625 x 16 =1.0 1
Now, write these resultant integer part, this will be approximate 0.91 which is equivalent
hexadecimal fractional number of decimal fractional 0.56640625
9. SIGNED NUMBER REPRESENTATION IN BINARY FORM
Representation of Binary Numbers:
Binary numbers can be represented in signed and unsigned way. Unsigned binary
numbers do not have sign bit, whereas signed binary numbers uses signed bit as well or these can
be distinguishable between positive and negative numbers.
A signed binary is a specific data type of a signed variable.

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 FUNDAMENTALS OF COMPUTERS

1. Unsigned Numbers:
Unsigned numbers don’t have any sign, these can contain only magnitude of the number.
So, representation of unsigned binary numbers are all positive numbers only.
For example, representation of positive decimal numbers are positive by default. We
always assume that there is a positive sign symbol in front of every number.
Representation of Unsigned Binary Numbers:
Since there is no sign bit in this unsigned binary number, so N bit binary number
represent its magnitude only.
Zero (0) is also unsigned number. This representation has only one zero (0), which is
always positive.
Every number in unsigned number representation has only one unique binary equivalent
form, so this is unambiguous representation technique.
The range of unsigned binary number is from 0 to (2n-1).
Example-1: Represent decimal number 92 in unsigned binary number.
Simply convert it into Binary number, it contains only magnitude of the given number.
write the remainders from bottom to top to get binary equivalent value, it is shown below:
DIVISION QUOTIENT REMAINDER
92 / 2 46 0
46 / 2 23 0
23 / 2 11 1
11 / 2 5 1
5/2 2 1
2 /2 1 0
1/2 0 1
(92)10 = 1011100(2)
It’s 7 bit binary magnitude of the decimal number 92.
Example-2: Find range of 5 bit unsigned binary numbers. Also, find minimum and maximum
value in this range.

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 FUNDAMENTALS OF COMPUTERS

Since, range of unsigned binary number is from 0 to (2n-1). Therefore, range of 5 bit
unsigned binary number is from 0 to (25-1) which is equal from minimum value 0 (i.e., 00000)
to maximum value 31 (i.e., 11111).
2. Signed Numbers:
Signed numbers contain sign flag, this representation distinguish positive and negative
numbers. This technique contains both sign bit and magnitude of a number.
For example, in representation of negative decimal numbers, we need to put negative
symbol in front of given decimal number.
Representation of Signed Binary Numbers:
There are three types of representations for signed binary numbers. Because of extra
signed bit, binary number zero has two representation, either positive (0) or negative (1), so
ambiguous representation.
But 2’s complementation representation is unambiguous representation because of there
is no double representation of number 0.
These are: Sign-Magnitude form, 1’s complement form, 2’s complement form
2.(a) Sign-Magnitude form:
For n bit binary number, 1 bit is reserved for sign symbol.
If the value of sign bit is 0, then the given number will be positive, else if the value of
sign bit is 1, then the given number will be negative.
Remaining (n-1) bits represent magnitude of the number. Generally sign bit is a most
significant bit (MSB) of representation.
For example, range of 6 bit Sign-Magnitude form binary number is from -(25-1) to (25-1)
which is equal from minimum value -31 (i.e., 1 11111) to maximum value +31 (i.e., 0 11111).
And zero (0) has two representation, -0 (i.e., 1 00000) and +0 (i.e., 0 00000).
2.(b) 1’s complement form:
Since, 1’s complement of a number is obtained by inverting each bit of given number. So,
we represent positive numbers in binary form and negative numbers in 1’s complement form.
There is extra bit for sign representation. If value of sign bit is 0, then number is positive
and you can directly represent it in simple binary form, but if value of sign bit 1, then number is
negative and you have to take 1’s complement of given binary number.
You can get negative number by 1’s complement of a positive number and positive
number by using 1’s complement of a negative number.
Therefore, in this representation, zero (0) can have two representation, that’s why 1’s
complement form is ambiguous form. The range of 1’s complement form is from - (2(n-1)-1) to
(2(n-1)-1) .
For example, range of 6 bit 1’s complement form binary number is from (25-1) to (25-1)
which is equal from minimum value -31 (i.e., 1 00000) to maximum value +31 (i.e., 0 11111).
And zero (0) has two representation, -0 (i.e., 1 11111) and +0 (i.e., 0 00000).
2.(c) 2’s complement form:
Since, 2’s complement of a number is obtained by inverting each bit of given number
plus 1 to least significant bit (LSB).
So, we represent positive numbers in binary form and negative numbers in 2’s
complement form.
There is extra bit for sign representation. If value of sign bit is 0, then number is positive
and you can directly represent it in simple binary form, but if value of sign bit 1, then number is
negative and you have to take 2’s complement of given binary number.

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 FUNDAMENTALS OF COMPUTERS

You can get negative number by 2’s complement of a positive number and positive
number by directly using simple binary representation.
If value of most significant bit (MSB) is 1, then take 2’s complement from, else not.
Therefore, in this representation, zero (0) has only one (unique) representation which is always
positive. The range of 2’s complement form is from -(2(n-1)) to (2(n-1)-1).
For example, range of 6 bit 2’s complement form binary number is from (25) to (25-1)
which is equal from minimum value -32 (i.e., 1 00000) to maximum value +31 (i.e., 0 11111).
And zero (0) has two representation, -0 (i.e., 1 11111) and +0 (i.e., 0 00000).
10.BINARY CODED DECIMAL (BCD) CODE
In this code each decimal digit is represented by a 4-bit binary number. BCD is a way to
express each of the decimal digits with a binary code. In the BCD, with four bits we can
represent sixteen numbers (0000 to 1111). But in BCD code only first ten of these are used
(0000 to 1001). The remaining six code combinations i.e. 1010 to 1111 are invalid in BCD.

Advantages of BCD Codes

• It is very similar to decimal system.
• We need to remember binary equivalent of decimal numbers 0 to 9 only.
Disadvantages of BCD Codes
• The addition and subtraction of BCD have different rules.
• The BCD arithmetic is little more complicated.
• BCD needs more number of bits than binary to represent the decimal number. So BCD is
less efficient than binary.
11.OTHER CODES
EXCESS-3 CODE: The Excess-3 code is also called as XS-3 code. It is non-weighted code used to
express decimal numbers. The Excess-3 code words are derived from the 8421 BCD code words
adding (0011)2 or (3)10 to each code word in 8421. The excess-3 codes are obtained as follows −

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 FUNDAMENTALS OF COMPUTERS

GRAY CODE: It is the non-weighted code and it is not arithmetic codes. That means there are
no specific weights assigned to the bit position. It has a very special feature that, only one bit will
change each time the decimal number is incremented as shown in fig. As only one bit changes at
a time, the gray code is called as a unit distance code. The gray code is a cyclic code. Gray code
cannot be used for arithmetic operation.

Application of Gray code

• Gray code is popularly used in the shaft position encoders.
• A shaft position encoder produces a code word which represents the angular position of
the shaft.
ALPHANUMERIC CODES
A binary digit or bit can represent only two symbols as it has only two states '0' or '1'.
But this is not enough for communication between two computers because there we need many
more symbols for communication.
These symbols are required to represent 26 alphabets with capital and small letters,
numbers from 0 to 9, punctuation marks and other symbols.
The alphanumeric codes are the codes that represent numbers and alphabetic characters.
Mostly such codes also represent other characters such as symbol and various instructions
necessary for conveying information.
An alphanumeric code should at least represent 10 digits and 26 letters of alphabet i.e. total
36 items. The following three alphanumeric codes are very commonly used for the data
representation.
• American Standard Code for Information Interchange (ASCII).
• Extended Binary Coded Decimal Interchange Code (EBCDIC).
• Five bit Baudot Code.
ASCII code is a 7-bit code whereas EBCDIC is an 8-bit code. ASCII code is more commonly
used worldwide while EBCDIC is used primarily in large IBM computers

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 FUNDAMENTALS OF COMPUTERS

II CHAPTER - BOOLEAN ALGEBRA AND LOGIC GATES

1.LOGIC GATES
Logic gates are the basic building blocks of any digital system. It is an electronic circuit
having one or more than one input and only one output.
The relationship between the input and the output is based on a certain logic. Based on
this, logic gates are named as AND gate, OR gate, NOT gate etc.
AND Gate
A circuit which performs an AND operation is shown in figure. It has two or more inputs
and only one output.
The output of the AND gate is high(1) when all inputs are high(1), in other states the
output of the AND gate is low(0). Standard symbol of AND gate is :

If A, B are inputs, then the output is Y=A.B

Truth Table

OR GATE
A circuit which performs an OR operation is shown in figure. It has two or more inputs
and only one output.
The output of the OR gate is high (1), when at least any one input is high, the output is
low (0) when all inputs are low(0). The standard symbol of OR Gate is :

If A, B are inputs, then the output is Y=A+B

Truth Table

NOT Gate
NOT gate is also known as Inverter. It has only one input A and only one output Y. Here Y=A

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 FUNDAMENTALS OF COMPUTERS

NOT gate is used to negate the input signal. Standard symbol of NOT gate is:

Truth Table

NAND Gate
A NOT-AND operation is known as NAND operation. It has two or more inputs and
one output. NAND gate generates the complement of AND gate output. Standard symbol for
NAND is:

Truth Table

NOR Gate
A NOT-OR operation is known as NOR operation. It has two or more inputs and one
output. NOR gate generates the complement of OR gate output. Standard symbol for NOR gate
is:

Truth Table

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 FUNDAMENTALS OF COMPUTERS

XOR Gate
XOR or Ex-OR gate is a special type of gate. It can be used in the half adder, full adder
and subtractor. The exclusive-OR gate is abbreviated as EX-OR gate or sometime as X-OR
gate. It has two or more inputs and one output. When all inputs are equal it generates low (0)
out put, in other situations high(1) output. The standard symbol of XOR gate is:

Truth Table

here Y= A B + A B
XNOR Gate
XNOR gate is a special type of gate. It can be used in the half adder, full adder and
subtractor. The exclusive-NOR gate is abbreviated as EX-NOR gate or sometime as X-NOR
gate. It has two or more inputs and one output. This gate generates complement of the XOR
gate output. The standard symbol of X-NOR gate is:

Truth Table

here Y= A B + A B

2.BOOLEAN ALGEBRA
Boolean Algebra is used to analyze and simplify the digital (logic) circuits. It uses only
the binary numbers i.e. 0 and 1. It is also called as Binary Algebra or logical Algebra. Boolean
algebra was invented by George Boole in 1854.
Rule in Boolean Algebra: Following are the important rules used in Boolean algebra.
• Variable used can have only two values. Binary 1 for HIGH and Binary 0 for LOW.
• Complement of a variable is represented by an overbar (-). Thus, complement of variable
B is represented as . Thus if B = 0 then = 1 and B = 1 then = 0.

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 FUNDAMENTALS OF COMPUTERS

• ORing of the variables is represented by a plus (+) sign between them. For example
ORing of A, B, C is represented as A + B + C.
• Logical ANDing of the two or more variable is represented by writing a dot between
them such as A.B.C. Sometime the dot may be omitted like ABC.
Fundamental conditions or self evident propositions are called Postulates. Basic Boolean
Postulates are originated from AND, OR, NOT operations. They are
1) 0.0 = 0 2) 0.1 = 0 3) 1.0 = 0 4) 1.1 = 1 these from AND operation
5)0+0 = 0 6) 0+1 = 1 7) 1+0 = 1 8) 1+1 = 1 these from OR operation
9) 0 = 1 10) 1 = 0 these are from NOT operation
Many useful Boolean theorems are developed with the help of these postulates.
3.BOOLEAN THEOREMS
1.Commutative law: Any binary operation which satisfies the following expression is referred
to as commutative operation.

Commutative law states that changing the sequence of the variables does not have any effect on
the output of a logic circuit.
2.Associative law: This law states that the order in which the logic operations are performed is
irrelevant as their effect is the same.

3.Distributive law: Distributive law states the following condition.

i) (ii) A+BC= (A+B)(A+C)
4.AND law:
These laws use the AND operation. Therefore they are called as AND laws.

5.OR law
These laws use the OR operation. Therefore they are called as OR laws.

6.INVERSION law
This law uses the NOT operation. The inversion law states that double inversion of a variable
results in the original variable itself.

7.De Morgan’s laws

De Morgan has suggested two theorems which are extremely useful in Boolean Algebra. The
two theorems are discussed below.
Theorem 1: A.B = A + B Table showing verification of the De Morgan's first theorem

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Theorem 2: A+B = A . B
Table showing verification of the De Morgan's second theorem −

8.Absorption laws:
i)A+AB=A ii) A(A+B)=A iii) AB + AB = A iv) (A+B)(A+B)= A

4.VENN DIAGRAM
A Venn diagram is an illustration that uses circles to show the relationships among things
or finite groups of things. Circles that overlap have a commonality while circles that do not
overlap do not share those traits.
Venn diagrams help to visually represent the similarities and differences between two
concepts. They have long been recognized for their usefulness as educational tools.
Since the mid-20th century, Venn diagrams have been used as part of the introductory
logic curriculum and in elementary-level educational plans around the world.
• A Venn diagram uses circles that overlap or don't overlap to show the commonalities and
differences among things or groups of things.
• Things that have commonalities are shown as overlapping circles while things that are
distinct stand alone.
• Venn diagrams are now used as illustrations in business and in many academic fields.
• The English logician John Venn popularized the diagram in the 1880s. He called them
Eulerian circles after the Swiss mathematician Leonard Euler, who created similar
diagrams in the 1700s.
• The term Venn diagram did not appear until 1918 when Clarence Lewis, an American
academic philosopher and the eventual founder of conceptual pragmatism, referred to the
circular depiction as the Venn diagram in his book "A Survey of Symbolic Logic.
• "Venn diagrams have been used since the mid-20th century in classrooms from the
elementary school level to introductory logic.
• Venn studied and taught logic and probability theory at Cambridge University, where he
developed his method of using diagrams to illustrate the branch of mathematics known as
set theory.
• Venn published a precedent-setting work, "The Logic of Chance," which explained the
frequency theory of probability. In it, he argued that probability, contrary to popular
assumption, should be established based on the regularity with which something is
predicted to occur.
• In another book, Symbolic Logic, Venn built on and developed mathematician George
Boole’s theories on algebra. This work helped him develop the Venn diagram.
Applications for Venn Diagrams
Venn diagrams are used to depict how items relate to each other against an overall
backdrop, universe, data set, or environment.

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 FUNDAMENTALS OF COMPUTERS

A Venn diagram could be used, for example, to compare two companies within the same
industry by illustrating the products both companies offer (where circles overlap) and the
products that are exclusive to each company (outer circles).
Venn diagrams are, at a basic level, simple pictorial representations of the relationship
that exists between two sets of things.
However, they can be much more complex. Still, the streamlined purpose of the Venn
diagram to illustrate concepts and groups has led to their popularized use in many fields,
including statistics, linguistics, logic, education, computer science, and business.
Examples of Venn Diagrams
A Venn diagram could be drawn to illustrate fruits that come in red or orange colors.
Below, we can see that there are orange fruits (circle B) such as persimmons and tangerines
while apples and cherries (circle A) come in red colors. Peppers and tomatoes come in both red
and orange colors, as represented by the overlapping area of the two circles.

You might also draw a Venn diagram to help decide which of two cars to purchase. The
Venn diagram shows the features that are exclusive to each car and the features that both cars
have.
Below, we see that Car A is a sedan that's powered by gasoline and gets 20 miles per
gallon, while Car B is a hybrid, gets 40 miles-per-gallon for mileage, and is a hatchback.

5.REPRESENTATION OF BOOLEAN FUNCTIONS

Boolean algebra deals with binary variables and logic operation.
A Boolean Function is described by an algebraic expression called Boolean
expression which consists of binary variables, the constants 0 and 1, and the logic operation
symbols. Consider the following example.

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 FUNDAMENTALS OF COMPUTERS

Here the left side of the equation represents the output Y. So we can state equation no. 1

Truth Table Formation

A truth table represents a table having all combinations of inputs and their corresponding
result.
It is possible to convert the switching equation into a truth table. For example, consider
the following switching equation.

The output will be high (1) if A = 1 or BC = 1 or both are 1. The truth table for this
equation is shown by Table (a). The number of rows in the truth table is 2n where n is the
number of input variables (n=3 for the given equation). Hence there are 23 = 8 possible input
combination of inputs.

Methods to simplify the boolean function

The methods used for simplifying the Boolean function are as follows −
• Karnaugh-map or K-map, and
• NAND gate method.
6.KARNAUGH-MAP OR K-MAP
The Boolean theorems and the De-Morgan's theorems are useful in manipulating the
logic expression. We can realize the logical expression using gates.
The number of logic gates required for the realization of a logical expression should be
reduced to a minimum possible value by K-map method. This method can be done in two
different ways, as discussed below.
Sum of Products (SOP) Form
It is in the form of sum of three terms AB, AC, BC with each individual term is a product
of two variables. Say A.B or A.C etc.
Therefore such expressions are known as expression in SOP form. The sum and products
in SOP form are not the actual additions or multiplications.
In fact they are the OR and AND functions. In SOP form, 0 represents a bar and 1
represents an unbar. SOP form is represented by .
Given below is an example of SOP.

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 FUNDAMENTALS OF COMPUTERS

Product of Sums (POS) Form

It is in the form of product of three terms (A+B), (B+C), or (A+C) with each term is in
the form of a sum of two variables.
Such expressions are said to be in the product of sums (POS) form. In POS form, 0
represents an unbar and 1 represents a bar. POS form is represented by .
Given below is an example of POS.

Karnaugh introduced a method for simplification of Boolean functions in an easy way.

This method is known as Karnaugh map method or K-map method.
It is a graphical method, which consists of 2n cells for ‘n’ variables. The adjacent cells
are differed only in single bit position.
K-Map method is most suitable for minimizing Boolean functions of 2 variables to 5 variables.
2 Variable K-Map
The number of cells in 2 variable K-map is four, since the number of variables is two.
Each square designates a product term of a Boolean expression.
The product terms of expression are represented as 1’s in the squares of K-Map, empty
squares are represented as 0’s .
For clarity of the map writing of 0’s can be omitted. The following figure shows 2
variable K-Map.

Two adjascency terms are grouped as dual for simplification, and the common term is the
minmized expression. Examples are:

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 FUNDAMENTALS OF COMPUTERS

3 Variable K-Map
The number of cells in 3 variable K-map is eight, since the number of variables is three.
The following figure shows 3 variable K-Map.

While forming groups of adjacent squares containing 1’s the following considerations must
be kept in mind:
• Every square containing 1 must be considered at least once.
• A square containing 1 can be included in as many groups as needed.
• A group must be as large as possible.
• A square containing 1 should not be left alone, it is also to be included in the final
expression.
• The number of squares in a group must be equal to 2n such as 2, 4, 8, 16 …
• The map is considered to be folded or cylindrical. Therefore squares at the end of a row
or column are treated as adjacent squares.
• The simplified logic expression obtained from K-Map is not unique groupings, 1 square
can be made in different ways which result in more than one logic expression.
• Examples are:

4 Variable K-Map
The number of cells in 4 variable K-map is sixteen, since the number of variables is four.
The following figure shows 4 variable K-Map.

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 FUNDAMENTALS OF COMPUTERS

Examples:

Example:

III CHAPTER – COMPUTER SOFTWARE

1.INTRODUCTION TO COMPUTER SOFTWARE
Software is a set of programs, which is designed to perform a well-defined function. A
program is a sequence of instructions written to solve a particular problem.
2.CLASSIFICATION OF CCOMPUTER SOFTWARE
Software is of following types:
• System Software
• Application Software
• Firm Ware
• Middle Ware
SYSTEM SOFTWARE
The system software is a collection of programs designed to operate, control, and extend
the processing capabilities of the computer itself.
System software is generally prepared by the computer manufacturers. These software
products comprise of programs written in low-level languages, which interact with the hardware
at a very basic level.
System software serves as the interface between the hardware and the end users. Some
examples of system software are Operating System, Compilers, Interpreter, Assemblers, etc.
System software is used to activate the system. The most important system software is
Operating System.
The loader is the system software which copies a executable program from secondary
memory to main memory, prepares the program for execution and initializes the execution.
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 FUNDAMENTALS OF COMPUTERS

Device driver is a system software, used by printers, monitors, graphics cards, sound
cards, network cards, modems, storage devices, mouse, scanners etc.
Here is a list of some of the most prominent features of a system software −
• Close to the system
• Fast in speed
• Difficult to design
• Difficult to understand
• Less interactive
• Smaller in size
• Difficult to manipulate
• Generally written in low-level language
APPLICATION SOFTWARE
Application software is designed to perform specific usages of the users. Micro Soft
Word, MS-Excel, MS-Power Point, MS-Access, Page Maker, Coral Draw, Photoshop, Tally,
AutoCAD, Acrobat, WinAmp, Micro Media Flash, Xing MP3 Player etc are some examples of
application software.
Application software products are designed to satisfy a particular need of a particular
environment. All software applications prepared in the computer lab can come under the
category of Application software.
Application software may consist of a single program, such as Microsoft's notepad for
writing and editing a simple text. It may also consist of a collection of programs, often called a
software package, which work together to accomplish a task, such as a spreadsheet package.
Application software is of Custom software and Pre-Written software Packages.
Software that is developed for a specific user or organization is known as custom
software.
A package is bought off the shelf and has predefined generic specifications that may or may
not cater to any specific user’s requirements.
Examples of Application software are the following −
• Payroll Software
• Student Record Software
• Inventory Management Software
• Income Tax Software
• Railways Reservation Software
• Microsoft Office Suite Software
• Microsoft Word
• Microsoft Excel
• Microsoft PowerPoint
Features of application software are as follows −
• Close to the user
• Easy to design
• More interactive
• Slow in speed
• Generally written in high-level language
• Easy to understand
• Easy to manipulate and use
• Bigger in size and requires large storage space

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 FUNDAMENTALS OF COMPUTERS

FIRMWARE
• Firmware is a software program or set of instructions programmed on a hardware device.
• Layer between hardware and software
• Also called “embedded software”
• Non-volatile, installed on ROM chips (ROM, PROM, EPROM) or flash chips
Examples :
• The BIOS found in IBM-compatible Personal Computers
• The operating system on a router
• The iPod's control menus
• The Xbox 360 Dashboard Firmware is in every electronic device.
Firmware Enables the device to render its capabilities functional.
Coordinates the activities of the hardware during normal operation and contains
programming constructs used to perform those operations.
Example: in a typical modem, the firmware will be a factor in establishing the modem's data
rate, command set recognition, and special feature implementation
Firmware was Developed using low-level programming languages or machine language.
The development cycles is as complicated as regular software development. Developers
must have deep understanding of the hardware of the product as well as the programming skills
and Must be well-tested.
Firmware goes open source! Example: firmware for Linksys router LinuxBIOS
OpenBIOS
Basic Input/Output System, firmware code run by an IBM compatible PC. Runs when the
computer is powered on. It initializes several motherboard components and peripherals,
including: processors and caches, chipset, memory, graphics controller, mass storage controllers,
various I/O controllers . Finally, it loads the boot loader for the operating system, and transfers
control to it.
Recently, the BIOS has taken on more complex functions such as power management,
hot swapping and thermal management. Extensible Firmware Interface (EFI)was invented to
extends BIOS functionality while reducing the complexity. Open source efforts: LinuxBIOS,
OpenBIOS.
Firmware is very important because it is the link between hardware and software.
Firmware is getting more and more important because of the growth of embed computer/system.
The development of firmware is very much like software.
MIDDLEWARE
Middleware is software that bridges gaps between other applications, tools, and databases
in order to provide unified services to users.
It is commonly characterized as the glue that connects different software platforms and
devices together.
Although the term has been referenced since 1968, middleware was officially introduced
in the 1980s as a way of linking newer applications to older legacy systems.
Middleware’s uses include web servers, application servers, content management
systems, and other tools which support application development and delivery.
Although a normal operating system offers an application programming interface
(API) where programs utilize underlying hardware features, Middleware offers an API for
underlying operating system features.

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 FUNDAMENTALS OF COMPUTERS

Use of network applications by tech-startups has placed onus on the significance of

middleware. By leveraging middleware for the integration of self-sustaining applications with
new software updates, SaaS businesses are creating enterprise-wide systems of information.
There are specifically two applications of middleware: enterprise and platform.
Enterprise middleware
Enterprise middleware connects software components or enterprise applications. It is the
layer of software between the operating system and the applications on either side of a computer
network, usually supporting complex, distributed business software applications.
Platform middleware
Platform middleware connects different application architectures. Some technology firms
operate using multiple application structures.
In the event in which firms merge or when there are third-party application acquisitions, a
company may find that they are using multiple structures.
Middleware supports these structures, and provides methods in three arenas of
interconnection: development environments, production and test.
In all of these arenas, middleware transfers the data from application to application, as
well as between databases and files.
Middleware Serving as a transitional software that connects operating systems and
communication protocols, middleware works to do the following:
• Disguise a disjointed and distributed network
• Create homogeneity from heterogeneous collection of software applications
• Provide developers with a uniform interface to support application development,
usability, and interoperability
• Offer a set of general purpose services that enable applications to work together and
prevent systems from duplicating efforts
Middleware also assists with the developing of applications by providing common
programming abstractions, masking application heterogeneity and the distribution of the
underlying hardware and operating systems, and by hiding low-level programming details.
The purpose of middleware is to foster interaction between different aspects of an application
or even between applications themselves. By leveraging middleware, businesses can expect to
experience:
• Efficient connectivity
• Innovative solutions
• More concise transition periods
• Easily accessible workplace tools
For example, the Android operating system utilizes middleware to run its software quickly,
efficiently, and with a much better user experience.
Android not only uses the Linux kernel at its core and offers an application architecture, it
provides a middleware layer consisting of libraries that provide services such as:
• Data storage
• Screen display
• Multimedia
• Web browsing
Additionally, Android’s libraries are compiled to machine language and allow for specific
functionality to vary across devices, which speeds up performance.

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 FUNDAMENTALS OF COMPUTERS

There are 14 types of middleware

There are 14 specific types of middleware software that can be used to solve various
problems for either enterprise or platform purposes, including:
1.Application Programming Interface (API): A toolset for building applications such as an
API for developing mobile apps on a particular operating system.
2.Application Server: A software framework used to create and run enterprise applications.
3.Application Integration: Enterprise application integration is an integration
framework composed of a collection of technologies and services which form a middleware or
“middleware framework” to enable integration of systems and applications across an enterprise.
4.Content-Centric Middleware: Similar to publish/subscribe middleware, content-centric
middleware utilizes provider-consumer abstraction to obtain specific content.
5.Data Integration: Tools for data integration, such as an enterprise service bus.
6.Device Middleware: A toolset for developing hardware environment-specific applications.
7.Embedded Middleware: Serving as an intermediary, embedded middleware enables
communication between and an integration interface for embedded applications, operating
systems, and applications.
8.Games Engines: A framework that enables graphics, physics, scripting, or networking.
9.Message-Oriented Middleware (MOM): Infrastructure that supports the transaction of
messages between distributed systems or elements.
10.Object Request Broker (ORB): Object middleware enables the sending of objects and
request services by way of an object oriented system
11.Portals: In reference to enterprise portal servers, this piece of software facilitates front-end
integration as well as interactions between a device and its back-end system.
12.Remote Procedure Call (RPC): A Remote Procedure Call is used synchronously or
asynchronously to call on services from remote systems.
13.Robotic Middleware: Robotic middleware is used to manage the complexity involved when
building a robot, such as robot control and simulation.
14.Transaction Processing (TP): Transaction processing middleware is used in transaction
processing monitors to provide an environment for developing and deploying disparate
applications.

3.ACQUIRING COMPUTER SOFTWARE

Different Ways of acquiring software
1. Buying prewritten software
2. Ordering customized software
3. Developing customized software
4. Down loading public domain software
Each of these ways of acquiring software has its own advantages and limitations.

4. DESIGN AND IMPLEMENTATION OF CORRECT, EFFICIENT, AND

MAINTAINABLE PROGRAMS
The entire program or software (collection of programs) development process is divided
in to a number of phases, where each phase performs a well- defined task .

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Phases in Software development Life cycle.

Requirements analysis:
In this phase , the user’s expectations are gathered to understand why the program or
software has to be developed.
Then , all the gathered requirements are analyzed and the scope or objective of the over
all software product is penned down.
The last activity in this phase involves documenting every identified requirement of the
user in order to avoid any doubts or uncertainty regarding the functionality of the program.
The functionality, capability, performance, and availability of hardware and software
components are all analyzed in this phase.
Design:
The requirement documented in the previous phase act as the input to the design phase. In
this phase, a plan of actions is made before the actual development process starts.
This plan will be followed throughout the development process. Moreover, in the design
phase, the core structure of the software or program is broken down in to modules.
The solution of the program is then specified for each module in the form of algorithms
or flow charts . The design phase, therefore specifies how the program or software will be
developed.
Implementation:
In this phase, the designed algorithms are converted in to program code using any of the
high level languages.

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 FUNDAMENTALS OF COMPUTERS

C is preferred for writing system programs, whereas Visual basic might be preferred for
an application program. The program codes are tested by the programmer to ensure their
correctness.
Testing:
In this phase , all the modules are tested together to ensure that the overall system works
well as a whole product.
In this phase, the software is tested using a large number of varied inputs, also known as
test data, to ensure that the software is working as expected by the user’s requirements identified
in the requirements analysis phase.
Software deployment, training, and support:
After the code is tested and the software or the program is approved by the user’s it is
then installed or deployed in the production environment.
Software training and support is a crucial phase. Program designers and developers spend
a lot of time creating the software, but if nobody in the organization knows how to use it or to fix
certain problems , then no one will want to use it.
Maintenance:
Maintenance and enhancements are ongoing activities that are done to cope with newly
discovered problems or new requirements. Such activities may take a long time to complete.

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