Chapter 1: Particle Dynamics: Kinematics in two and three Dimensions; Projectile Motion;

Uniform Circular Motion; Conservative and Non-Conservative Forces; Potential Energy

Function; Conservation of Momentum; Collision Problems; Center of Gravity and Mass.

Physics:
Physics is the branch of science that deals with the structure of matter and how the
fundamental constituents of the universe interact. It studies objects ranging from the very small using
quantum mechanics to the entire universe using general relativity.

SI Units:
Physicists and other scientists use the International System of Units (SI) in their work because
they wish to use a system that is agreed upon by scientists worldwide. Since 2019 the SI units have
been defined in terms of fundamental physical constants, which means that scientists anywhere using
SI can agree upon the units they use to measure physical phenomena.

Mechanics:
Mechanics is the area of mathematics and physics concerned with the relationships between force,
matter, and motion among physical objects. Forces applied to objects result in displacements, or
changes of an object's position relative to its environment.
Theoretical expositions of this branch of physics has its origins in Ancient Greece, for
instance, in the writings of Aristotle and Archimedes. During the early modern period, scientists such
as Galileo, Kepler, Huygens, and Newton laid the foundation for what is now known as classical
mechanics.
As a branch of classical physics, mechanics deals with bodies that are either at rest or are
moving with velocities significantly less than the speed of light. It can also be defined as the physical
science that deals with the motion of and forces on bodies not in the quantum realm.

Types of mechanical bodies

The often-used term body needs to stand for a wide assortment of objects, including particles,
projectiles, spacecraft, stars, parts of machinery, parts of solids, parts of fluids (gases and liquids),
etc.
Other distinctions between the various sub-disciplines of mechanics, concern the nature of the bodies
being described. Particles are bodies with little (known) internal structure, treated as mathematical
points in classical mechanics. Rigid bodies have size and shape, but retain a simplicity close to that
of the particle, adding just a few so-called degrees of freedom, such as orientation in space.
Otherwise, bodies may be semi-rigid, i.e. elastic, or non-rigid, i.e. fluid. These subjects have both
classical and quantum divisions of study.
For instance, the motion of a spacecraft, regarding its orbit and attitude (rotation), is described by the
relativistic theory of classical mechanics, while the analogous movements of an atomic nucleus are
described by quantum mechanics.

Sub-disciplines:
The following are two lists of various subjects that are studied in mechanics.
Note that there is also the "theory of fields" which constitutes a separate discipline in physics,
formally treated as distinct from mechanics, whether classical fields or quantum fields. But in actual
practice, subjects belonging to mechanics and fields are closely interwoven. Thus, for instance, forces
that act on particles are frequently derived from fields (electromagnetic or gravitational), and particles
generate fields by acting as sources. In fact, in quantum mechanics, particles themselves are fields,
as described theoretically by the wave function.

Classical Mechanics
The following are described as forming classical mechanics:
• Newtonian mechanics, the original theory of motion (kinematics) and forces
(dynamics).
 • Analytical mechanics is a reformulation of Newtonian mechanics with an
emphasis on system energy, rather than on forces. There are two main branches
of analytical mechanics:
o Hamiltonian mechanics, a theoretical formalism, based on the principle of
conservation of energy.
o Lagrangian mechanics, another theoretical formalism, based on the principle of the
least action.
• Classical statistical mechanics generalizes ordinary classical mechanics to
consider systems in an unknown state; often used to derive thermodynamic
properties.
• Celestial mechanics, the motion of bodies in space: planets, comets, stars,
galaxies, etc.
• Astrodynamics, spacecraft navigation, etc.
• Solid mechanics, elasticity, plasticity, viscoelasticity exhibited by deformable
solids.
• Fracture mechanics
• Acoustics, sound ( = density variation propagation) in solids, fluids and gases.
• Statics, semi-rigid bodies in mechanical equilibrium
• Fluid mechanics, the motion of fluids
• Soil mechanics, mechanical behavior of soils
• Continuum mechanics, mechanics of continua (both solid and fluid)
• Hydraulics, mechanical properties of liquids
• Fluid statics, liquids in equilibrium
• Applied mechanics, or Engineering mechanics
• Biomechanics, solids, fluids, etc. in biology
• Biophysics, physical processes in living organisms
• Relativistic or Einsteinian mechanics, universal gravitation.

Quantum Mechanics
The following are categorized as being part of quantum mechanics:
• Schrödinger wave mechanics, used to describe the movements of the wavefunction of a
single particle.
• Matrix mechanics is an alternative formulation that allows considering systems with a finite-
dimensional state space.
• Quantum statistical mechanics generalizes ordinary quantum mechanics to consider
systems in an unknown state; often used to derive thermodynamic properties.
• Particle physics, the motion, structure, and reactions of particles
• Nuclear physics, the motion, structure, and reactions of nuclei
• Condensed matter physics, quantum gases, solids, liquids, etc.

Historically, classical mechanics had been around for nearly a quarter millennium before
quantum mechanics developed. Classical mechanics originated with Isaac Newton's laws of motion
in Philosophiæ Naturalis Principia Mathematica, developed over the seventeenth century. Quantum
mechanics developed later, over the nineteenth century, precipitated by Planck's postulate and Albert
Einstein's explanation of the photoelectric effect. Both fields are commonly held to constitute the
most certain knowledge that exists about physical nature.
Classical mechanics has especially often been viewed as a model for other so-called exact
sciences. Essential in this respect is the extensive use of mathematics in theories, as well as the
decisive role played by experiment in generating and testing them.
Quantum mechanics is of a bigger scope, as it encompasses classical mechanics as a sub-
discipline which applies under certain restricted circumstances. According to the correspondence
principle, there is no contradiction or conflict between the two subjects, each simply pertains to
specific situations. The correspondence principle states that the behavior of systems described by
quantum theories reproduces classical physics in the limit of large quantum numbers, i.e. if quantum
mechanics is applied to large systems (for e.g. a baseball), the result would almost be the same if
classical mechanics had been applied. Quantum mechanics has superseded classical mechanics at the
foundation level and is indispensable for the explanation and prediction of processes at the molecular,
atomic, and sub-atomic level. However, for macroscopic processes classical mechanics is able to
solve problems which are unmanageably difficult (mainly due to computational limits) in quantum
mechanics and hence remains useful and well used. Modern descriptions of such behavior begin with
a careful definition of such quantities as displacement (distance moved), time, velocity, acceleration,
mass, and force. Until about 400 years ago, however, motion was explained from a very different
point of view. For example, following the ideas of Greek philosopher and scientist Aristotle,
scientists reasoned that a cannonball falls down because its natural position is in the Earth; the sun,
the moon, and the stars travel in circles around the earth because it is the nature of heavenly objects
to travel in perfect circles.
Often cited as father to modern science, Galileo brought together the ideas of other great thinkers
of his time and began to calculate motion in terms of distance travelled from some starting position
and the time that it took. He showed that the speed of falling objects increases steadily during the
time of their fall. This acceleration is the same for heavy objects as for light ones, provided air friction
(air resistance) is discounted. The English mathematician and physicist Isaac Newton improved this
analysis by defining force and mass and relating these to acceleration. For objects traveling at speeds
close to the speed of light, Newton's laws were superseded by Albert Einstein's theory of relativity.
[A sentence illustrating the computational complication of Einstein's theory of relativity.] For atomic
and subatomic particles, Newton's laws were superseded by quantum theory. For everyday
phenomena, however, Newton's three laws of motion remain the cornerstone of dynamics, which is
the study of what causes motion.

Relativistic
In analogy to the distinction between quantum and classical mechanics, Albert Einstein's
general and special theories of relativity have expanded the scope of Newton and Galileo's
formulation of mechanics. The differences between relativistic and Newtonian mechanics become
significant and even dominant as the velocity of a body approaches the speed of light. For instance,
in Newtonian mechanics, the kinetic energy of a free particle is E=1/2mv2, whereas in relativistic
mechanics, it is E = (γ-1)mc2 (where γ is the Lorentz factor; this formula reduces to the Newtonian
expression in the low energy limit).[17]
For high-energy processes, quantum mechanics must be adjusted to account for special
relativity; this has led to the development of quantum field theory.[18]

Kinematics: Kinematics is a subfield of physics, developed in classical mechanics, that describes

the motion of points, bodies (objects), and systems of bodies (groups of objects) without considering
the forces that cause them to move. Kinematics, as a field of study, is often referred to as the
"geometry of motion" and is occasionally seen as a branch of mathematics. A kinematics problem
begins by describing the geometry of the system and declaring the initial conditions of any known
values of position, velocity and/or acceleration of points within the system. Then, using arguments
from geometry, the position, velocity and acceleration of any unknown parts of the system can be
determined. The study of how forces act on bodies falls within kinetics, not kinematics. For further
details, see analytical dynamics.

Dynamics: Dynamics is a branch of mechanics that deals with forces and their relation primarily to
the motion but sometimes also to the equilibrium of bodies.
Kinematics in One Dimension
Kinematics analyzes the positions and motions of objects as a function of time, without regard
to the causes of motion. It involves the relationships between the quantities displacement (d),
velocity (v), acceleration (a), and time (t). The first three of these quantities are vectors.

Definition of a vector
A vector is a physical quantity with direction as well as magnitude, for example, velocity or
force. In contrast, a quantity that has only magnitude and no direction, such as temperature or time,
is called a scalar. A vector is commonly denoted by an arrow drawn with a length proportional to
the given magnitude of the physical quantity and with direction shown by the orientation of the head
of the arrow.

Displacement and velocity

Imagine that a car begins traveling along a road after starting from a specific sign post. To
know the exact position of the car after it has traveled a given distance, it is necessary to know not
only the miles it traveled but also its heading. The displacement, defined as the change in position
of the object, is a vector with the magnitude as a distance, such as 10 miles, and a direction, such as
east. Velocity is a vector expression with a magnitude equal to the speed traveled and with an
indicated direction of motion. For motion defined on a number line, the direction is specified by a
positive or negative sign. Average velocity is mathematically defined as

Note that displacement (distance from starting position) is not the same as distance traveled. If a car
travels one mile east and then returns one mile west, to the same position, the total displacement is
zero and so is the average velocity over this time period. Displacement is measured in units of length,
such as meters or kilometers, and velocity is measured in units of length per time, such as
meters/second (meters per second).
Average acceleration: Acceleration is defined as the rate of change of velocity with time.
Acceleration is given by the following equation:

Acceleration units are expressed as length per time divided by time such as meters/second/second or
in abbreviated form as m/s 2.

Graphical interpretations of displacement, velocity, and acceleration

The distance versus time graph in the following Figure shows the progress of a person (I) standing
still, (II) walking with a constant velocity, and (III) walking with a slower constant velocity. The
slope of the line yields the speed. For example, the speed in segment II is

Figure 1: Motion of a walking person.

Each segment in the velocity versus time graph in the following Figure depicts a different motion of
a bicycle: (I) increasing velocity, (II) constant velocity, (III) decreasing velocity, and (IV) velocity
in a direction opposite the initial direction (negative). The area between the curve and the time axis
represents the distance traveled. For example, the distance traveled during segment I is equal to the
area of the triangle with height 15 and base 10. Because the area of a triangle is (1/2)(base)(height),
then (1/2)(15 m/s)(10 s) = 75 m. The magnitude of acceleration equals the calculated slope. The
acceleration calculation for segment III is (−15 m/s)/(10 s) = −1.5 m/s/s or −1.5 m/s 2.

Figure 2: Accelerating motion of a bicycle

The more realistic distance‐versus‐time curve in Figure (a) illustrates gradual changes in the motion
of a moving car. The speed is nearly constant in the first 2 seconds, as can be seen by the nearly
constant slope of the line; however, between 2 and 4 seconds, the speed is steadily decreasing and
the instantaneous velocity describes how fast the object is moving at a given instant.

Figure 3 : Motion of a car: (a) distance, (b) velocity, and (c) acceleration change in time.
Instantaneous velocity can be read on an odometer in the car. It is calculated from a graph as the
slope of a tangent to the curve at the specified time. The slope of the line sketched at 4 seconds is 6
m/s. Figure (b) is a sketch of the velocity‐versus‐time graph constructed from the slopes of the
distance‐versus‐time curve. In like fashion, the instantaneous acceleration is found from the slope
of a tangent to the velocity‐versus‐time curve at a given time. The instantaneous
acceleration‐versus‐time graph in Figure (c) is the sketch of the slopes of the velocity‐versus‐time
graph of Figure (b). With the vertical arrangement shown, it is easy to compute the displacement,
velocity, and acceleration of a moving object at the same time.
For example, at time t = 10 s, the displacement is 47 m, the velocity is −5 m/s, and the acceleration
is −5 m/s 2.
Definitions of instantaneous velocity and instantaneous acceleration
The instantaneous velocity, by definition, is the limit of the average velocity as the measured time
interval is made smaller and smaller. In formal terms,
 d
v  lim t 0 .
t
d
The notation lim t 0 means the ratio is evaluated as the time interval approaches zero.
t
Similarly, instantaneous acceleration is defined as the limit of the average acceleration as the time
v
interval becomes infinitesimally short. That is, a  lim t 0 .
t

Motion with constant acceleration

When an object moves with constant acceleration, the velocity increases or decreases at the same rate
throughout the motion. The average acceleration equals the instantaneous acceleration when the
acceleration is constant. A negative acceleration can indicate either of two conditions:
• Case 1: The object has a decreasing velocity in the positive direction.
• Case 2: The object has an increasing velocity in the negative direction.
For example, a ball tossed up will be under the influence of a negative (downward) acceleration due
to gravity. Its velocity will decrease while it travels upward (case 1); then, after reaching its highest
point, the velocity will increase downward as the object returns to earth (case 2).
Using v0 (velocity at the beginning of time elapsed), v f (velocity at the end of the time elapsed),
and t for time, the constant acceleration is
v f  v0
a or , v f  v0  at ...............(1)
t
Substituting the average velocity as the arithmetic average of the original and final velocities
vavg = ( v0 + v f )/2 into the relationship between distance and average velocity d = ( vavg)( t) yields.
1
d (v0  v f )t ........................(2)
2
Substitute v f from Equation 1 into Equation 2 to obtain
1
d  v0 t  at 2 ........................(3)
2
Finally, substitute the value of t from Equation 1 into Equation 2 for
v 2f  v02  2ad ........................(4)
These four equations relate v o , v f , t, a, and d. Note that each equation has a different set of four of
these five quantities. Table summarizes the equations for motion in a straight line under constant
acceleration.
A special case of constant acceleration occurs for an object under the influence of gravity. If an object
is thrown vertically upward or dropped, the acceleration due to gravity of −9.8 m/s 2 is substituted in
the above equations to find the relationships among velocity, distance, and time.

Kinematics in Two Dimensions

Our world is three‐dimensional. For easier analysis, many motions can be simplified to two
dimensions. For example, an object fired into the air moves in a vertical, two‐dimensional plane;
also, horizontal motion over the earth's surface is two‐dimensional for short distances. Elementary
vector algebra is required to examine the relationships between vector quantities in two dimensions.

Addition and subtraction of vectors: geometric method

The vector A shown in Figure (a) represents a velocity of 10 m/s northeast, and vector B represents
a velocity of 20 m/s at 30 degrees north of east. (A vector is named with a letter in boldface, nonitalic
type, and its magnitude is named with the same letter in regular, italic type. You will often see vectors
in the figures of the book that are represented by their magnitudes in the mathematical expressions.)
Vectors may be moved over the plane if the represented length and direction are preserved.

Figure 1: Graphical addition of vectors, A + B = C.

In Figure (b), the same vectors are positioned to be geometrically added. The tail of one vector, in
this case A, is moved to the head of the other vector (B). The vector sum (C) is the vector that extends
from the tail of one vector to the head of the other. To find the magnitude of C, measure along its
length and use the given scale to determine the velocity represented. To find the direction θ of C,
measure the angle to the horizontal axis at the tail of C.
Figure (a) shows that A + B = B + A. The sum of the vectors is called the resultant and is the diagonal
of a parallelogram with sides A and B. Figure (b) illustrates the construction for adding four vectors.
The resultant vector is the vector that results in the one that completes the polygon.

Figure 2: (a) A + B = B + A. (b) Graphical addition of several vectors.

To subtract vectors, place the tails together. The difference of the two vectors (D) is the vector that
begins at the head of the subtracted vector (B) and goes to the head of the other vector (A). An
alternate method is to add the negative of a vector, which is a vector with the same length but pointing
in the opposite direction. The second method is demonstrated in Figure .
 Figure 3: Graphical subtraction of vectors, A − B = D.

Addition and subtraction of vectors: Component method

For precision in adding vectors, an analytical method using basic trigonometry is required
because scale drawings do not give accurate values.
Consider vector A in the rectangular coordinate system of Figure . The vector A can be expressed as
the sum of two vectors along the x and y axes, A = Ax + Ay, where Ax and Ay are called the
components of A. The direction of Ax is parallel to the x axis, and that of Ay is parallel to the y axis.
The magnitudes of the components are obtained from the definitions of the sine and cosine of an
angle: cos θ = Ax / A and sin θ = Ay / A, or

Figure 4: Components of a vector.

To add vectors numerically, first find the components of all the vectors. The signs of the components
are the same as the signs of the cosine and sine in the given quadrant. Then, sum the components in
the x direction, and sum the components in the y direction. As shown in Figure , the sum of the x
components and the sum of the y components of the given vectors ( A and B) comprise the x and y
components of the resultant vector ( C).

Figure 5 : Component method of vector addition, A + B = C.

These resultant components form the two sides of a right angle with a hypotenuse of the magnitude
of C; thus, the magnitude of the resultant is

The direction of the resultant ( C) is calculated from the tangent because tan θ = Cx / Cy . To solve for
the angle θ, use θ = tan −1 ( Cy / Cx ).
The procedure can be summarized as follows:
1. Sketch the vectors on a coordinate system.
2. Find the x and y components of all the vectors, with the appropriate signs.
3. Sum the components in both the x and y directions.
4. Find the magnitude of the resultant vector from the Pythagorean theorem.
5. Find the direction of the resultant vector using the tangent function.
Follow the same procedure to subtract vectors by calculating the appropriate algebraic sum of the
components in Step 3.

Multiplication of vectors
The dot product: There are two different ways in which two vectors may be multiplied together.
The first is the dot product, also called the scalar product, which is written A . B. This can be evaluated
in two ways:
• A . B = Ax Bx + Ay By
• A . B = AB cos θ, where θ is the angle between the vectors when they are set tail to tail, and
A and B are the lengths of the vectors.
Note that the order of the vectors does not matter and that the result of the dot product is a scalar
rather than a vector. Note that if two vectors are perpendicular, their dot product is zero according to
the second rule above.

Cross product: The second way to multiply vectors is called the cross product or the vector
product. It is written A × B. It can be evaluated in two ways:
• A × B = ( Ax By − Ay Bx )z, when the vectors A and B both are in x–y plane. The z indicates
that the result is a vector that points along the z axis. In general, the vector resulting from a
cross product is always perpendicular to both of the vectors being multiplied together.
• A × B = AB z sin θ, where θ is the angle between the vectors A and B when they are placed
tail to tail. Again, the result is a vector perpendicular to A and B (and therefore points along
the z axis if A and B are in the x–y plane).
The result of a cross product does depend on the order of the vectors. Note from the first rule that
A × B = − B × A. Also, if A and B are parallel, the second rule implies that their cross product is
zero.
Finally, the cross product give rise to the “right hand rule,” which allows you to easily determine the
direction of the resulting vector. For the general expression A × B = C, point your thumb in the
direction of A. Now point your index finger in the direction of B; if necessary, flip over your hand.
The vector C points outward from your palm.

Velocity and acceleration vectors in two dimensions

For motion in two dimensions, the earlier kinematics equations must be expressed in vector form.
For example, the average velocity vector is v = ( df − do )/ t, where do and df are the initial and final
displacement vectors and t is the time elapsed. As noted earlier, the velocity and displacement vectors
are shown in bold type, whereas the scalar (t) is not. In similar fashion, the average acceleration
vector is a = ( vf − vo )/ t, where vo and vf are the initial and final velocity vectors.
An important point is that the acceleration can arise from a change in the magnitude of the velocity
(speed) as well as from a change in the direction of the velocity. If an object travels around a circle
at a constant speed, there is an acceleration due to the change in the direction of the velocity, even
though the magnitude of the velocity does not change. A mass moves in a horizontal circle with a
constant speed in Figure . The velocity vectors at positions 1 and 2 are subtracted to find the average
acceleration, which is directed toward the center of the circle. (Note that the average acceleration
vector is placed at the midpoint of the path in the given time interval.)
Figure 6 : Velocity and acceleration vectors of an object moving in a circle

The following discussion summarizes the four different cases for acceleration in a plane:
• Case 1: Zero acceleration
• Case 2: Acceleration due to changing direction but not speed
• Case 3: Acceleration due to changing speed but not direction
• Case 4: Acceleration due to changing both speed and direction.
Imagine a ball rolling on a horizontal surface that is illuminated by a stroboscopic light. Figure (a)
shows the position of the ball at even intervals of time along a dotted path. Case 1 is illustrated in
positions 1 through 3; the magnitude and direction of the velocity do not change (the pictures are
evenly spaced and in a straight line), and therefore, there is no acceleration. Case 2 is indicated for
positions 3 through 5; the ball has constant speed but changing direction, and therefore, an
acceleration exists. Figure (b) illustrates the subtraction of v 3 and v 4 and the resulting acceleration
toward the center of the arc. Case 3 occurs from positions 5 to 7; the direction of the velocity is
constant, but the magnitude changes. The acceleration for this portion of the path is along the
direction of motion. The ball curves from position 7 to 9, showing case 4; the velocity changes both
direction and magnitude. In this case, the acceleration is directed nearly upward between 7 and 8 and
has a component toward the center of the arc due to the change in direction of the velocity and a
component along the path due to the change in the magnitude of the velocity.

Figure 7: (a) Path of a ball on a table. (b) Acceleration between points 3 and 4.
Projectile motion
A body projected with a uniform velocity at an angle  with the horizontal plane of the earth, is called
a projectile. The path traversed by the projectile is called its trajectory.

Let us consider a vertical plane X-Y (Fig. 1). The earth’s surface is the origin at the point O. The body
is projected from the point P(x0,y0) with velocity v0 making an angle  with the horizontal. The two
components of this velocity at the point P, are
(i) v0 cos  in the horizontal direction and
(ii) v0 sin  in the vertical direction.

After some time the body is at P1(x,y). The force acting on the particle at P1 is given by-
F  mg ˆj ………………..(i)

The position vector r  x iˆ  y ˆj.
d 2r  d 2 x  ˆ  d 2 y  ˆ
and, acceleration,  i   j
dt 2  dt 2   dt 2 
 d 2 x   d 2 y  
F  m  2  iˆ   2  ˆj   mgy ……………(ii)
 dt   dt  
 d 2x d2y
  0 and   g ……………..(iii)
dt 2 dt 2

dy
Integrating equation (iii),   gt  k1
dt
or, v y   gt  k1
At time t=0, v y  v0 sin  and k1  v0 sin 
 v y   gt  v0 sin 
dy
Again, v y    gt  v0 sin 
dt
1
Integrating, y   gt 2  (v0 sin  )t  k 2 …………………(iv)
2
At time t=0, y=y0 and k2=y0.
1
Hence, from eq. (iv) , y  y0   gt 2  (v0 sin  )t …………..(v)
2
Again, integrating equation (iii)
dx
 k3 , or , v x  k3
dt
dx
At time t  0, v x  v0 cos   k3   v0 cos 
dt
Integrating again, x  (v0 cos  )t  k 4 …………….(vi)
At time t=0, x=x0 and k4=x0
Therefore, equation (vi) yields, x  x0  (v0 cos  )t
x  x0
or, t  …………….(vii)
v0 cos 
Substituting the value of t, in Equation (v) we get,
2
1  x  x0   x  x0 
y  y0   g    (v0 sin  ) 
2  v0 cos    v0 cos  
v02 sin 2 
Subtracting from both sides we get,
2g
2
 v02 sin 2   1  x  x0   x  x0  v02 sin 2 
y   y0     g    (v0 sin  )  
 2 g  2  v0 cos   v0 cos  2g

2
 v 2 sin 2   g   v02 sin 2 
y   y0  0    2 x 
  0  x   …….(viii)
 2g  2v0 cos 2    2 g 
v02 sin 2  v 2 sin 2
Taking, y0   y1 and x0  0  x1 we get
2g 2g
g
y  y1  2 ( x  x1 ) 2 …………………….(ix)
2v0 cos 2 
Equation (ix) represents the general equation of a parabola with vertex (x1,y1).

Maximum Height:
The maximum height attained above the launching position is given by
v 2 sin 2 
h  y  y0  0 ………..(x)
2g
For maximum height, h is constant
 dh
 0
d
d  v02 sin 2  
or ,  0
d  2 g 
v02 2 sin  cos  
or , 0
2g
v02 sin 2
0 i.e., sin 2  0
2g
 2  180 ,   90
The height attained is maximum when the particle is projected vertically upwards.

Maximum Range: The horizontal range, i.e., the distance at which the projectile returns to the
launching elevation, is given by
R  2( x1  x0 ) .......................( xii)
2v02 sin 2 v02 sin 2
R 
2g g
dR
R will be maximum when  0. Differentiating Equation(xii)
d
dR v02 2 cos 2
  0,
d g
or , 2  90 , i.e.,   45.
Hence the horizontal range is maximum when the projectile makes an angle of 45 with the
horizontal.
Anyone who has observed a tossed object—for example, a baseball in flight—has observed
projectile motion. To analyze this common type of motion, three basic assumptions are made: (1)
acceleration due to gravity is constant and directed downward, (2) the effect of air resistance is
negligible, and (3) the surface of the earth is a stationary plane (that is, the curvature of the earth's
surface and the rotation of the earth are negligible).
To analyze the motion, separate the two‐dimensional motion into vertical and horizontal components.
Vertically, the object undergoes constant acceleration due to gravity. Horizontally, the object
experiences no acceleration and, therefore, maintains a constant velocity. This velocity is illustrated
in Figure where the velocity components change in the y direction; however, they are all of the same
length in the x direction (constant). Note that the velocity vector changes with time due to the fact
that the vertical component is changing.

Figure 8 : Projectile motion.

In this example, the particle leaves the origin with an initial velocity ( v0 ), up at an angle of  0 . The
original x and y components of the velocity are given by
v x 0  v0 cos  0 and v y 0  v0 sin  0 .
With the motions separated into components, the quantities in the x and y directions can be analyzed
with the one‐dimensional motion equations subscripted for each direction: for the horizontal
direction, vx = vx0 and x = vx0 t; for vertical direction, vy = vy0 − gt and y = vy0 − (1/2) gt 2, where x and
y represent distances in the horizontal and vertical directions, respectively, and the acceleration due
to gravity (g) is 9.8 m/s 2. (The negative sign is already incorporated into the equations.) If the object
is fired down at an angle, the y component of the initial velocity is negative. The speed of the
projectile at any instant can be calculated from the components at that time from the Pythagorean
theorem, and the direction can be found from the inverse tangent on the ratios of the components:

Other information is useful in solving projectile problems. Consider the example shown in Figure
where the projectile is fired up at an angle from ground level and returns to the same level. The time
for the projectile to reach the ground from its highest point is equal to the time of fall for a freely
falling object that falls straight down from the same height. This equality of time is because the
horizontal component of the initial velocity of the projectile affects how far the projectile travels
horizontally but not the time of flight. Projectile paths are parabolic and, therefore, symmetric. Also
for this case, the object reaches the top of its rise in half of the total time (T) of flight. At the top of
the rise, the vertical velocity is zero. (The acceleration is always g, even at the top of the flight.)
These facts can be used to derive the range of the projectile, or the distance traveled horizontally. At
maximum height, vy = 0 and t = T/2; therefore, the velocity equation in the vertical direction becomes
0 = vo sin θ − g T/2 or solving for T, T = (2 v0 sin θ)/ g.
Substitution into the horizontal distance equation yields R = ( vo cos θ) T. Substitute T in the range
equation and use the trigonometry identity sin 2θ = 2 sin θ cos θ to obtain an expression for the range
in terms of the initial speed and angle of motion, R = ( vo 2/ g) sin 2θ. As indicated by this expression,
the maximum range occurs when θ = 45 degrees because, at this value of θ, sin 2θ has its maximum
value of 1. Figure sketches the trajectories of projectiles thrown with the same initial speed at
differing angles of inclination.

Figure 9: Range of projectiles launched at different angles.

Uniform circular motion
For uniform motion of an object in a horizontal circle of radius (R), the constant speed is given by v
= 2π R/ T, which is the distance of one revolution divided by the time for one revolution. The time
for one revolution (T) is defined as period. During one rotation, the head of the velocity vector traces
a circle of circumference 2π v in one period; thus, the magnitude of the acceleration is a = 2π v/ T.
Combine these two equations to obtain two additional relationships in other variables: a = v 2/ R and
a = (4π 2/ T 2) R.
The displacement vector is directed out from the center of the circle of motion. The velocity vector
is tangent to the path. The acceleration vector directed to the center of the circle is called centripetal
acceleration. Figure shows the displacement, velocity, and acceleration vectors at different positions
as the mass travels in a circle on a frictionless horizontal plane.

Figure 10: Uniform circular motion.

Conservative Force: A conservative force is a force with the property that the total work done in
moving a particle between two points is independent of the path taken. Equivalently, if a particle
travels in a closed loop, the total work done (the sum of the force acting along the path multiplied by
the displacement) by a conservative force is zero.

A conservative force depends only on the position of the object. If a force is conservative, it is
possible to assign a numerical value for the potential at any point and conversely, when an object
moves from one location to another, the force changes the potential energy of the object by an amount
that does not depend on the path taken, contributing to the mechanical energy and the overall
conservation of energy. If the force is not conservative, then defining a scalar potential is not possible,
because taking different paths would lead to conflicting potential differences between the start and
end points.

Gravitational force is an example of a conservative force, while frictional force is an example of a

non-conservative force.

Other examples of conservative forces are: force in elastic spring, electrostatic force between two
electric charges, and magnetic force between two magnetic poles. The last two forces are called
central forces as they act along the line joining the centres of two charged/magnetized bodies. A
central force is conservative if and only if it is spherically symmetric.
Path independence

A direct consequence of the closed path test is that the work done by a conservative force on a
particle moving between any two points does not depend on the path taken by the particle.

This is illustrated in the figure to the right: The work done by the gravitational force on an object
depends only on its change in height because the gravitational force is conservative. The work done
by a conservative force is equal to the negative of change in potential energy during that process.
For a proof, imagine two paths 1 and 2, both going from point A to point B. The variation of energy
for the particle, taking path 1 from A to B and then path 2 backwards from B to A, is 0; thus, the
work is the same in path 1 and 2, i.e., the work is independent of the path followed, as long as it
goes from A to B.

For example, if a child slides down a frictionless slide, the work done by the gravitational force on
the child from the start of the slide to the end is independent of the shape of the slide; it only
depends on the vertical displacement of the child.

Non-conservative force:

A non-conservative force is the classification given to any force whose work is dependent on the
path taken because microscopic effects are dependent on macroscopic phenomena. In short, a non-
conservative force converts macroscopic motion into microscopic motion.

An example of non-conservative forces in a baseball game:

• Normal force: The collision between a baseball and a bat (macroscopic motion) will make a
sound (microscopic motion), see Figure 1.
• Air drag: After a baseball player hits the baseball, the ball will move through the air
(macroscopic motion). The ball will impart kinetic energy on air molecules and make them
vibrate faster. This creates heat (microscopic motion). This is the same as the mechanical
equivalent of heat, which converts motion of a fluid to heat. The more air drag there is, the
faster the ball will dissipate kinetic energy into thermal energy.
• Friction: When the player slides to the base (macroscopic motion), friction will impart energy
into the ground and the player's pants. This causes the atoms in the ground to vibrate more
(microscopic motion) and may even cause plastic deformation (like stretching or tearing the
pants) that can be further losses of kinetic energy.

All real systems have some non-conservative forces associated with them. For example, when the
moon rotates around the Earth it creates tidal forces, which will slightly warm the oceans
(microscopic motion of the molecules in the ocean). However, it is a small effect compared to the
energy in the system.

By the second law of thermodynamics, all systems lose mechanical energy over time. It is important
to note that non-conservative forces do not destroy energy they just convert it into a less useful (less
ordered) form.

What is the principle of conservation of momentum?

In physics, the term conservation refers to something which doesn't change. This means that the variable in
an equation which represents a conserved quantity is constant over time. It has the same value both
before and after an event.

Conservation Of Momentum
We know that momentum is a vector quantity that can be conserved. In this article, let us know
more about the conservation of momentum along with its examples.

What is Conservation Of Momentum?

Momentum is defined as the product of the mass of a particle and its velocity. Conservation of
momentum is a major law of physics which states that the momentum of a system is constant if no
external forces are acting on the system. It is embodied in Newton’s First Law or The Law of
Inertia.

The law of conservation of momentum is generously confirmed by experiment and can even be
mathematically deduced on the reasonable presumption that space is uniform.

Conservation of Linear Momentum:

Conservation of linear momentum is based on Newton’s second law of motion which states that in
an isolated system the total momentum remains the same. Let’s consider the following example,

Remember: In the above experiment we did not consider any loss of energy due to friction, heat,
etc. and all the collisions were elastic in nature i.e. there was a total transfer of energy, Actual
observations may differ.
Let’s consider a case where a football of mass M2 is resting on the ground, a bowling ball with a
comparatively heavier mass of M1 is thrown at the football at a velocity of U1.

When the bowling ball hits the football the energy is transferred and the bowling ball loses some
velocity and moves at a new velocity V1 , the football moves at velocity V2 , why did the football
move?

To conserve linear momentum, i.e. the bowling ball had an initial momentum of M1 so as
M2<M1 and the momentum of football should be equal to the momentum lost by the bowling ball
according to the law of conservation of momentum, the football had no other option than moving at
a velocity V2.

Formula:

Mathematically it is given by, miu1+m2u2=m1v1+m2v2

Note: m1u1m1v1

Where,, m1 is mass of the bowling ball, m2 is the mass of the football. u1 and u2 are the initial
velocities and v1 and v2 are the final velocities.
Even though the momentum of each particle changes, altogether the momentum of the system
remains constant as long as there is no external force acting on it. In a head-to-head car accident,
the momentum is transferred from one car to the other, but so much force is applied that the car
structure cannot handle it, this is why a car wrecks. If the cars were able to deal with the amount of
force, and the collision was elastic they both will move in opposite directions, considering their
weights are the same.

In short, momentum is always conserved in any collision, whether it be an elastic or a non-elastic

collision, though kinetic energy is not conserved in a non-elastic collision, the kinetic energy is
converted into heat energy or potential energy, etc.

Example of Conservation Of Momentum

Consider this example of a balloon, the particles of gas move rapidly colliding with each other and
the walls of the balloon, even though the particles themselves move faster and slower when they
lose or gain momentum when they collide, the total momentum of the system remains the same.

Hence, the balloon doesn’t change in size, if we add external energy by heating it, the balloon
should expand because it increases the velocity of the particles and this increases their momentum,
in turn, increasing the force exerted by them on the walls of the balloon.

Application of Law of Conservation of Momentum

Having said so the energy of a system is always conserved, one of the best applications of the law
of conservation of momentum would be in space travel, there is no medium in space to exert a force
on, then how do rockets travel?
Well, they eject matter at very high speed so in an isolated system the momentum should remain
constant therefore the rocket will move in the opposite direction with the same momentum as that
of the exhaust.

Stay tuned with BYJU’S to know more about the law of conservation of momentum, Newton’s
Second Law of Motion, and much more.

Frequently Asked Questions – FAQs

What does the law of conservation of momentum state?

The law of conservation of momentum states that in an isolated system the total momentum of two or
more bodies acting upon each other remains constant unless an external force is applied. Therefore,
momentum can neither be created nor destroyed.

The law of conservation of momentum is based on which law of motion?

The law of conservation of momentum is based on Newton’s third law of motion which states that every
force has a reciprocating equal and opposite force.

What is the real-life example of the law of conservation of momentum?

The thrust that you feel at the time of firing is one of the real-life examples of the conservation of
momentum.

What is the law of conservation of momentum formula?

The momentum observation principle can be mathematically represented as:

m1u1 + m2u2 = m1v1 + m2v2
In the equation, m1 and m2 are masses of the bodies, u1 and u2 are the initial velocities of the body.
v1 and v2 are the final velocities of the bodies.
Does friction affect the conservation of momentum?

Yes, friction affects momentum. As friction increases, momentum decreases.