Detailed Revision

Elasticity
Interatomic Forces (r0 = 0.74 Å for hydrogen).

The forces between the atoms due to (5) When the distance between the two atoms
electrostatic interaction between the charges of the further decreased, the interatomic force becomes
atoms are called interatomic forces. These forces repulsive in nature and increases very rapidly with
are electrical in nature and these are active if the decrease in distance between two atoms.
distance between the two atoms is of the order of (6) The potential energy U is related with the
–10
atomic size i.e. 10 metre. interatomic force F by the following relation.
(1) Every atom is electrically neutral, the dU
F
dr
number of electrons (negative charge) orbiting
(i) When two atoms are at very large distance,
around the nucleus is equal to the number of
the potential energy is negative and becomes more
protons (positive charge) in the nucleus. So if two
negative as r is decreased.
atoms are placed at a very large distance from each
other then there will be a very small (negligible) (ii) When the distance between the two atoms
becomes r0, the potential energy of the system of
interatomic force working between them.
two atoms becomes minimum (i.e. attains maximum
(2) When two atoms are brought closer to each
negative value). As the state of minimum potential
other to a distance of the order of 10 –10 m, the
energy is the state of equilibrium, hence the two
distances between their positive nuclei and negative
atoms at separation r0 will be in a state of
electron clouds get disturbed, and due to this,
equilibrium.
attractive interatomic force is produced between two
19
( U0 7.2 10 Joule for hydrogen).
atoms.
(3) This attractive force increases continuously (iii) When the distance between the two atoms

with decrease in r and is further decreased (i.e. r < r0) the negative value of
Repulsion

becomes maximum for one F potential energy of the system starts decreasing. It

value of r called critical x

becomes zero and then attains positive value with
O r
distance, represented by x r0 further decrease in r (as shown in the figure).
Attraction
(as shown in the figure). Intermolecular Forces

Beyond this the attractive U

force starts decreasing The forces between the molecules due to

O r
rapidly with further decrease r0 electrostatic interaction between the charges of the
in the value of r. molecules are called intermolecular forces. These
Fig. 9.1
(4) When the distance forces are also called Vander Waal forces and are
between the two atoms becomes r0, the interatomic quite weak as compared to inter-atomic forces.
force will be zero. This distance r0 is called normal These forces are also electrical in nature and these

or equilibrium distance.
 Detailed Revision
Elasticity
are active if the separation between two molecules So potential energy can be expressed as
is of the order of molecular size i.e. 10–9 m. U
A B
r 12 r6
(1) It is found that the force of attraction
Comparison Between Interatomic and
between molecules varies inversely as seventh
Intermolecular Forces
power of the distance between them i.e.
1 a
(1) Similarities
Fatt or Frep
r7 r7 (i) Both the forces are electrical in origin.
The negative sign indicates that the force is (ii) Both the forces are active over short
attractive in nature. distances.
(2) When the distance between molecules (iii) General shape of force-distance graph is
becomes less than r0, the forces becomes repulsive similar for both the forces.
in nature and is found to vary inversely as ninth
(iv) Both the forces are attractive up to certain
power of the distance between them i.e.
distance between atoms/molecules and become
1 b repulsive when the distance between them become
Frep or Frep .
r9 r9
less than that value.
Therefore force between two molecules is
(2) Dissimilarities
a b
given by F Fatt Frep
r7 r9 (i) Interatomic force depends upon the distance

The value of constants a and b depend upon between the two atoms, whereas the intermolecular

the structure and nature of molecules. force depends upon the distance between the two
molecules as well as their relative orientation.
(3) Intermolecular forces between two
(ii) Interatomic forces are about 50 to100 times
molecules has the same general nature as shown in
stronger than intermolecular forces.
the figure for interatomic forces.
(iii) The value of r0 for two atoms is smaller
(4) Potential Energy : Potential energy can be
than the corresponding value for the molecules.
A B
approximately expressed by the formula U
rn rm Therefore one molecule is not restricted to attract
A only one molecule, but can attract many molecule. It
where the term represents repulsive
rn is not so incase of atoms, since the atoms of one
B
contribution and term represents the attractive molecule cannot bind the atoms of other molecules.
rm
States of Matter
contribution. Constants A, B and numbers m and n
are different for different molecules.
For majority of solids n = 12 and m = 6. The three states of matter differ from each
other due to the following two factors.
 Detailed Revision
Elasticity
(1) The different magnitudes of the interatomic (2) The extent of random thermal motion of
and intermolecular forces. atoms and molecules of a substance (which
depends upon temperature).

Comparison Chart of Solid, Liquid and Gaseous States

Property Solid Liquid Gas

Shape Definite Not definite Not definite

Volume Definite Definite Not definite

Density Maximum Less than solids but Minimum

more than gases.

Compressibility Incompressible Less than gases but Compressible

more than solids.

Crystallinity Crystalline Non-crystalline

Interatomic or Constant Not constant Not constant

intermolecular distance

Relation between kinetic K<U K> U K >> U

energy K and potential
energy (U)

Intermolecular force Strongest Less than solids but Weakest

more than gases.

Freedom of motion Molecules vibrate Molecules have limited Molecules are free to
about their mean free motion. move.
position but cannot
move freely.

Effect of temperature Matter remains in solid Liquids are found at These are found at
form below a certain temperatures more than temperatures greater
temperature. that of solid. than that of solids and
liquids.

Note :  The fourth state of matter in which

the medium is in the form of positive and negative
 Detailed Revision
Elasticity
ions, is known as plasma. Plasma occurs in the range order of atoms range order.
atmosphere of stars (including the sun) and in or ions or molecules in
discharge tubes. them.
Types of Solids They are considered They are not regarded
true and stable solids. as true and stable
solids.
A solid is that state of matter in which its
constituent atoms or molecules are held strongly at
the position of minimum potential energy and it has Elastic Property of Matter
a definite shape and volume. The solids can be (1) Elasticity : The property of matter by virtue
classified into two categories, crystalline and glassy of which a body tends to regain its original shape
or amorphous solids. and size after the removal of deforming force is

Comparison chart of Crystalline and called elasticity.

Amorphous Solids (2) Plasticity : The property of matter by virtue

of which it does not regain its original shape and
Crystalline solids Amorphous or glassy
size after the removal of deforming force is called
solids
plasticity.
The constituent The constituent atoms,
(3) Perfectly elastic body : If on the removal
atoms, ions or ions or molecules are
of deforming forces the body regain its original
molecules are not arranged in a
configuration completely it is said to be perfectly
arranged in a regular regular repeated three
elastic.
repeated three dimensional pattern,
A quartz fibre and phosphor bronze (an alloy of
dimensional pattern, within the solid.
copper containing 4% to 10% tin, 0.05% to 1%
within the solid.
phosphorus) is the nearest approach to the
Definite external No regularity in
perfectly elastic body.
geometric shape. external shape.
(4) Perfectly plastic body : If the body does
All the bonds in ions, All the bonds are not not have any tendency to recover its original
or atoms or molecules equally strong. configuration, on the removal of deforming force, it is
are equally strong. said to be perfectly plastic.
They are anisotropic. They are isotropic. Paraffin wax, wet clay are the nearest

They have sharp They don't have sharp approach to the perfectly plastic body.

melting point. melting point. Practically there is no material which is either

perfectly elastic or perfectly plastic and the
They have a long- They don’t have a long-
 Detailed Revision
Elasticity
behaviour of actual bodies lies between the two Due to elastic fatigue :
extremes. (i) Bridges are declared unsafe after a long
(5) Reason of elasticity : In a solids, atoms time of their use.
and molecules are arranged (ii) Spring balances show wrong readings after
in such a way that each they have been used for a long time.
molecule is acted upon by (iii) We are able to break the wire by repeated
the forces due to
bending.
neighbouring molecules. Fig. 9.2
(8) Elastic after effect : The time delay in
These forces are known as intermolecular forces.
which the substance regains its original condition
For simplicity, the two molecules in their
after the removal of deforming force is called elastic
equilibrium positions (at inter-molecular distance r =
after effect. It is the time for which restoring forces
r0) are shown by connecting them with a spring.
are present after the removal of the deforming force,
In fact, the spring connecting the two it is negligible for perfectly elastic substance, like
molecules represents the inter-molecular force quartz, phosphor bronze and large for glass fibre.
between them. On applying the deforming forces, Stress
the molecules either come closer or go far apart
from each other and restoring forces are developed.
When the deforming force is removed, these
When a force is applied on a body, there will
restoring forces bring the molecules of the solid to
be relative displacement of the particles and due to
their respective equilibrium position (r = r0) and
property of elasticity, an internal restoring force is
hence the body regains its original form.
developed which tends to restore the body to its
(6) Elastic limit : Elastic bodies show their original state.
property of elasticity upto a certain value of The internal restoring force acting per unit area
deforming force. If we go on increasing the of cross section of the deformed body is called
deforming force then a stage is reached when on stress.
removing the force, the body will not return to its
At equilibrium, restoring force is equal in
original state. The maximum deforming force upto
magnitude to external force, stress can therefore
which a body retains its property of elasticity is
also be defined as external force per unit area on a
called elastic limit of the material of body.
body that tends to cause it to deform.
Elastic limit is the property of a body whereas
If external force F is applied on the area A of a
elasticity is the property of material of the body.
body then,
(7) Elastic fatigue : The temporary loss of
Force F
Stress
elastic properties because of the action of repeated Area A

alternating deforming force is called elastic fatigue.

 Detailed Revision
Elasticity
Unit : N / m 2 (S.I.) , dyne / cm 2 (C.G.S.) (d) Deforming force is applied normal to
surface at all points.
Dimension : [ML 1 T 2 ]
(e) Area for calculation of stress is the
Stress developed in a body depends upon how
complete surface area perpendicular to the applied
the external forces are applied over it.
forces.
On this basis there are two types of stresses :
(f) It is equal to change in pressure because
Normal and Shear or tangential stress
change in pressure is responsible for change in
(1) Normal stress : Here the force is applied
volume.
normal to the surface.
(2) Shear or tangential stress : It comes into
It is again of two types : Longitudinal and Bulk
picture when successive layers of solid move on
or volume stress
each other i.e. when there is a relative displacement
(i) Longitudinal stress between various layers of solid.
(a) It occurs only in solids and comes in to (i) Here deforming force is applied tangential to
picture when one of the three dimensions viz. one of the faces.
length, breadth, height is much greater than other
(ii) Area for A F
two.
calculation is the area of
(b) Deforming force is applied parallel to the the face on which force Fixed face
length and causes increase in length. is applied.
Fig. 9.3
(c) Area taken for calculation of stress is the (iii) It produces
area of cross section. change in shape, volume remaining the same.
(d) Longitudinal stress produced due to
Difference between Pressure and Stress
increase in length of a body under a deforming force
is called tensile stress. Pressure Stress

(e) Longitudinal stress produced due to Pressure is always Stress can be normal
decrease in length of a body under a deforming normal to the area. or tangential.
force is called compressive stress. Always compressive in May be compressive
(ii) Bulk or Volume stress nature. or tensile in nature.

(a) It occurs in solids, liquids or gases.

(b) In case of fluids only bulk stress can be Strain

found. The ratio of change in configuration to the
(c) It produces change in volume and density, original configuration is called strain.
shape remaining same. Being the ratio of two like quantities, it has no
dimensions and units.
 Detailed Revision
Elasticity
Strain are of three types : Stress-strain Curve
(1) Linear strain : If the deforming If by gradually increasing the load on a
force produces a change in length vertically suspended metal wire, a graph is plotted
l
alone, the strain produced in the body is between stress (or load) and longitudinal strain (or
called linear strain or tensile strain. elongation) we get Elastic
the curve as shown in figure.
Plastic region
l Breaking region

Linear strain
Change in length( l)
F
From this curve it is clear that : B
Elastic limit
strength A C
Original length(l) P E
Fig. 9.4

Stress
Linear strain in the direction of deforming force is
called longitudinal strain and in a direction O Strain
Fig. 9.8
perpendicular to force is called lateral strain.
(2) Volumetric strain : If the
deforming force produces a
(V – V)
change in volume alone the strain (1) When the strain is small (< 2%) (i.e., in
produced in the body is called region OP) stress is proportional to strain. This is the
volumetric strain. Fig. 9.5 region where the so called Hooke’s law is obeyed.

Volumetric strain
Change in volume( V ) The point P is called limit of proportionality and
Original v olume( V )
slope of line OP gives the Young’s modulus Y of the
(3) Shearing strain : material of the wire. If is the angle of OP from
x
If the deforming force
F strain axis then Y = tan .
produces a change in the
L
(2) If the strain is increased a little bit, i.e., in
shape of the body without
Fixed face the region PE, the stress is not proportional to strain.
changing its volume, strain Fig. 9.6
However, the wire still regains its original length
produced is called
after the removal of stretching force. This behaviour
shearing strain.
is shown up to point E known as elastic limit or yield-
It is defined as angle in radians through which
point. The region OPE represents the elastic
a plane perpendicular to the fixed surface of the
behaviour of the material of wire.
cubical body gets turned under the effect of
(3) If the wire is stretched beyond the elastic
tangential force.
limit E, i.e., between EA, the strain increases much
x
L more rapidly and if the stretching force is removed

Note :  When a beam is bent both the wire does not come back to its natural length.

compression strain as well as an extension strain is Some permanent increase in length takes place.

produced. (4) If the stress is increased further, by a very

Fig. 9.7
small increase in it a very large increase in strain is
produced (region AB) and after reaching point B, the
 Detailed Revision
Elasticity
strain increases even if the wire is unloaded and EABC represents the plastic behaviour of the
ruptures at C. In the region BC the wire literally material of wire.
flows. The maximum stress corresponding to B after (5) Stress-strain curve for different materials
which the wire begins to flow and breaks is called are as follows :
breaking or ultimate tensile strength. The region

Brittle material Ductile material Elastomers

C
E C E
C
Stress

Stress

Stress
P P

O Strain O Strain O Strain

The plastic region between E and The material of the wire have a Stress-strain curve is not a
C is small for brittle material and it good plastic range and such straight line within the elastic
will break soon after the elastic materials can be easily changed limit for elastomers and strain
limit is crossed. into different shapes and can be produced is much larger than
Example : Glass, cast iron. drawn into thin wires the stress applied. Such
Example. Mild steel materials have no plastic range
and the breaking point lies very
close to elastic limit. Example
rubber

Hooke’s law and Modulus of Elasticity and the manner in which the body is deformed.
(2) It's value depends upon the temperature of
the body.
According to this law, within the elastic limit, (3) It’s value is independent of the dimensions
stress is proportional to the strain. (length, volume etc.) of the body.
stress There are three modulii of elasticity namely
i.e. stress strain or constant E
strain
Young’s modulus (Y), Bulk modulus (K) and
The constant E is called
modulus of rigidity ( ) corresponding to three types
modulus of elasticity.
Stress

of the strain.
(1) It’s value depends upon
Young's Modulus (Y)
the nature of material of the body O Strain
Fig. 9.9
 Detailed Revision
Elasticity
FL Mg(L / 2) L2 dg
Elongation l = MgL
AY AY 2 AY 2Y
It is defined as the ratio of normal stress to [As mass (M) = volume (AL) × density (d)]
longitudinal strain within limit of proportionality.
(iv) Thermal stress : If a rod is fixed between
Normal stress F/ A FL two rigid supports, due to change in temperature its
Y
longitudinal strain l/L Al
length will change and so it will exert a normal stress
If force is applied on a wire of radius r by (compressive if temperature increases and tensile if
hanging a weight of mass M, then temperature decreases) on the supports. This stress
MgL is called thermal stress.
Y
r 2l
L
(i) If the length of a wire is doubled, F F

change in length(l)
Then longitudinal strain =
initial length(L)
As by definition, coefficient of linear expansion
final length initial length 2L L
1
Initial length L l
L
stress
Young’s modulus = Y = stress l
strain thermal strain
L
[As strain = 1]
So thermal stress = Y [As Y =
So young’s modulus is numerically equal to the
stress/strain]
stress which will double the length of a wire.
And tensile or compressive force produced in
FL
(ii) Increment in the length of wire l
r 2Y the body = YA
Note :  In case of volume expansion Thermal

As Y
FL stress = K
Al
Where K = Bulk modulus, = coefficient of
So if same stretching force is applied to
cubical expansion
L
different wires of same material, l [As F (v) Force between the two rods : Two rods of
r2

and Y are constant] different metals, having L1 L

1 2
L the same area of cross 2
i.e., greater the ratio , greater will be the Y2
r2 section A, are placed Y1

elongation in the wire. end to end between two Fig. 9.11

(iii) Elongation in a wire by its own weight : The massive walls as shown in figure. The first rod has a
weight of the wire Mg act at the centre of gravity of length L1, coefficient of linear expansion 1 and
the wire so that length of wire which is stretched will young’s modulus Y1. The corresponding quantities
be L/2.
 Detailed Revision
Elasticity
for second rod are L2, 2 and Y2. If the temperature L1 L l1 L1 L
T1
…(i)
k
of both the rods is now raised by T degrees.
T2
Increase in length of the composite rod (due to and L2 L l2 L2 L …(ii)
k
heating) will be equal to
L1 T2 L 2 T1
From (i) and (ii) we get L
l1 l2 [L1 L2 [As l = L ] T2 T1
1 2 ]T

and due to compressive force F from the walls Work Done in Stretching a Wire

due to elasticity, decrease in length of the composite In stretching a wire work is done against
rod will be equal to internal restoring forces. This work is stored in the

L1 L2 F FL wire as elastic potential energy or strain energy.

As l
Y1 Y2 A AY If a force F acts along the length L of the wire
as the length of the composite rod remains of cross-section A and stretches it by x then
unchanged the increase in length due to heating Y
stress F/A FL
F
YA
x
strain x/L Ax L
must be equal to decrease in length due to
F L1 L2
So the work done for an additional small
compression i.e. [L1 1 L2 2 ]T
A Y1 Y2 YA
increase dx in length, dW Fdx x . dx
L
A[L1 L2 2 ]T
or F 1
Hence the total work done in increasing the
L1 L2
Y1 Y2 l l l YA 1 YA 2
length by l, W 0
dW 0
Fdx 0
. x dx l
L 2 L
(vi) Force constant of wire : Force required to
This work done is stored in the wire.
produce unit elongation in a wire is called force
constant of material of wire. It is denoted by k. 1 YAl 2 1
Energy stored in wire U Fl
2 L 2
F
k …(i) YAl
l As F
L
but from the definition of young’s modulus
Dividing both sides by volume of the wire we
F YA
…(ii) get energy stored in unit volume of wire.
l L
1 F l 1 1
from (i) and (ii) k
YA UV stress strain Y (strain)2
L 2 A L 2 2

1
It is clear that the value of force constant depends (stress)2 [As AL = volume of wire]
2Y
upon the dimension (length and area of cross
section) and material of a substance. Total energy stored Energy stored in per
in wire (U) unit volume of wire
(vii) Actual length of the wire : If the actual
(UV)
length of the wire is L, then under the tension T1, its
length becomes L1 and under the tension T2, its 1 1 Fl
Fl
2 2 volume
length becomes L2.
 Detailed Revision
Elasticity
1 1 (iii) If a wire of length L is cut into two or more
stress strain volume stress strain
2 2
parts, then again it's each part can hold the same
1
Y (strain)2 volume
1
Y (strain) 2
weight. Since breaking force is independent of the
2 2
length of wire.
1 1
(stress)2 volume (stress) 2 (iv) If a wire can bear maximum force F, then
2Y 2Y
wire of same material but double thickness can bear
maximum force 4F
Note :  If the force on the wire is increased (v) The working stress is always kept lower
from F1 to F2 and the elongation in wire is l then than that of a breaking stress.
1 (F1 F2 )
energy stored in the wire U l breaking stress
2 2 So that safety factor = , may have
working stress
 Thermal energy density = Thermal energy large value.
per unit volume =1 Thermal stress strain (vi) Breaking of wire under its own weight.
2

1 F l 1 1 2
Breaking force = Breaking stress Area of
= = (Y )( ) = Y ( )2
2 A L 2 2 cross section
Breaking of Wire Weight of wire = Mg = ALdg = PA [P
When the wire is loaded beyond the elastic limit, =Breaking stress] [As
then strain increases much more rapidly. The mass = volume density = ALd]
maximum stress corresponding to B (see stress- Ldg P
P
L
dg
strain curve) after which the wire begin to flow and
breaks, is called breaking stress or tensile strength This is the length of wire if it breaks by its own
and the force by application of which the wire breaks weight.
is called the breaking force. Bulk Modulus
(i) Breaking force depends upon When a solid or fluid (liquid or gas) is subjected
the area of cross-section of the wire i.e., to a uniform pressure all over the surface, such that
Breaking force A the shape remains the same, then there is a change
A
Breaking force = P × A in volume.
F

Here P is a constant of Fig. 9.12 Then the ratio of normal stress to the

proportionality and known as breaking stress. volumetric strain within the elastic limits is called as
Bulk modulus. This is denoted by K.
(ii) Breaking stress is a constant for a given
(V – V)
Normal stress
material and it does not depend upon the dimension K
volumetric strain
(length or thickness) of wire.
F/A pV Fig. 9.13
K
V /V V
 Detailed Revision
Elasticity
E = P
where p = increase in pressure; V = original i.e., adiabatic elasticity is equal to times
volume; V = change in volume Cp
pressure. [Where ]
Cv
The negative sign shows that with increase in
pressure p, the volume decreases by V i.e. if p is Note :  Ratio of adiabatic to

positive, V is negative. The reciprocal of bulk isothermal elasticity

modulus is called compressibility. E P

1 E >E
E P
1 V
C = compressibility =
K pV i.e., adiabatic elasticity is always more than
S.I. unit of compressibility is N–1m2 and C.G.S. unit isothermal elasticity.
is dyne–1 cm2. Density of Compressed Liquid
Gases have two bulk moduli, namely If a liquid of density , volume V and bulk
isothermal elasticity E and adiabatic elasticity E . modulus K is compressed, then its density

(1) Isothermal elasticity (E ) : Elasticity possess increases.

by a gas in isothermal condition is defined as m V

As density so …(i)
V V
isothermal elasticity.
But by definition of bulk modulus
For isothermal process, PV = constant
V P V P
(Boyle’s law) K …(ii)
V V K
Differentiating both sides
P
From (i) and (ii) [As
PdV + VdP = 0 PdV = – VdP K

dP stress = – ]
P E E =P
( dV / V ) strain
P
or 1 [1 C P]
i.e., Isothermal elasticity is equal to pressure. K

(2) Adiabatic elasticity (E ) : Elasticity possess 1

As C
K
by a gas in adiabatic condition is defined as
Fractional Change in the Radius of Sphere
adiabatic elasticity.
A solid sphere of radius R made of a material
For adiabatic process, PV = constant
of bulk modulus K is surrounded by a liquid in a
(Poisson’s law)
cylindrical container.
Differentiating both sides,
1
A massless piston of area A floats on the
P V dV V dP 0 PdV VdP 0
surface of the liquid.
dP stress
P E 4 m
dV strain Volume of the spherical body V R3
3
V

Fig. 9.14
 Detailed Revision
Elasticity
V
3
R angle in radians through which a line normal to a
V R
fixed surface has turned. For small values of angle,
R 1 V
…(i) QQ' x
R 3 V Shearing strain
PQ L
P
Bulk modulus K V
V shear stress F/ A F
So
shear strain A
V P mg
…..(ii)
V K AK Only solids can exhibit a shearing as these
mg have definite shape.
As P
A
Poisson’s Ratio
V
Substituting the value of from equation (ii) When a long bar is stretched by a force along
V

R 1 mg its length then its length increases and the radius

in equation (i) we get
R 3 AK decreases as shown in the figure.
Modulus of Rigidity Lateral strain : The ratio
r r – dr
Within limits of proportionality, the ratio of of change in radius or L

L + dL
tangential stress to the shearing strain is called diameter to the original radius
modulus of rigidity of the material of the body and is or diameter is called lateral F
Fig. 9.16
denoted by , i.e. Shearing stress strain.
Shearing strain
Longitudinal strain : The ratio of change in
In this case the shape x
length to the original length is called longitudinal
A F
Q
' R
of a body changes but its Q
strain.
volume remains L

Fixed face
The ratio of lateral strain to longitudinal strain is
unchanged. P S called Poisson’s ratio ( ).
Fig. 9.15
Consider a cube of
Lateral strain
i.e.
material fixed at its lower face and acted upon by a Longitudinal strain
tangential force F at its upper surface having area A. dr / r
The shearing stress, then, will be dL / L

Shearing stress
F Negative sign indicates that the radius of the bar
A
decreases when it is stretched.
This shearing force causes the consecutive
Poisson’s ratio is a dimensionless and a unitless
horizontal layers of the cube to be slightly displaced
quantity.
or sheared relative to one another, each line such as
Relation Between Volumetric Strain, Lateral
PQ or RS in the cube is rotated through an angle
Strain and Poisson’s Ratio
by this shear. The shearing strain is defined as the
 Detailed Revision
Elasticity
If a long bar have a length L and radius r then Elastic constants are found to depend on each other
volume V r2L through the relations :

Differentiating both the sides dV r 2 dL 2rL dr Y 3K (1 2 ) …(i)

Dividing both the sides by volume of bar Y 2 (1 ) …(ii)

dV r 2 dL 2rL dr dL dr Eliminating or Y between these, we get

2
V r2L r2L L r
9K
Y …(iii)
Volumetric strain = longitudinal strain + 3K

2(lateral strain) 3K 2
…(iv)
6K 2
dV dL dL dL
2 (1 2 )
V L L L Torsion of Cylinder
dr / r dr dL
As If the upper end of a cylinder is clamped and a
dL / L r L
torque is applied at the lower end
r P
1 dV Q
or 1 the cylinder gets twisted by angle .
2 AdL
Simultaneously shearing strain is l
[where A = cross-section of bar]
produced in the cylinder.
(i) If a material having = – 0.5 then O
(i) The angle of twist is A B
dV dL Fig. 9.17
[1 2 ] =0
V L directly proportional to the distance

Volume = constant or K = i.e. the from the fixed end of the cylinder.

material is incompressible. At fixed end 0o and at free end =

(ii) If a material having = 0, then lateral strain maximum.

is zero i.e. when a substance is stretched its length (ii) The value of angle of shear is directly
increases without any decrease in diameter e.g. proportional to the radius of the cylindrical shell.
cork. In this case change in volume is maximum. At the axis of cylinder = 0 and at the
(iii) Theoretical value of Poisson’s ratio outermost shell = maximum.
1 0.5 . (iii) Relation between angle of twist ( ) and angle
(iv) Practical value of Poisson’s ratio 0 0.5 of shear ( )

Relation between Y, k, and r

AB = r = l
l
Moduli of elasticity are three, viz. Y, K and
(iv) Twisting couple per unit twist or torsional
while elastic constants are four, viz, Y, K, and .
rigidity or torque required to produce unit twist.
Poisson’s ratio is not modulus of elasticity as it is
r4
C C r4 A2
the ratio of two strains and not of stress to strain. 2l
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Elasticity
(v) Work done in twisting the cylinder through Hysteresis loop : The area of the stress-strain
an angle is curve is called the hysteresis loop and it is

1 r4 2 numerically equal to the work done in loading the

2
W C
2 4l material and then unloading it.
Interatomic Force Constant
Behaviour of solids with respect to external For A For B

Stress
Stress
forces is such that if their atoms are connected to
springs. When an external force is applied on a
solid, this distance between its atoms changes and O Strain O Strain
Fig. 9.18
interatomic force works to restore the original
dimension.
The ratio of interatomic force to that of change
If we have two tyres of rubber having different
in interatomic distance is defined as the interatomic
hysteresis loop then rubber B should be used for
F
force constant. K
r making the car tyres. It is because of the reason that
It is also given by K Y r0 [Where Y = Young's area under the curve i.e. work done in case of
rubber B is lesser and hence the car tyre will not get
modulus, r0 = Normal distance between the atoms
excessively heated and rubber A should be used to
of wire]
absorb vibration of the machinery because of the
Unit of interatomic force constant is N/m and
large area of the curve, a large amount of vibrational
Dimension MT–2
energy can be dissipated.
Note :  The number of atoms having
Factors Affecting Elasticity
interatomic distance r0 in length l of a wire, N = l/r0.
(1) Hammering and rolling : Crystal grains
The number of atoms in area A of wire having
break up into smaller units by hammering and
interatomic separation r0 is N A / r02 .
rolling. This results in increase in the elasticity of
Elastic Hysteresis material.
When a deforming force is applied on a body (2) Annealing : The metals are annealed by
then the strain does not change simultaneously with heating and then cooling them slowly. Annealing
stress rather it lags behind the stress. The lagging of results in decrease in the elasticity of material.
strain behind the stress is defined as elastic (3) Temperature : Intermolecular forces
hysteresis. This is the reason why the values of strain decreases with rise in temperature. Hence the
for same stress are different while increasing the load elasticity decreases with rise in temperature but the
and while decreasing the load. elasticity of invar steel (alloy) does not change with
change of temperature.
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Elasticity
(4) Impurities : Due to impurities in a material, (iii) Four identical balls of different materials are
elasticity can increase or decrease. The type of dropped from the same height then after collision,
effect depends upon the nature of impurities present balls rises upto different heights.
in the material. The order of their height can be given by hivory >
Important Facts About Elasticity hsteel > hrubber > hclay because Yivory > Ysteel > Yrubber >

(1) The body which requires greater deforming Yclay.

force to produce a certain change in dimension is (3) The value of moduli of elasticity is
more elastic. independent of the magnitude of the stress and

Example : Ivory and steel balls are more elastic strain. It depends only on the nature of material of
than rubber. the body.

(2) When equal deforming force is applied on (4) For a given material there can be different
different bodies then the body which shows less moduli of elasticity depending on the type of stress
deformation is more elastic. applied and resulting strain.

Example : (i) For same load, more elongation is

produced in rubber wire than in steel wire hence
steel is more elastic than rubber.

(ii) Water is more elastic than air as volume

change in water is less for same applied pressure.

Name of Young’s modulus (Y) Bulk modulus (K) Modulus of rigidity ( )

10 2
substance 10 N/m 1010N/m2 1010N/m2

Aluminium 6.9 7.0 2.6

Brass 9.0 6.7 3.4

Copper 11.0 13.0 4.5

Iron 19.0 14.0 4.6

Steel 20.0 16.0 8.4

Tungsten 36.0 20.0 15.0

Diamond 83.0 55.0 34.0

Water – 0.22 –

Glycerin – 0.45 –
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Air – 1.01 –
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Elasticity
(5) The moduli of elasticity has same dimensional formula and units as that of stress since
strain is dimensionless. Dimensional formula is [ ML 1
T 2
] while units dyne/cm2 or Newton/m2.

(6) Greater the value of moduli of elasticity more elastic is the material. But as Y (1/l), K
(1/ V) and (1/ ) for a constant stress, so smaller change in shape or size for a given
stress corresponds to greater elasticity.

(7) The moduli of elasticity Y and exist only for solids as liquids and gases cannot be
deformed along one dimension only and also cannot sustain shear strain. However K exist for
all states of matter viz. solid, liquid or gas.
(8) Gases being most compressible are least elastic while solids are most i.e. the bulk
modulus of gas is very low while that for liquids and solids is very high. Ksolid > Kliquid > Kgas

(9) For a rigid body l, V or = 0 so Y, K or will be , i.e. elasticity of a rigid body is

infinite.
Diamond and carborundum are nearest approach to rigid bodies.

(10) In a suspension bridge there is a stretch in the ropes by the load of the bridge. Due to
which length of rope changes. Hence Young’s modulus of elasticity is involved.
(11) In an automobile tyre as the air is compressed, volume of the air in tyre changes,
hence the bulk modulus of elasticity is involved.
(12) In transmitting power, an automobile shaft is sheared as it rotates, so shearing strain
is set up, hence modulus of rigidity is involved.

(13) The shape of rubber heels changes under stress, so modulus of rigidity is involved.
Practical Applications of Elasticity
(i) The metallic parts of machinery are never subjected to a stress beyond elastic limit,
otherwise they will get permanently deformed.
(ii) The thickness of the metallic rope used in the crane in order to lift a given load is
decided from the knowledge of elastic limit of the material of the rope and the factor of safety.
(iii) The bridges are declared unsafe after long use because during its long use, a bridge
under goes quick alternating strains continuously. It results in the loss of elastic strength.
(iv) Maximum height of a mountain on earth can be estimated from the elastic behaviour of
earth.
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Elasticity
At the base of the mountain, the pressure is given by P = h g and it must be less than
elastic limit (K) of earth’s supporting material.
K K
K>P >h g h or h max
g g

(v) In designing a beam for its use to support a load (in construction of roofs and bridges),
it is advantageous to increase its depth rather than the breadth of the beam because the
depression in rectangular beam.
b l
3 d
Wl
4Ybd 3
W
Fig. 9.19

To minimize the depression in the beam, it is designed as I-shaped girder.

WL 3
(vi) For a beam with circular cross-section depression is given by
12 r 4 Y

(vii) A hollow shaft is stronger than a solid shaft made of same mass, length and material.
Torque required to produce a unit twist in a solid shaft
r4
solid …(i)
2l

and torque required to produce a unit twist in a hollow shaft

(r24 r14 )
hollow …(ii)
2l

From (i) and (ii),

r24 r14 (r22 r12 )(r22 r12 )
hollow
4 4
…(iii)
solid r r

Since two shafts are made from equal volume r 2l (r22 r12 )l r2 r22 r12

hollow r22 r12

Substituting this value in equation (iii) we get, 1 hollow > solid
solid r2

i.e., the torque required to twist a hollow shaft is greater than the torque necessary to twist
a solid shaft of the same mass, length and material through the same angle. Hence, a hollow
shaft is stronger than a solid shaft.