Foreword

The National Road Administration is a Public Institute, designated (ANE, IP) with general
powers over road authorities throughout Mozambique, endowed with legal and
administrative autonomy. It is supervised sectorally by the Minister who oversees the
roads sector and, financially, by the Minister who oversees the finance sector. In the
administration of classified public roads, it has competences to design, build, rehabilitate
and maintain roads. Within the scope of administration of Unclassified roads, propose the
rules to be observed by local authorities and decentralised government bodies, in the
management, maintenance and rehabilitation of roads under their jurisdiction.

This manual contains Standard Test Methods to be used in Mozambique on road works
and particularly high traffic roads. It is designed to guide all professionals in the road
sector and aims to define the methods of field and laboratory testing.

The information contained in this manual is suitable for all relevant technical areas. For
any additional details, users can consult other documents referenced by the author

© Copyright Administração Nacional de Estradas (ANE) 2020

i
Preface

This manual covers Field and Laboratory Testing for roads particularly high-volume roads.
It is tailor-made for the road sector in Mozambique though it can be used in other countries
in the region and elsewhere where similar conditions apply. The manual should be read in
conjunction with the Standards Specifications for Road and Bridge Works and the
Pavement and Rehabilitation Manuals and the Site Investigation Manual

The manual is targeted at ANE practitioners, consultants and contractors, Road Fund,
academia, the laboratories and other users involved in the provision of roads in
Mozambique and beyond. It provides details and processes involved in carrying out
specialised tests in the field and in laboratories on pavements and materials. The scope is
extensive in the coverage of standards that are required in testing for new construction,
rehabilitation design, maintenance, structures and more importantly quality control and
quality assurance.

Users are encouraged to contribute to future editions noting any necessary improvements
through feedback from practice.

ii
Acknowledgements

This manual was prepared through the concerted effort from many stakeholders within and outside
Mozambique. The immense contributions from ANE, the Technical Working Group (WG) members,
the MOPHRH and other key stakeholders, which included academia, consultants, municipal engineers,
etc., are acknowledged and greatly appreciated.

The production of this manual is financed by the Government of Mozambique through the Ministry of
Finance and the Road Fund with support from the Nordic Development Fund.

ANE

Eng. Americo Dimande General Director

Eng. Luis Fernandes Director of Emergency Works and Project Coordinator
Eng. Nelson Tsanzana Director of Maintenance
Eng. Migel Coanai Director of Planning
Eng. Rubina Normahomed Head of Maintenance
Eng. Calado Quana Head of Planning
Technical Working Group ANE Engineers, MOPHRH Engineers, Municipal
Engineers, Consultants, Academia, LEM Engineers

TRL Consortium – Research Consultant

Eng. Kenneth Mukura Author/Team Leader

Dr. Rodgers Mugume Reviewer

Financiers

Gov. of Mozambique MOPHRH, Min of Finance, Road Fund

Nordic Development Fund Aage Jorgensen
Representative

iii
Abbreviations

AADT Average Annual Daily Traffic

AASHO American Association of State Highway Officials (previous

designation)

AASHTO American Association of State Highway and Transportation

Officials

AC Asphalt Concrete

ACV Aggregate Crushing Value – a measure of aggregate strength

ASTM American Society for Testing and Materials

BS British Standard

CBR California Bearing Ratio (as described in AASHTO T 193)

DCP Dynamic Cone Penetrometer

Equivalent standard axles. A measure of the damaging effect

ESA
of vehicle axles.

HMA Hot Mixed Asphalt

ICL Initial Consumption of Lime test

IWT Inner Wheel Track

MDD Maximum Dry Density

OWT Outer Wheel Track

LEM Engineering Laboratory of Mozambique

TRL Transport Research Laboratory, UK (formerly TRRL)

VIM Voids in the Mix

VMA Voids in the Mineral Aggregate

ReH Upper yield strength

ReL Lower yield strength

Rm Tensile strength

R Stress rate

E Modulus of Elasticity

e Strain

MPa Mega Pascal

iv
Pa Pascal

N Newton

eLe Strain rate

vc Crosshead separation rate

Le Extensometer gauge length

k Coefficient of proportionality

k Coefficient of permeability

G Specific gravity

WIM Weigh-in-motion

AC Asphalt concrete

LL Liquid Limit

PI Plasticity Index

PL Plastic limit

SL Shrinkage limit

Mod Modified

MDD Maximum dry density

ISO International Organisation for Standards

MTM Mozambique Test Methods

MTM F Mozambique Test Methods for field

MTM L Mozambique Test Methods for Laboratories

ρ Density

v
Glossary of Terms

Aggregate Hard mineral elements of construction material mixtures, for

example: sand, gravel (crushed or uncrushed) or crushed rock.

Asphalt In American literature asphalt is another term for bitumen. The

term is also commonly used in this way in Mozambique. In other
countries, asphalt is commonly used as shorthand for asphaltic
concrete or, indeed, any design of high-quality bitumen/aggregate
mixture.

Asphalt Concrete A mixture to predetermined proportions of aggregate, filler and

(AC) bituminous binder material plant mixed and usually placed by
means of a paving machine. This term is used for all mixtures of
this type including AC and DBM.

Asphalt The layer or layers of asphalt concrete constructed on top of the

Surfacing roadbase, and, in some cases, the shoulders.

Average Annual The total yearly traffic volume in both directions divided by the
Daily Traffic number of days in the year.
(AADT)

Average Daily The total traffic volume during a given time period in whole days
Traffic (ADT) greater than one day and less than one year divided by the number
of days in that time period.

Bitumen The most common form of bitumen is the residue from the refining
of crude oil after the more volatile material has been distilled off. It
is essentially a very viscous liquid comprising many long-chain
organic molecules. For use in roads it is practically solid at ambient
temperatures but can be heated sufficiently to be poured and
sprayed. Some natural bitumens can be found worldwide that are
not distilled from crude oil but the amounts are very small in
comparison.

Bulk density Mass divided by volume

Carriageway That portion of the roadway including the various traffic lanes and
auxiliary lanes but excluding shoulders.

Contraction Joint A joint normally placed at recurrent intervals in a rigid slab to

control transverse cracking.

Cross-Section A vertical section showing the elevation of the existing ground,

ground data and recommended works, usually at right angles to
the centreline.

Crossfall The difference in level measured transversely across the surface of

the roadway.

Chippings Stones used for surface dressing (treatment).

vi
Design Period The period of time that an initially constructed or rehabilitated
pavement structure will perform before reaching a level of
deterioration requiring more than routine or periodic maintenance.

Equivalent A measure of the potential damage to a pavement caused by a

Standard Axles vehicle axle load expressed as the number of 8.2 metric tonnes
(ESAs) single axle loads that would cause the same amount of damage.
The ESA values of all the traffic are combined to determine the
total design traffic for the design period.

Equivalency Used to convert traffic volumes into cumulative equivalent

Factors standard axle loads.

Equivalent Summation of equivalent 8.16-ton single axle loads used to

Single Axle Load combine mixed traffic to calculate the design traffic loading for the
(ESA) design period.

Grading Modulus Related to the cumulative percentages by mass of material in a

(GM) representative sample of aggregate, gravel or soil retained on the
2.36 mm, 0.425 mm and 0.075 mm sieves;

 P + P0.425 + P0.075 
GM = 3 −  2.36 
 100 
where: P2.36 = percentage passing 2.36 mm sieve

P0.425 = percentage passing 0.425 mm sieve

P0.075 = percentage passing 0.075 mm sieve

Hot Mix Asphalt This is a generic name for all high-quality mixtures of aggregates
(AC) and bitumen that use the grades of bitumen that must be heated
in order to flow sufficiently to coat the aggregates. It includes
Asphaltic Concrete, Dense Bitumen Macadam and Hot Rolled
Asphalt.

Rehabilitation Work undertaken to significantly extend the service life of an

existing pavement. This may include overlays and pre overlay
repairs and may include complete removal and reconstruction of the
existing pavement, or recycling of part of the existing materials.

Roadbase A layer of material of defined thickness and width constructed on

top of the sub-base, or in the absence thereof, the subgrade. A
roadbase may extend to outside the carriageway.

Surfacing This comprises the top layers(s) of the flexible pavement and
consists of a bituminous surface dressing or one or two layers of
premixed bituminous material (generally asphalt concrete). Where
premixed materials are laid in two layers, these are known as the
wearing course and the binder course.

Specific gravity The relative density of a substance to that of water at a specified

temperature.

vii
Table of Contents
Foreword.................................................................................................................................................. i
Preface .................................................................................................................................................... ii
Acknowledgements................................................................................................................................ iii
Abbreviations ......................................................................................................................................... iv
Glossary of Terms................................................................................................................................... vi
Table of Contents ................................................................................................................................. viii
List of Tables ......................................................................................................................................... xii
List of Figures ....................................................................................................................................... xiii
1 Introduction .................................................................................................................................... 1
1.1 Background ............................................................................................................................... 1
1.2 Structure of the Manual ........................................................................................................... 1
2 Protocols ......................................................................................................................................... 3
3 Standardisation ............................................................................................................................... 4
4 Precautions for Field and Laboratory Testing and Investigations .................................................. 5
4.1 Precautions for Field investigations ......................................................................................... 5
4.2 Precautions for Laboratory Testing .......................................................................................... 5
4.3 Capacity Building and Training ................................................................................................. 6
5 Standard Methods for Field Investigations and Tests .................................................................... 7
5.1 MTM F1 Standardisation of Field Testing................................................................................. 8
5.2 MTM F2 Determination of Cracking Index in Evaluating Surface Defects ............................... 9
5.3 MTM F3 Determination of Pothole/Patching Index in Evaluating Surface Defects ............... 11
5.4 MTM F4 Determination of Deformation Index in Evaluating Road Pavement Defects ......... 13
5.5 MTM F5 Determination of Rutting Index in Evaluating Road Pavement Defects .................. 15
5.6 MTM F6 Determination of International Roughness Index (IRI) in Evaluating Road Pavement
Defects .............................................................................................................................................. 17
5.7 MTM F7 Determination of Road Pavement Structure and Strength Using the Falling Weight
Deflectometer (FWD) ........................................................................................................................ 19
5.8 MTM F8 Determination of Road Pavement Structure and Strength Using the Dynamic Cone
Penetrometer (DCP).......................................................................................................................... 22
5.9 MTM F9 Determination of Road Pavement Structure and Evaluation of Pavement Materials
through Test/Trial Pits ...................................................................................................................... 25
5.10 MTM F10 Determination of Field Density by Sand Replacement Method ............................ 27
5.11 MTM F11 Determination of Field Density using a Nuclear Density Gauge (Troxler) ............. 31
5.12 MTM F12 Determination of Field Permeability of Soil Masses .............................................. 35
5.13 MTM F13 Coring and Core-logging ......................................................................................... 38
5.14 MTM F14 Traffic Surveys – Determination Axle Loads .......................................................... 41
5.15 MTM F15 Traffic Surveys – Traffic Counts, and Origin-Destination Surveys.......................... 44

viii
6 Tests on Soils and Gravels ............................................................................................................. 47
6.1 MTM L6-1 Dry Preparation of Soil Samples for Tests............................................................. 48
6.2 MTM L6-2 Wet Preparation of Disturbed Soil Samples for Tests........................................... 50
6.3 MTM L6-3 Laboratory determination of Moisture Content of Soils ...................................... 52
6.4 MTM L6-4 Particle Size Analysis of Soil Samples .................................................................... 54
6.5 MTM L6-5 Determination of Liquid Limit of Soils................................................................... 61
6.6 MTM L6-6 Determination of Plastic Limit (PL) and Plasticity Index (PI) of Soils .................... 63
6.7 MTM L6-7 Determination of Shrinkage Factors of Soils......................................................... 65
6.8 MTM L6-8 Compaction Moisture and Density Relationship of Soils, Mod. AASHTO ............. 68
6.9 MTM L6-9 Laboratory Determination of California Bearing Ratio (CBR) ............................... 70
6.10 MTM L6-10 Unconsolidated, Undrained Compression Strength of Cohesive Soils in Triaxial
Compression ..................................................................................................................................... 76
6.11 MTM L6-11 Consolidated-Undrained Triaxial Compression Test on Cohesive Soils .............. 83
6.12 MTM L6-12 Specific Gravity of Soils ....................................................................................... 99
6.13 MTM L6-13 Permeability of Granular Soils (Constant Head) ............................................... 103
7 Tests on Stabilized Materials ...................................................................................................... 111
7.1 MTM L7-1 Moisture Density Relationships of Cement Treated Soils .................................. 112
7.2 MTM L7-2 Standard Test Method for the Determination of Cement Content in Cement
Treated Materials............................................................................................................................ 115
7.3 MTM L7-3 Standard Test Method for the Determination of Lime Content in lime Treated
Materials ......................................................................................................................................... 119
7.4 MTM L7-4 Determination of Unconfined Compression Strength of Cohesive and Stabilized
Soils .............................................................................................................................................. 124
8 Tests on Aggregates .................................................................................................................... 128
8.1 MTM L8-1 Standard Method of Sampling Aggregate........................................................... 129
8.2 MTM L8-2 Grading Analysis of Material Passing 0.075 mm ................................................. 131
8.3 MTM L8-3 Sieve Analysis of Fine and Coarse Aggregates .................................................... 133
8.4 TM L8-4 Determination of Organic Impurities in Fine Aggregate for Concrete Works........ 136
8.5 MTM L8-5 Determination of Flakiness Index of Aggregate .................................................. 138
8.6 MTM L8-6 Determination of Average Least Dimension of Aggregate ................................. 140
8.7 MTM L8-7 Determination of Elongation Index of Aggregate ............................................... 142
8.8 MTM L8-8 Determination of Aggregate Crushing Value (ACV) ............................................ 144
8.9 MTM L8-9 Determination of Ten Percent Fines Value, TFV (10%FACT)............................... 146
8.10 MTM L8-10 Determination of Aggregate Impact Value, AIV ............................................... 149
8.11 MTM L8-11 Bulk Density and Voids in Aggregate ................................................................ 152
8.12 MTM L8-12 Specific Gravity and Absorption of Fine Aggregate .......................................... 156
8.13 MTM L8-13 Specific Gravity and Absorption of Coarse Aggregate ...................................... 160
8.14 MTM L8-14 Determination of Durability of Aggregate Using the Mill Test ......................... 164
8.15 MTM L8-15 Determination of Apparent Density of Crushed Stone Materials .................... 169

ix
 8.16 MTM L8-16 Determination of Resistance to Degradation of Small Size Coarse Aggregate by
Impact and Abrasion in Los Angeles Machine ................................................................................ 171
8.17 MTM L8-17 Determination of Soundness of Aggregates by use of Sodium Sulphate ......... 174
9 Tests on Cement Concrete .......................................................................................................... 178
9.1 MTM L9-1 Sampling of Freshly Mixed Concrete .................................................................. 179
9.2 MTM L9-2 Determination of Consistency of Concrete through Slump Test ........................ 181
9.3 MTM L9-3 Preparation of Concrete Cubes ........................................................................... 183
9.4 MTM L9-4 Concrete Cube Strength Tests ............................................................................ 185
9.5 MTM L9-5 Determination of Flexural Strength of Concrete ................................................ 187
10 Tests on Bituminous Materials ................................................................................................ 190
10.1 MTM L10-1 Sampling of Bituminous Materials .................................................................... 191
10.2 MTM L10-2 Determination of Flash and Fire Point by Cleveland Open Cup ....................... 194
10.3 MTM L10-3 Determination of Penetration of Bituminous Materials ................................... 196
10.4 MTM L10-4 Determination of Softening Point of Bituminous Materials ............................. 198
10.5 MTM L10-5 Determination of Ductility of Bituminous Materials ........................................ 200
10.6 MTM L10-6 Determination of Effect of Heat and Air on a Moving Film of Asphalt (Rolling
Thin Film Oven Test – RTFOT) ......................................................................................................... 202
10.7 MTM L10-7 Determination of Saybolt Viscosity of Bituminous Materials ........................... 204
10.8 MTM L10-8 Determination of Viscosity of Bituminous Materials using the Brookfield
Thermosel Apparatus ...................................................................................................................... 208
11 Tests on Asphalt Concrete ....................................................................................................... 211
11.1 MTM L11-1 Mixing of Test Specimen of Hot Bituminous Mixes .......................................... 212
11.2 MTM L11-2 Sampling of Bituminous Asphalt Materials ....................................................... 214
11.3 MTM L11-3 Calibration of Pycnometers .............................................................................. 216
11.4 MTM L11-4 Determination of Maximum Theoretical Specific Gravity and Density of
Bituminous Materials ...................................................................................................................... 219
11.5 MTM L11-5 Marshall Test of Asphalt ................................................................................... 225
11.6 MTM L11-6 Marshall Mix Design.......................................................................................... 228
11.7 MTM L11-7 Refusal Density Mix Design ............................................................................... 231
11.8 MTM L11-8 Determination of Indirect Tensile Strength ...................................................... 233
11.9 MTM L11-9 Determination of Bitumen Content and Grading of Aggregate in Asphalt by
Quantitative Extraction ................................................................................................................... 236
11.10 MTM L11-10 Determination of Bulk Density of Asphalt Samples using Calipers................. 239
11.11 MTM L11-11 Determination of Bulk Specific Gravity of Compacted Asphalt Samples using
Paraffin-Coated Specimens – Method A ......................................................................................... 240
11.12 MTM L11-12 Determination of Bulk Specific Gravity of Compacted Asphalt Samples using
Paraffin-Coated Specimens – Method B ......................................................................................... 242
11.13 MTM L11-13 Determination of Bulk Specific Gravity of Compacted Asphalt Samples using
Saturated Surface-Dry Specimen – Method A ................................................................................ 244

x
 11.14 MTM L11-14 Determination of Bulk Specific Gravity of Compacted Asphalt Samples using
Saturated Surface-Dry Specimen – Method B ................................................................................ 246
11.15 MTM L11-15 Determination of Bulk Specific Gravity of Compacted Asphalt Samples using
Saturated Surface-Dry Specimen – Method C (rapid test) ............................................................. 248
11.16 MTM L11-16 Determination of Percentage Air Voids in Compacted Dense or Open
Asphalt………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………250
11.17 MTM L11-17 Determination of Moisture and Volatile Distillates in Bituminous Paving
Mixtures (Asphalt) .......................................................................................................................... 252
12 Tests on Steel ........................................................................................................................... 258
12.1 MTM L12-1 Determination of Tensile Strength of Steel ...................................................... 259
13 Departures from Standards ..................................................................................................... 273
13.1 Procedure ............................................................................................................................. 273
14 References................................................................................................................................ 276
Appendix A Compaction Judgement Chart ................................................................................... 277

xi
List of Tables
Table 5-1 Correct Positioning of FWD Sensors ..................................................................................... 20
Table 5-2 Determination of Maximum Size of Sample for Moisture Content Tests ............................ 28
Table 5-3 Volume of Water per Gram in Relation to Temperature ...................................................... 28
Table 6-1 Minimum Sample Sizes for Moisture Content Tests ............................................................. 52
Table 6-2 Standard Sieve Sizes for use in Grading Analyses for Soils and Gravels ............................... 55
Table 6-3 Values of ‘a’ for Different Specific Gravities ......................................................................... 58
Table 6-4 Values of hydrometer depth - L ............................................................................................ 59
Table 6-5 ‘K’ Valued for Use in the Calculation of Particle Sizes for Given Specific Gravity and
Temperature Values.............................................................................................................................. 59
Table 6-6 Relative Density of Water and Conversion Factor K for Various Temperatures................. 100
Table 6-7 Precision Assessment for Specific Gravity Test for Soils ..................................................... 102
Table 6-8 Permeability Cylinder Diameter .......................................................................................... 105
Table 7-1 Quantity of materials Required for Calibration of Specimens Containing 5% Cement ...... 116
Table 7-2 Minimum Mass of Test Sample for Specified Lime Content and Compaction Moisture .... 120
Table 8-1 Size of sample for fine aggregate ........................................................................................ 130
Table 8-2 Size of sample for coarse aggregate ................................................................................... 130
Table 8-3 Standard Sieve sizes for use grading analyses for soils and gravels ................................... 131
Table 8-4 Minimum sizes of samples .................................................................................................. 131
Table 8-5 Standard Sieve sizes for use grading analyses for soils and gravels ................................... 133
Table 8-6 (a) Minimum size of sample, (b) Maximum allowable quantity of material in each sieve (kg)
............................................................................................................................................................ 134
Table 8-7 Glass Colour Standard ......................................................................................................... 137
Table 8-8 Minimum size of sample ..................................................................................................... 138
Table 8-9 Minimum size of sample ..................................................................................................... 142
Table 8-10 Minimum size of sample ................................................................................................... 145
Table 8-11 Minimum size of sample ................................................................................................... 146
Table 8-12 Minimum size of sample ................................................................................................... 150
Table 8-13 Capacity of the Measure ................................................................................................... 152
Table 8-14 Density of Water at Different Temperatures .................................................................... 153
Table 8-15 Check on Precision of Results for Specific Gravity and Absorption of Fine Aggregate Tests
............................................................................................................................................................ 159
Table 8-16 Determination of Mass of Samples for Coarse Aggregate Tests ...................................... 161
Table 8-17 Check on Precision of Results for Specific Gravity and Absorption of Fine Aggregate Tests
............................................................................................................................................................ 163
Table 8-18 Selection criteria for determining the number of spheres to use for the Los Angeles Test
............................................................................................................................................................ 171
Table 8-19 Gradings of samples for the Los Angeles test ................................................................... 172
Table 8-20 Standard sieves ................................................................................................................. 174
Table 8-21 Required Fine Aggregate Fractions for Sodium Sulphate Test ......................................... 175
Table 8-22 Required Coarse Aggregate Fractions for Sodium Sulphate Test ..................................... 175
Table 10-1 Sample Size for Material Supplied in Drums and Barrels ................................................. 192
Table 10-2 Maximum Allowable Difference in Penetration ............................................................... 197
Table 10-3 Typical viscosity of bitumen at 60 °C, 90 °C and 135 °C in centiPoise (mPa x s) ............... 209
Table 10-4 Viscosity Ranges in centiPoise for Different Spindle Type/Spindle Speed Combination .. 209
Table 10-5 Amounts of bitumen required based on typical density data .......................................... 210
Table 11-1 Mixing and Compaction Temperature Ranges................................................................. 212
Table 11-2 Determination of Minimum Size of Sample...................................................................... 220
Table 11-3 Minimum Size of Sample for Extraction............................................................................ 236
Table 12-1 Main types of test samples ............................................................................................... 260
Table 12-2 Stress Rate......................................................................................................................... 263

xii
List of Figures

Figure 5-1 Types of cracking (TRL, ORN 18) .......................................................................................... 10

Figure 5-2 Extent of Potholes and Patching (TRL, ORN 18) .................................................................. 12
Figure 5-3 Iillustration of Deformation (TRL, ORN 18) .......................................................................... 14
Figure 5-4 Device for Measuring Rut Depth (TRL, ORN 18) .................................................................. 16
Figure 5-5 Roughness Measurements Using a MERLIN Machine (TRL, ORN 18) .................................. 18
Figure 5-6 Illustration of FWD Equipment (TRL, ORN 18) ..................................................................... 21
Figure 5-7 A plot of penetration against number of blows .................................................................. 24
Figure 5-8 DCP Equipment (TRL, ORN 18) ............................................................................................. 24
Figure 5-9 Measuring Field Density using a Nuclear Density Gauge .................................................... 34
Figure 5-10 Field Measurement of Permeability of Soil Masses .......................................................... 35
Figure 5-11 Permeability Tests for Soil Masses .................................................................................... 36
Figure 5-12 Coring of Asphalt Layers .................................................................................................... 38
Figure 5-13 Illustration of Core-Logging ............................................................................................... 40
Figure 5-14 Axle Load Survey ................................................................................................................ 41
Figure 5-15 Automatic Traffic Counters (ref: MetroCount) .................................................................. 44
Figure 6-1 Apparatus for Sieve Analysis and Hydrometer Test ............................................................ 54
Figure 6-2 Cassagrande Apparatus ....................................................................................................... 61
Figure 6-3 Configuration of the CBR Machine ...................................................................................... 71
Figure 6-4 (a)CBR Correction and (b) Soak CBR vs MDD for Different Compaction Blows ................... 74
Figure 6-5 Relationship Between Moisture Content and Dry Density.................................................. 75
Figure 6-6 Configuration of the Triaxial Compression Machine ........................................................... 77
Figure 6-7 Configuration of the Triaxial Compression Machine ........................................................... 85
Figure 6-8 Plot of Mohr’s Circle ............................................................................................................ 97
Figure 6-9 Constant Head Permeameter ............................................................................................ 104
Figure 6-10 Evacuating and Saturating Test Sample........................................................................... 108
Figure 6-11 Reporting Test Results ..................................................................................................... 110
Figure 7-1 Calibration of Quantities of Acid and Cement Content Using Constant Neutralisation
Method ............................................................................................................................................... 118
Figure 7-2 Calibration for Curing Time for Field Samples ................................................................... 123
Figure 7-3 Lime Titration Calibration Curve ........................................................................................ 123
Figure 7-4 Determination of Unconfined Compression Test of Soils ................................................. 124
Figure 8-1 Nomogram for the Determination of ALD ......................................................................... 141
Figure 8-2 Apparatus for Aggregate Crushing Value Test ................................................................... 144
Figure 8-3 Aggregate Impact and Crushing Machine.......................................................................... 149
Figure 8-4 Durability Mill Apparatus (a) and (b) ................................................................................. 165
Figure 9-1 Slump Test and Measurement........................................................................................... 181
Figure 9-2 Testing of Cube Strength ................................................................................................... 185
Figure 9-3 Testing of Flexural Strength of Concrete ........................................................................... 187
Figure 10-1 Open Cup Apparatus........................................................................................................ 194
Figure 10-2 Cleveland Open Cup......................................................................................................... 194
Figure 10-3 Softening Point Test for Bitumen .................................................................................... 198
Figure 10-4 Ductility Test of Bitumen ................................................................................................. 200
Figure 10-5 Rolling Thin Film Oven Test ............................................................................................. 202
Figure 10-6 Saybolt Viscometer (to be redrawn)................................................................................ 204
Figure 10-7 Thermometer holder ....................................................................................................... 205
Figure 10-8 Saybolt Withdrawal Tube which is Used with the Viscometer ........................................ 205
Figure 10-9 Brookfield Thermosel Bitumen Viscosity Test Apparatus................................................ 208
Figure 11-1 Apparatus for specific gravity tests ................................................................................. 216

xiii
Figure 11-2 Effect of change in Density of Water and Volume of Pycnometer (Type F) with change in
temperature ........................................................................................................................................ 218
Figure 11-3 Apparatus for specific gravity tests ................................................................................. 220
Figure 11-4 Correction of expansion of bitumen for different temperatures .................................... 222
Figure 11-5 Curves D and R ................................................................................................................. 223
Figure 11-6 Marshall Test (a) and (b) .................................................................................................. 226
Figure 11-7 Blending of Aggregates using the Graphical Method ...................................................... 229
Figure 11-8 Plot of Air voids Content at Refusal Density vs Binder Content ...................................... 231
Figure 11-9 Testing apparatus for tensile strength ............................................................................ 234
Figure 11-10 Receivers – Type A ......................................................................................................... 254
Figure 11-11 Receivers – Type B ......................................................................................................... 255
Figure 11-12 Receivers – Type C ......................................................................................................... 255
Figure 11-13 Receivers – Type D ......................................................................................................... 256
Figure 11-14 Apparatus for the Determination of Content of Volatiles – Type A .............................. 256
Figure 11-15 Apparatus for the Determination of Moisture Content – Type A (a) and (ii) ................ 257
Figure 12-1 Tensile Strength Testing Machine ................................................................................... 259
Figure 12-2 Definition of Extensions ................................................................................................... 264
Figure 12-3 Determination of Upper and Lower Yield Strengths for Different Curve Types.............. 265
Figure 12-4 Determination of Proof Strength, Plastic Extension ........................................................ 266
Figure 12-5 Proof Strength, Total Extension, Rt .................................................................................. 267
Figure 12-6 Permanent set strength, Rr .............................................................................................. 267
Figure 12-7 Determination of Proof Strength Plastic Extension (Rp) .................................................. 268
Figure 12-8 Different Evaluation Methods for Percentage Yield Point, (Ae) ...................................... 269
Figure 12-9 Different Types of Stress Extension Curve for Determination of Tensile Strength ......... 270

xiv
1 Introduction
The manual covers a series of field and laboratory standard testing methods for
Mozambique. It provides details of testing procedures derived from internationally
recognized testing standards. The purpose of this manual is to standardize test methods
in Mozambique which will ensure high quality of test result for subsequent use in planning,
design, quality control and quality assurance. This manual complements the following
manuals of ANE:
1. Site Investigation Manual
2. Pavement Design Manual
3. Rehabilitation Design Manual
4. Hydrology and Drainage Design Manual

These manuals provide the standards and specifications for the design, construction and
maintenance of road elements. To do this a lot of testing is required to obtain the
necessary data. Testing of road elements and material constituents is not only part of the
design processes but the implementation processes as well. Testing is a major element of
quality control and quality assurance. It follows therefore that the quality of testing and
the results directly influence the correctness, accuracy and appropriateness of the
engineering outputs.
The manual is applicable to all practitioners involved with road provision in both low
volume and high-volume roads.

1.1 Background
There are many different test standards available, namely:
1. American Association of State Highways Transportation Officials (AASHTO)
standards and test methods
2. American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM)
3. British standards (BS)
4. South Africa National Standards (SANS)
5. TMH standards, which have now been incorporated into the SANS

Many more standards exist and are increasingly being used in the roads sector. These
include:
1. Chinese standards
2. European standards (EN)

The manual aims to consolidate some of these standards in combinations that are
applicable to Mozambique. However, it is acknowledged that most of the testing carried
out in Mozambique is based on AASHTO and some of the materials specifications would be
based on the SANS.

1.2 Structure of the Manual

The manual consists of two distinct sections.
1. Field Testing
2. Laboratory Testing

The manual also covers institutional set up, which are essential for the management of
the different categories and jurisdictions of testing and investigations. This is covered in

1
Chapter 2. Testing in the road sector is usually affected by lack of capacity and inadequate
resources. Mechanisms of ensuring adequate capacity should always be put in place in a
holistic approach.
Chapter 3 covers standardization of testing protocols and standards. Vital to this is the
change process in the case where standards may require modifications or changing to suit
the prevailing conditions or to adopt new technologies. This includes procedures to be
followed and endorsements of such changes. This is because any changes will ultimately
have technical, contractual and financial implications.
Chapter 4 covers general guidance for field and laboratory testing and investigation. The
guidance includes key considerations, which should be made by practitioners before
embarking on field or laboratory investigations. The purpose is to reduce flaws or
procedural errors.
The manual provides the following information:
1. Test title
2. Test number
3. Test standard (and equivalent standards where necessary)
4. Description of test procedure
5. Application

Chapter 5 covers field testing and investigation. The test standards covered in this chapter
provide relevant data for the following areas:
1. Data for new construction
2. Data for rehabilitation
3. Data for maintenance
4. Data for quality control

Chapter 6 covers laboratory investigations and testing of soils and gravels. The tests cover
natural materials.
Chapter 7 covers tests on stabilised materials. These include cement and lime stabilized
bases and to a lesser extent bitumen stabilised material.
Chapter 8 covers tests on aggregates including tests for grading, strength, elongation,
flakiness, etc.
Chapter 9 covers tests on concrete and concrete structures. The tests results are used for
design and quality control during construction.
Chapter 10 cover tests on bituminous materials covering quantitative and qualitative tests
on bitumen. The tests are used in design and quality control during construction, as well
as investigations on bituminous materials and surfacings on existing pavements.
Chapter 11 covers tests on asphalt concrete. There are many challenges associated with
design and application of asphalt concrete. The quality of the asphalt and its performance
are dependent on correct and accurate designs which in turn are dependent on the quality
of test results. This chapter covers most of the key tests necessary to achieve this
objective.

2
2 Protocols
The institutional set up may change from time to time but there are a minimum set of
protocols required to make field and laboratory testing reliable for the intended purposes.
The following set of protocols are generic and can be customized as necessary and when
required to suit the institutional set up of the relevant authorities.
Minimum technical requirements
a. A proper and robust system of testing should be set up as a prerequisite for
accreditation of the protocols.
b. Testing standards should be set up and properly documented to ensure
consistency.
c. Minimum tests requirements should be set out for each category of laboratory and
field-testing. The quantities of tests should be determined on the basis of the
standard of road and size of project.
d. All tests shall be referenced to the Test Methods listed in this manual. The
corresponding international standards such as AASHTO, SANS or BS as applicable
shall also be referred.
e. Both field and laboratory equipment should be approved for use in accordance with
the requirements of the project and with guidance from this manual. The equipment
must be in good working order and calibrated by reputable firms or entities.
f. Standard forms shall be used unless specified otherwise.
g. The approval process shall follow agreed protocols, but it shall include the
following:
i. Approval of tests as specified in the particular project specifications
ii. Approval of test equipment specified in this testing manual and/or project
specifications and/or by the responsible authority.
iii. Approval of test standards as provided in this manual and/or project
documents or other internationally recognized test standards. A formal
request shall be made in the case where such tests are not specified in this
document or in specific AASHTO standards
iv. Approval of test results shall follow the specified protocols stated in this
manual.
v. Any retests shall be clearly documented with reasons for the retests.
vi. Approved results shall be copied to relevant persons or parties in the case
of a project.
vii. The results shall be archived both in electronic databases and physical files
for future reference
h. Regular reviews of the quality of testing and occasional proficiency testing shall be
carried out and recorded. This shall be achieved by involving certified laboratories
both local, regional (e.g. in South Africa) and internationally.
i. Any deviation from the standards shall be done through formal request and
approvals.

3
3 Standardisation
This manual involves standardization of test methods for the tests involved in road
provision specifically relating to how field and laboratory tests should be carried out. While
the test methods are drawn from different standards and some modified to suit the
Mozambique situation, the standards stated in this manual shall form the standard test
methods and specifications for Mozambique. However, reference may be made to the
source documents of the standard where necessary.
It follows therefore that any person or entity working under the jurisdiction of ANE shall
be made aware of the importance of this document to make reference to it in any field
and laboratory testing work.
Where other test methods are to be used it shall be considered as departure from the
Mozambique standards and the request form attached in the Appendix shall be completed
to get authorization. However, this does not apply to AASHTO, ASTM and SANS from where
the Mozambique test methods were derived.

4
4 Precautions for Field and Laboratory Testing and
Investigations

4.1 Precautions for Field investigations

Field-testing and investigations refer to the processes of collecting data in the field, which
can be used mainly in road planning, engineering design and construction, rehabilitation,
maintenance and output and performance-based road contracts.
In carrying out field tests and investigations the following key aspects need to be taken
into consideration.
1. Scope of the testing and investigations – it is important for the scope to be well-
defined to avoid inadequacies, which may affect the results and intended
application.
2. The purpose of the data – this is used to determine the volume and accuracy of the
data that should be collected. This can be weighed on the basis of the value of the
project and hence the risk associated with any negative impacts on the structure
to be designed or rehabilitated or maintained.
3. The statistical significance – this is always difficult to determine. While statistics
has a way of calculating the quantum of data that is required for appropriate
statistical significance, it is not simply the technical requirements that matter on
engineering projects. In this case the engineering inputs can be much more
important than the statistical results.
4. The costs – the costs of collecting data are usually small in relation to the value of
the structures being engineered. However, there are certain specialized tests,
which can be costly, and a balance will need to be reached before embarking on
the testing exercises.

4.2 Precautions for Laboratory Testing

Laboratory testing and investigation refers to the preparation, processing and testing of
materials and structural elements. The protocols would also include reporting of results
and data management in addition to appropriate approval mechanisms and standards.
Outputs of the laboratory are crucial for most if not all engineering processes. The quality
of the designs, construction and maintenance are as good as the results or outputs of the
laboratories. If the results from the laboratories are inaccurate or inadequate, then the
designs or quality of road works and maintenance will most certainly be poor. The
consequence is a significant loss of value for money and increased risks of failure or poor
performance.
It is therefore important for the laboratories to deliver high quality outputs and to achieve
this, a number of key aspects need to be put in place:
1. The testing facilities should be appropriate for the level of testing required.
2. Personnel involved in the testing and approval of results should be trained and
suitably qualified to carry out the tests and to make the approvals. Most
importantly, they should have the requisite experience. Continuous professional
development is necessary for personnel to be conversant with new technologies.
3. The equipment should be appropriate, calibrated and in good working order.
4. Manuals and any documentation, which the laboratories use should be regularly
reviewed and updated in order for any advancements or improvements to be
incorporated in the testing protocols.
5. Laboratories should be well resourced financially and facilitated in terms of
transport and allowances for personnel.

5
 6. It is advisable for local laboratories to be paired with external, internationally
recognised laboratories or organisations for continual technological development
and accreditation purposes.

4.3 Capacity Building and Training

In order to fully benefit from this manual and to enhance the quality of testing and test
results, the following considerations shall be made.
The laboratories shall be fully equipped with functional equipment which is also fully
complementary.
Continuous development of capabilities and knowledge is required, and regular reviews
need to be put in place.
Training of operators and laboratory staff in general is crucial.

6
5 Standard Methods for Field Investigations and Tests
This chapter covers standards for field investigations to be used in Mozambique. Variations
may occur due to different site conditions and the type of available equipment. However,
the data that are obtained should be fit for purpose.

7
5.1 MTM F1 Standardisation of Field Testing
Test Number MTM Standardisation of field testing
F1
Description: 1. Summary information on the road:
a. Road Name
This method
b. Road Number
describes the
c. Road class
collection and
d. Jurisdiction
recording of
e. Section of road – chainages
generic information
f. Number of lanes
about the road or
g. Road width
road section under
h. Functionality
investigation or
i. Sealed or unsealed
monitoring.
Reference:
2. Supplementary information
Overseas Road
a. Climate
Note 18 (ORN 18)
b. Terrain
c. Drainage
d. Gradient
e. Type of surfacing
f. Traffic volume
g. Traffic Loading
h. General condition

3. Standardisation of Technical Information

a. Standard forms for field surveys for new construction
b. Standard forms for field investigations for rehabilitation
c. Standard forms for condition monitoring

4. Standard test procedures

a. Standard equipment and apparatus for tests
b. Standard procedures to be followed
c. Standard reporting mostly in standard forms

5. Standardisation training on:

a. Harmonizing perceptions e.g. of defects
b. Standard measurements
c. Standard units
d. Accuracies
e. Use of testing equipment

8
5.2 MTM F2 Determination of Cracking Index in Evaluating Surface
Defects
Test Number MTM Determination of cracking Index for the evaluation of surface defects
F2
Description: 1. Apparatus:
a. Measuring wheel or tape measure – to demarcate road sections
The method
b. Measuring tape
describes the
c. Camera
standard procedure
d. Standard forms
for the
e. For automated surveys, Test vehicle – equipped with GPS laser
determination of
scanners and powerful cameras and onboard computer
cracking index (CrI)
on road surfacings.
2. Preparation of test section
The investigation is
a. For preliminary surveys:
carried out through
i. Use chainages from car odometer to demarcate sections (100 m
a visual condition
or longer)
survey. The
ii. Carry out a windscreen survey (observing from the car) travelling
exercise can be
at low speed (not more than 20 km/h)
carried out by
iii. When using automated systems equipped with GPS it may not be
observing cracking
necessary to prepare the site for investigations, but safety
from the car
considerations should be taken into account.
travelling at low
b. For pavement evaluation for rehabilitation:
speed (windscreen
i. Mark sections 50 m in length
survey) or on foot
ii. Mark chainages
(walkthrough
iii. Place temporary road signs indicating works in progress
survey). Test
iv. For highly trafficked roads, cordon off the work area.
vehicles with laser
scanners, powerful
3. Procedure for collecting data
cameras and GPS
a. For preliminary surveys or road network condition surveys:
can also be used for
i. Determine the type of cracking; L – longitudinal, T-transverse, B-
road network
Block, C-crocodile, P-parabolic, see Figure 5-1
condition surveys
ii. Determine the extent of cracking in percentage of test section that
The results are used is cracked (see 3b(i) below)
in planning and iii. Stop regularly for closer observation and measurements
designing iv. For automated surveys, run the vehicles and collect the data as
maintenance stipulated in the user manual.
interventions or b. For rehabilitation design:
rehabilitation. They i. Type of cracks: L – longitudinal, T-transverse, B-Block, C-
can also be used in crocodile, P-parabolic, see Figure 5-1
Output and ii. Severity (Scr):
Performance Based Severity includes crack width category Wc (1 to 5) given in 3b(iv)
Road Contracts 0: none,
(OPBRC) for 1: single crack, (Wc ≤ 2)
approval of level of 2: more than one crack but not connected, (Wc ≤ 2
service and 3: more than one crack and connected, (Wc ≤ 3)
payment purposes. 4: crocodile/parabolic cracks, (Wc ≤ 3)
5: severe crocodile/parabolic cracks (Wc ≥3)
The cracking index
iii. Crack width category (Wc):
can signify
1: Crack width ≤ 1 mm,
pavement failure
2: 1 mm < crack width≤3 mm

9
 3: Crack width > 3 mm
4: Crack width > 3 mm + spalling
iv. Extent (Ecr):
1: ≤ 10%
2: 10% <area of block affected≤20%
3: 20% <area of block affected≤50%
4: 50% <area of block affected≤80%
5: 80% <area of block affected≤100%

Position: left (L), centre (C), right(R), outer wheel track (OWT),
inner wheel track (IWT)

4. Calculation
Calculated the cracking index using the following equation:

𝐶𝑟𝑎𝑐𝑘𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝐼𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑥, 𝐶𝑟𝐼 = 𝑆𝑐𝑟 𝑥𝐸𝑐𝑟

Cracking index (CrI) ranges from 0 - 25

Figure 5-1 Types of cracking (TRL, ORN 18)

10
5.3 MTM F3 Determination of Pothole/Patching Index in Evaluating
Surface Defects
Test Number MTM Determination of pothole/patching Index in evaluating of surface defects
F3
Description: 1. Apparatus:
a. Measuring wheel or tape measure – to demarcate road sections
This method
b. Measuring tape
describes the
c. Camera
standard procedure
d. Standard forms
for the
determination of
pothole/patching 2. Preparation of test section
index (PPI) on road a. For preliminary surveys or road network condition surveys:
carriageways. i. Use chainages from car odometer to demarcate sections (100 m
or longer)
The investigation is
ii. Carry out a windscreen survey (observing from the car) travelling
carried out through
at low speed (not more than 20 km/h)
visual condition
iii. Make regular stops for closer observations
survey (VCS). The
iv. When using automated systems equipped with GPS it may not
exercise can be
be necessary to prepare the site for investigations, but safety
carried out by
considerations should be taken into account.
observing potholes
b. For pavement evaluation for rehabilitation design:
and patching from
i. Mark sections 50 m in length
the car travelling at
ii. Mark chainages
low speed
iii. Place temporary road signs indicating works in progress
(windscreen
iv. For highly trafficked roads, cordon off the work area.
survey) or on foot
v. When automated surveys are carried out the GPS needs to be
(walkthrough
accurate to within 5m and should have powerful cameras and
survey).
profilers.
The results are used 3. Procedure for collecting data
in designing a. For preliminary surveys:
maintenance i. Determine the average area of potholes and patching
interventions or ii. Determine the extent of potholes and patching in percentage of
rehabilitation. They area of test section
can also be used in b. For rehabilitation design:
Output and i. Estimated area - sum of pothole and patching area (At) in m2
Performance Based ii. Estimate the average individual pothole or patching area (Aave)
Road Contracts iii. Severity of pothole and patching (Spp) using sizes
(OPBRC) for 1: Aave < 0.2 m2
approval of level of 2: 0.2 m2 ≤ Aave ≤ 0.5m2
service and 3: 0.5 m2 ≤ Aave ≤ 1.0m2
payment purposes. 4: 1.0 m2 ≤ Aave ≤ 2m2
5: Aave ≥ 2 m2
The
iv. Position: left (L), centre (C), right(R), outer wheel track (OWT),
pothole/patching
inner wheel track (IWT)
index can signify
v. Extent (Epp), Figure 5-2:
pavement failure
1: ≤ 10%
2: 10% <area of block affected≤20%
3: 20% <area of block affected≤50%
4: 50% <area of block affected≤80%
5: 80% <area of block affected≤100%

11
4. Calculation
Calculated the cracking index using the following equation:

𝑃𝑜𝑡ℎ𝑜𝑙𝑒 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑃𝑎𝑡𝑐ℎ𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝐼𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑥, 𝑃𝑃𝐼 = 𝑆𝑝𝑝 𝑥𝐸𝑝𝑝

Pothole and Patching index (PPI) ranges from 0 - 25

Figure 5-2 Extent of Potholes and Patching (TRL, ORN 18)

12
5.4 MTM F4 Determination of Deformation Index in Evaluating Road
Pavement Defects
Test Number MTM Determination of deformation index in evaluating road pavement defects
F4
Description: 1. Apparatus:
a. Measuring wheel or tape measure – to demarcate road sections
This method
b. Straight edge for measuring defects
describes the
c. Camera
standard procedure
d. Standard forms
for the
e. Road marking paint or equivalent
determination of
f. Road profiler – for automated surveys.
deformation index
(DI) on road
carriageways. 2. Preparation of test section
a. For preliminary surveys or road network condition surveys:
The investigation is
i. Use chainages from car odometer to demarcate sections (100 m
carried out through
or longer)
visual condition
ii. Carry out a windscreen survey (observing from the car) travelling
survey (VCS) and
at low speed (not more than 20 km/h)
measurement of
iii. Make regular stops for closer observations and direct
depressions. The
measurements.
exercise can be
iv. When using automated systems equipped with profilers,
carried out by
cameras and GPS, it may not be necessary to prepare the site for
observing
investigations, but safety considerations should be taken into
deformation from
account.
inside a car
b. For pavement evaluation for rehabilitation:
travelling at low
i. Mark sections 50 m in length
speed (windscreen
ii. Mark chainages at the beginning and end of each test section
survey) or on foot
iii. Place temporary road signs indicating works in progress
(walkthrough
iv. For highly trafficked roads, cordon off the works area.
survey).
v. Mark the deformed areas
The results are used vi. When automated surveys are carried out the GPS needs to be
in designing accurate to within 5m and should have powerful cameras and
maintenance profilers that are sensitive to less than 5 mm.
interventions or
rehabilitation 3. Procedure for collecting data
designs. They can a. For preliminary surveys and road network condition surveys:
also be used in i. Determine the area and maximum depth of deformation
Output and ii. Determine the extent of deformation in percentage of section
Performance Based that is deformed (see 3b(vi) below)
Road Contracts iii. For windscreen surveys, make regular stops for closer
(OPBRC) for observations and direct measurements
approval of level of iv. For automated surveys, run the vehicle as specified by the
service and manufacturer if not at traffic speed.
payment purposes. b. For rehabilitation design:
Deformation index i. Place the straight edge across the depressions, Figure 5-3.
can signify ii. Place the graduated wedge in the gap between the wedge and
pavement failure the surface of the road. Probe in several positions and read and
record the higher value and express it as the depth of
deformation at the test point.

13
 iii. Repeat the test in several pre-marked positions and record the
maximum deformation within the test section, dmax
iv. Determine the severity of deformation (Sd)
1: dmax < 10 mm
2: 10 mm ≤ dmax ≤ 20 mm
3: 20 mm ≤ dmax ≤ 50 mm
4: 50 mm ≤ dmax ≤ 100 mm
5: 100 mm ≤ dmax
v. Record the position or off-set: left (L), centre (C), right(R), outer
wheel track (OWT), inner wheel track (IWT)
vi. Extent (Ed):
1: area of block affected ≤ 10%
2: 10% <area of block affected≤20%
3: 20% <area of block affected≤50%
4: 50% <area of block affected≤80%
5: 80% <area of block affected≤100%

4. Calculation
Calculated the cracking index using the following equation:

𝐷𝑒𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑚𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝐼𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑥, 𝑑𝐼 = 𝑆𝑑 𝑥𝐸𝑑

Deformation index (dI) ranges from 0 - 25

Figure 5-3 Illustration of Deformation (TRL, ORN 18)

14
5.5 MTM F5 Determination of Rutting Index in Evaluating Road
Pavement Defects
Test Number MTM Determination of rutting index in evaluating road pavement defects
F5
Description: 1. Apparatus:
a. Measuring wheel or tape measure – to demarcate road sections
This method
b. Straight edge – 2 m or 3 m for measuring defects, Figure 5-4.
describes the
c. Graduated wedge
standard procedure
d. Alternatively, an ultrasonic or laser profiler mounted on a test vehicle
for the
e. Camera
determination of
f. Standard forms
rutting index (RI)
for roads.
2. Preparation of test section
The test is carried
a. For preliminary surveys:
out through visual
i. Use chainages from car odometer to demarcate sections (100 m
condition survey
or longer)
(VCS) and
ii. Carry out a windscreen survey (observing from the car) travelling
measurements of
at low speed (not more than 20 km/h)
rut depth using a
b. For pavement evaluation for rehabilitation:
straight edge.
i. Mark sections 50 m in length
Preliminary ii. Mark chainages at the beginning and end of each test section
assessments of iii. Place temporary road signs indicating works in progress
rutting can be iv. For highly trafficked roads, cordon off the works area.
carried out visually
by observing 3. Procedure for collecting data
rutting from inside a. For preliminary surveys:
a car travelling at i. Determine the length of rutted sections
low speed ii. Determine the extent of rutting in percentage of length of test
(windscreen section that is (see 3b(viii) below)
survey) or on foot iii. Make regular stops for closer observations and direct
(walkthrough measurements.
survey). iv. When using automated road profilers, run the vehicles as
The results are used stipulated by the manufacturer of not at traffic speed. The GPS
in designing will capture the location information and the cameras will record
maintenance visual footage.
interventions or b. For rehabilitation design:
rehabilitation i. Place the straight edge across the rut at right angle to the rut
designs. The results ii. Place the graduated wedge between the road surface and the
are also used to underside of the straight edge and read the depth of the gap.
determine iii. Probe in several positions until and record the higher value at
structural that position.
conditions of iv. Mark the position with a rapid drying road marking or equivalent
pavements. paint.
v. Repeat the measurements on several positions and determine
Rutting is often
the highest value obtained (Rmax ) and record it as the rut depth
used as an
of for the test section.
indication of
vi. Determine the severity of rutting (Sr)
pavement failure
1: Rmax < 5 mm
and as a
2: 5 mm ≤ Rmax ≤ 10 mm
performance
3: 10 mm ≤ Rmax ≤ 20 mm

15
indicator in Output 4: 20 mm ≤ R ≤ 50 mm
and Performance 5: Rmax ≥ 50 mm
Based Road vii. Position: left (L), centre (C), right(R), outer wheel track (OWT),
Contracts (OPBRC). inner wheel track (IWT)
viii. Extent (ER):
1: length affected by rutting ≤ 10%
2: 10% < length affected by rutting ≤30%
3: 30% < length affected by rutting ≤50%
4: 50% < length affected by rutting ≤80%
5: 80% < length affected by rutting ≤100%

4. Calculation
Calculated the cracking index using the following equation:

𝑅𝑢𝑡𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝐼𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑥, 𝑅𝐼 = 𝑆𝑅 𝑥𝐸𝑅

Rutting index (RI) ranges from 0 - 25

Figure 5-4 Device for Measuring Rut Depth (TRL, ORN 18)

16
5.6 MTM F6 Determination of International Roughness Index (IRI) in
Evaluating Road Pavement Defects
Test Number MTM Determination of International roughness index (IRI) in evaluating road
F6 pavement defects
Description: 1. Apparatus:
a. Measuring wheel or tape measure – to demarcate road sections
This method
b. GPS – for measuring coordinates
describes the
c. MERLIN machine (Figure 5-5)/TRL Beam for measuring roughness and
standard procedure
calibrating other RTRRMS
for the
d. Rapid measuring device for roughness measurement (profilometers,
determination of
bump integrators, etc.)
international
e. Vehicle mounted camera
roughness index
f. Standard forms
(IRI) for roads.
The investigation is
2. Calibration of rapid measuring devices for roughness measurement
carried out through
a. Select at least 5 sections with incremental roughness starting from
measurements
smooth to very rough.
roughness using
b. Mark the start and end of each section. The length should be at least
the MERLIN, TRL
300m.
Beam or Vehicle
c. Drive the vehicle with mounted road roughness measuring device
mounted response
from the beginning to the end of the section slowly while marking the
type road
wheel tracks with paint marks every 3-5 m.
roughness
d. Using the MERLIN machine measure roughness by marking points on
measuring system
the forms at every full revolution of the wheel
(RTRRMS).
e. Follow the paint marks on the wheel path from start to end.
The results are used f. Repeat the measurements on each wheel path and calculate the
in designing average roughness.
maintenance g. Use the following formula to calculate the roughness of the section
interventions or and record the value as the IRI value for the sections
rehabilitation h. Drive the vehicle at the speed(s) with which section of road will be
designs. The results tested with the mounted road roughness measuring device. Follow
are also used to the marked wheel paths and record the roughness values (e.g. the
determine bump integrator readings.
structural i. Calculate the average value.
conditions of j. Repeat procedure 2(c) to 2(h) on each section.
pavements. Road k. Plot IRI against the average values obtained from the readings on the
roughness is often vehicle mounted device.
used as an l. Draw the best-fit straight line though the points.
indication of m. Determine the calibration equation from the graph
pavement and/or IRI = m (BI) + C
surfacing failure n. Use the calibration equation to convert all values from the RTRRMS
and as a to the international roughness index (IRI)
performance
indicator in OPBRC. 3. Preparation of test section
a. For preliminary surveys:
i. Use chainages from car odometer to demarcate sections (100 m
or longer) when using a simple bump integrator.
ii. For more advanced devices such as ROMDAS the roughness, the
coordinates and chainages are recorded and plotted
automatically

17
 b. For pavement evaluation for rehabilitation:
i. Mark sections 50 m in length
ii. Mark chainages at the beginning and end of each test section
iii. Place temporary road signs indicating works in progress

4. Procedure for collecting data

a. For preliminary surveys:
i. Run the vehicle once.
ii. Download the data from the device.
b. For rehabilitation design:
i. Run the vehicle at least 3 times following the wheel paths as
closely as possible.
ii. Download the data from the device.
iii. Determine the average value of IRI for each section as specified.

5. Calculation
Calculated the average value of IRI as specified:

(𝐼𝑅𝐼1 + 𝐼𝑅𝐼2 + ⋯ + 𝐼𝑅𝐼𝑛 )

𝐴𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝐼𝑅𝐼 =
𝑛

Figure 5-5 Roughness Measurements Using a MERLIN Machine

(TRL, ORN 18)

18
5.7 MTM F7 Determination of Road Pavement Structure and Strength
Using the Falling Weight Deflectometer (FWD)
Test Number MTM Determination of road pavement structure and strength using the falling
F7 weight deflectometer (FWD)
Description: 1. Apparatus:
a. Falling weight deflectometer (FWD) equipment – capable of exerting
This method
an impact load of 50kN±10%, (b)
describes the
b. Figure 5-6.
standard procedure
c. Laptop computer – with appropriate software
for the
d. Vehicle – to tow the FWD
determination of
e. GPS – for measuring coordinates of test points
pavement strength
f. Camera
using the falling
weight
deflectometer 2. Preparation of test section
(FWD) through a. For preliminary surveys:
measurement of i. Use chainages from car odometer to demarcate sections (200 m
deflections on the – 500 m or longer).
pavement. ii. Mark test positions preferably in the outer wheel tracks.
b. For pavement evaluation for rehabilitation:
The test involves
i. Mark sections 50 m in length
dropping a weight
ii. Mark chainages at the beginning and end of each test section
through a
iii. Place temporary road signs indicating works in progress
predetermined
iv. Mark positions for the FWD tests - usually it is easier to mark the
height to exert a
exact position after the test.
load of 50kN ±10%.
The results are used 3. Procedure for collecting data
to determine a. For preliminary surveys or road network condition survey:
structural strength i. Assemble the equipment
of individual ii. Check that the FWD is in good working order before taking it to
pavement layers sight.
and the pavement iii. Ensure that it is properly calibrated
as a whole. The iv. Using vehicle odometer select points for testing at the specified
main application of intervals (e.g. 100 m or 500 m or 1 km. and specified.
deflection tests is in v. Use the surface temperature of the road recorded automatically
rehabilitation by the FWD during the test ensure that it is being captured and
design, asset recorded
management and vi. At the test position lower the loading plate and ensure that it is
OPBRC. sitting properly on the surface of the road.
vii. Check to ensure that all the sensors are sitting properly on the
road surface.
viii. The FWD would normally make an initial 2 drops to settle the
loading plate before applying a further 3 to 5 drops while taking
deflection measurements.
b. For rehabilitation design:
i. Assemble the equipment.
ii. Refer to Table 5-1 below for the correct positioning of the
sensors.

19
 Table 5-1 Correct Positioning of FWD Sensors
Flexible Distance from load in mm
pavements 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Thick AC 0 300 600 900 1200 1500 2100
Thin AC or 0 200 300 600 900 1500 1800
surfacing

i. Check that the FWD is in good working order before taking it to

site.
ii. Check that it is calibrated.
iii. At the test position lower the loading plate and ensure that it is
sitting properly on the surface of the road.
iv. Check to ensure that all the sensors are sitting properly on the
road surface.
v. The FWD would normally make an initial 2 drops to settle the
loading plate before applying a further 3 to 5 drops while taking
deflection measurements.
vi. Once the test has been completed and the plate has been lifted
identify the central position under the loading plate and mark it
with paint. This mark will be used subsequently when carrying
out DCP tests, coring and digging up test pits, which should be
done at exactly the same position for a more complete analysis.
vii. Check that the deflection results have shown on the screen.
viii. Save the file for subsequent download after all tests have been
completed.
ix. Record supplementary information regarding the condition of
the surfacing at the test point e.g. if the surfacing is cracked or
not, and if the surface is level or deformed
x. Tests should not be carried out on a badly deformed or badly
cracked surfaces.
xi. Drill a hole using an asphalt drill and place an asphalt
thermometer in the hole to measure the temperature of the
asphalt. The internal temperature of the asphalt is usually much
higher than the surface temperature, which the FWD measures
automatically.
xii. For asphalt that is 150 mm thick or less measure temperature at
40 mm depth and for thicker asphalt measure at both 40 mm
and 100 mm depths.
xiii. Use the temperature values to correct the stiffness and moduli
to the standard temperature

4. Calculation
a. Deflection given by the first sensor d1 represents the overall
pavement strength.
b. Deflection difference d1-d4 gives an indication of the strength of the
bound layers
c. Deflection d6 gives an indication of the strength of subgrade.
d. Carry out a back analysis of the FWD data to determine the Modulus
and SN preferably using software.

20
 (a)

(b)

Figure 5-6 Illustration of FWD Equipment (TRL, ORN 18)

21
5.8 MTM F8 Determination of Road Pavement Structure and Strength
Using the Dynamic Cone Penetrometer (DCP)
Test Number MTM Determination of road pavement structure and strength using the dynamic
F8 cone penetrometer (DCP)
Description: 1. Apparatus:
a. DCP Equipment – consisting of a steel rod, 8 kg hammer with free fall
This method
height of 575 mm, 60-degree cone and a graduated rule, Figure 5-8
describes the
b. Measuring tape – to measure off-set distances
standard procedure
c. GPS – for measuring coordinates of test points
for the
d. Coring machine – where there is thick surfacing
determination of
e. Hand tools and containers for sampling soils for moisture content test
pavement strength
f. Camera
using the dynamic
g. Standard forms
cone penetrometer
(DCP).
2. Preparation of test section
The DCP test is
a. For preliminary surveys:
carried out by
i. Use chainages from car odometer to demarcate sections (200 m
hammering a steel
– 500 m or longer).
rod fitted with a 60-
ii. Mark test positions preferably in the outer wheel tracks.
degree cone into
b. For pavement evaluation for rehabilitation:
the pavement and
i. Mark sections of 50 m in length
measuring the rate
ii. Mark chainages at the beginning and end of each test section
of penetration per
iii. Place temporary road signs indicating works in progress
blow, which is the
iv. Mark positions for the DCP tests, usually at the same points as
resistance of the
the deflection tests
pavement layer to
penetration.
3. Procedure for collecting data
The results are used a. For preliminary surveys:
to determine i. Assemble the equipment
structural strength ii. Check the cone to ensure that it is in good condition with a sharp
of pavement layers tip.
and the pavement iii. Carry out DCP tests at 200m to 500m intervals staggered left-
as a whole. The centre-right, preferably on the centreline and in the wheel
main application of tracks.
DCP data is in iv. Follow the detailed procedure given in 2(b)
rehabilitation v. Penetrate the pavement to 800 mm depth from the surface or
design. as specified by the Engineer.
b. For rehabilitation design:
i. Assemble the equipment.
Reference:
ii. Check the cone to ensure that it is in good condition i.e. free of
Overseas Road
deformation and with a sharp tip. A gauge, which is a metal with
Note 18
a 60-degree slot and a 20 mm hole may be used to gauge the
dimensions of the cone and check its condition.
iii. Check that the rod is straight
iv. For roads with thick surfacings such as asphalt use the coring
machine to remove the surfacing or bituminous base.
v. Position the DCP vertically at the test point
vi. Fill in the details of the road and test position – the chainage,
lane number, offset, condition of the surfacing (cracked or not
cracked), moisture condition of the base, etc.

22
 vii. Take and record the zero reading on the rule (the reading at zero
blows)
viii. Apply 1 blow and take a reading
ix. Apply the 2nd and 3rd blows and record both penetration readings
x. Calculate the difference in subsequent readings i.e. the
penetration. Generally, the penetration between readings
should be between 5mm and 10mm in order to be able to
determine layer boundaries more accurately.
xi. Increase the number of blows before taking a reading if
penetration is less than 5 mm and reduce the number of blows
if the penetration is more than 10mm.
xii. Apply 1 blow each time before taking a reading if the penetration
is 10 mm or more per blow.
xiii. Continue the penetration until it reaches a minimum of 200 mm
into the subgrade. Usually a total penetration of 800 mm would
suffice but the Engineer’s instruction take precedence.
xiv. For deeper pavements use extension rods.
xv. Once the desired penetration has been reached apply a slight
tap with the hammer on the upper anvil to loosen the DCP rod
and cone.
xvi. Turn the rod clockwise.
xvii. Accept the test if the DCP rod turns with little effort
xviii. Reject the test if the DCP requires significant effort to turn or
does not turn at all. This implies that the rod is stuck and there
is additional resistance to penetration from side friction.
xix. Use the data to plot a graph of penetration against number of
cumulative no of blows, Figure 5-7
xx. Determine the layer boundaries by marking positions on the
graph where the slope changes.
xxi. Alternatively, enter the penetration and number of blows into
the DCP software e.g. UKDCP.

4. Calculation
a. Calculated the layer thicknesses from the layer boundaries marked
where the gradient of the curve changes.
b. Calculate the CBR using Kleyn or TRL Equation
TRL Equation:
𝐿𝑜𝑔10 = 2.48 − 1.057𝑙𝑜𝑔10 (𝑚𝑚/𝑏𝑙𝑜𝑤)
Kleyn Equation:

𝐿𝑜𝑔10 = 2.632 − 1.28𝑙𝑜𝑔10 (𝑚𝑚/𝑏𝑙𝑜𝑤)

c. Calculate the structural number from the following equation:

𝑆𝑁 = 0.0394 ∑ 𝑎𝑖 𝑑𝑖
0
Where:
a = layer strength coefficient

23
d = thickness of the layer
d. Calculate the corrected structural number, SNC, which takes into
account the variations in subgrade strength.

𝑆𝑁𝐶 = 𝑆𝑁 + 3.51(𝑙𝑜𝑔10 𝐶𝐵𝑅) − 0.85(𝑙𝑜𝑔10 𝐶𝐵𝑅)2 − 1.43

Figure 5-7 A plot of penetration against number of blows

Figure 5-8 DCP Equipment (TRL, ORN 18)

24
5.9 MTM F9 Determination of Road Pavement Structure and
Evaluation of Pavement Materials through Test/Trial Pits
Test Number MTM Determination of road pavement structure and evaluation of pavement
F9 materials through test/trial pits
Description: 1. Apparatus:
a. Backhoe – for mechanical excavations
This method
b. GPS – for measuring coordinates of test pits
describes the
c. Hand tools – 2 picks, 1 spade, 1 shovel, 1 trowel, containers for
standard procedure
sampling soils for moisture content test, sample bags (10 kg and 50
for the excavation
kg)
of test/trial pits,
d. Measuring tape – to measure depths, thicknesses of layers and off-
logging and
set distances
sampling of
e. Labels – hard paper or aluminum foil
pavement
f. Camera
materials.
g. Standard test pit logging forms
The process
involves the
2. Excavation of test pit and sampling of materials
removal of
a. For new construction:
surfacing. Asphalt
i. For highways, position tests pits at 20 m to 50 m intervals along
saw cutters should
the centreline.
be used for the
ii. For secondary and other low volume roads, position test pits at
removal of asphalt
50 m to 100 m intervals. Any intervals greater than 100 m should
and other thick
be approved by the Engineer.
surfacings. The
iii. Depth of excavation should be at list 1 m.
underlying
pavement layers
b. For pavement evaluation for rehabilitation:
are then excavated
i. Use the FWD deflection data to select 2 points with the highest
taking care not to
deflection (weakest points) and 1 with the lowest deflection
mix the materials
(strongest point), MTM F4
from different
ii. From the DCP data select the point on the 2 weakest points with
layers. Samples of
the smaller structural number and/or weakest subgrade if the
materials are
difference in the structure numbers is not significant.
collected from each
iii. Position the test pit on the weakest point to determine the
layer in quantities
minimum strength of the pavement within the test section.
which are sufficient
iv. Mark the test pit in a rectangular form 1.0 m x 1.2 m for thicker
for the intended
pavements and 0.8 m x 0.8 m generally.
tests (See Chapter 5
v. Take photos showing the condition of the surfacing.
MTM L5 standard
vi. Remove the surfacing using an asphalt saw cutter for thick
tests series for
surfacings and using hand tools for thin surfacings.
Tests on Soils and
vii. Sample part of the surfacings in sufficient quantities for
Gravels). The
subsequent testing (refer to Chapter 8, Chapter 10 and Chapter
profile of the
11, i.e. MTM L8 MTM L10 and MTM L11 standard test series).
pavement structure
viii. Label the samples appropriately including the intended tests
is logged and
ix. Clean the surface of the base course and remove any
depths and
contamination of binder or prime coat and take photos
thicknesses of
x. Excavate a little and collect samples for moisture content test,
pavement layers
MTM L6-3
are recorded.
xi. Level out the top and carry out in-situ density tests, preferably
The results are also in 2 positions within the test pit.
used to determine

25
structural strength xii. Excavate the first layer avoiding contamination with the bottom
of pavement layers layer.
and the pavement xiii. Collect samples in sufficient quantities to carry out specified
as a whole including tests (refer to Chapter 6, MTM L6 standard test series). Note that
the quality, the base layer could consist of crushed stone base or crusher-
classification and run in which case Apparent Density Test would be required,
strength of MTM L8-15
materials, which xiv. Repeat procedure 2a(x) to 2a(xiii) for subsequent pavement
constitute the road layers including subgrade.
pavement under xv. Fill in the test pit logging form. Record the depth and thicknesses
investigation. of the layer, depth of the test pit, colour of materials in the
different layers, the description of the type of materials, etc.
xvi. Once completed, backfill the test pit with the same or better-
quality pavement materials
xvii. For highways, stabilize all layers with cement because only light
compaction equipment can be use and higher densities are
impossible to achieve when backfilling test pits.
xviii. For low volume roads, only stabilize the base course.
xix. Use cold or hot mix asphalt to seal the test pit and compact
sufficiently.

26
5.10 MTM F10 Determination of Field Density by Sand Replacement
Method
Test Number MTM Determination of field density by sand replacement method
F10
Description: 1. Apparatus:
a. Density equipment – 4L cylinder with orifice of 12.7 mm in diameter
This method
fitted with a cylindrical valve and a conical funnel below the valve.
describes the
b. A base plate – with a diameter equal to that of the hole to be
standard procedure
excavated in the pavement layer to be tested
for the
c. Sand – un-cemented free flowing dry sand (0.075 mm < particle size
determination of
≤ 2.00 mm); variation in bulk density shall be ≤ 1%
in-situ field density
d. Balance – with capacity of more than 5 kg a balance capable of
and moisture
accuracy of 0.01g
content of
e. Drying Oven – capable of maintaining 105°C
materials.
f. Hand tools – picks, shovels, spoon, chisel, air-tight containers for
The process moisture content samples, sample bags for density test on soils, small
involves the paint brush, measuring tape for measuring depth of test hole and
preparation of sand thickness of pavement layer.
to be used for the
test, excavating of a
2. Procedure:
test hole, collecting
a. Determine the bulk density of the sand (calibration):
the excavated
i. Place the empty apparatus on a firm level surface.
material and
ii. Close the valve and fill the funnel with sand.
weighing to
iii. Open the valve and maintain the level of sand in the funnel
determine its mass.
above half, fill the apparatus.
The density
iv. Close the valve and empty excess sand
apparatus is then
v. Weigh the mass of the sand and the apparatus
filed with sand,
vi. Calculate the mass of sand by subtracting the mass of the
weighed and placed
apparatus.
on the excavated
vii. Calculate the bulk density by dividing the mass of the sand by
hole. The sand is
the volume of the apparatus containing the sand.
released to flow
b. Excavation of the test hole:
into the hole to
i. If a surfacing layer exists – remove the surfacing layer and if
determine the mass
necessary, skim off the surface of the layer to be tested to make
of sand that is
it regular and level.
required to fill the
ii. Place the base plate and secure it with steel or concrete nails to
hole. Using the
restrict movement.
predetermined
iii. Excavate the hole guided by the size of hole in the base plate –
bulk density of the
the walls of the hole should be vertical.
sand and the mass
iv. Place all the soil that is excavated from the hole into a container
the volume of the
taking care not to lose any.
sand used to fill the
v. Excavate to a depth of 100 mm or as specified.
hole and hence the
vi. Place the empty density apparatus on the balance and weigh to
volume of the hole
the nearest 0.01 g.
is determined. The
vii. Close the valve.
density of the soil is
viii. Fill the apparatus with calibrated sand and weigh the apparatus
then determined
with the sand to the nearest 0.01 g.
from the mass of
ix. Place the apparatus over the excavated hole with the base plate
the excavated soil
still in place.
and volume of the
soil (i.e. the volume

27
of the hole). A small x. Open the valve and allow the sand to flow into the hole until it
portion of the stops flowing then close the valve sharply.
excavated soils is xi. Take care to avoid any vibrations of the layer by testing
collected for personnel or equipment or passing vehicles.
moisture content xii. Lift the density apparatus and weigh the apparatus again with
test. The moisture the remaining sand.
content is then xiii. Weigh the material that was excavated from the test hole
used to determine xiv. Mix the material, collect, and weigh a representative sample of
the dry density of the material for the determination of moisture content.
the excavated soil. xv. Determine the sample size for moisture content test using Table
5-2.
The results are used
xvi. Carry out the moisture content test in accordance with MTM L3.
to determine the
density of
pavement layers for Table 5-2 Determination of Maximum Size of Sample for Moisture Content
control of Tests
compaction or in Maximum Particle Minimum Moisture
the investigation of Size (mm) content sample (g)
pavement layer
4.75 100
strengths in-
12.5 250
service.
25 500
50 1000
Reference:
c. Calculations
AASHTO T191
i. Calculate the volume of the density apparatus, V1:
ASTM D1556

𝑉1 = 𝑀1 𝑥𝑇
Where:
V1 = Volume of density apparatus (cm3)
M1 = Weight of water required to fill the density apparatus(g)
T = volume of water /unit mass at given temperatures
(cm3/g), Table 5-2.

Table 5-3 Volume of Water per Gram in Relation to Temperature

Temperature (°C) Volume of water (cm3/g)
12 1.00048
14 1.00073
16 1.00103
18 1.00138
20 1.00177
22 1.00221
24 1.00268
26 1.00320
28 1.00375
30 1.00435
32 1.00497

Calculate the volume to the nearest 0.00001 cm3

28
 ii. Calculate the bulk density of sand, ρs:

𝑀2
𝜌𝑠 =
𝑉1

Where:
M2 = the weight of sand required to fill the density apparatus,
cm3
𝑉1 = the volume of the density apparatus (= the volume of the
sand required to fill the density apparatus), cm3

Calculate the bulk density of the sand to the nearest, 0.01g/cm3

iii. Calculate the moisture content of the soil, w (%).

𝑀3 − 𝑀4
𝑤= 𝑥100
𝑀4

Where:
M3 = mass of wet sample, g
M4 = mass of dry sample, g

iv. Calculate the dry density of the soils from the hole, ρd (cm3/g)
𝜌𝑤
𝜌𝑑 =
1+𝑤

Where:
ρw = density of wet soil from hole
w = moisture content of soil from hole (%)

Calculate the dry density of the soil from the hole to the nearest
0.01g/cm3 (equivalent to 0.01kg/m3)

v. For compaction assessment - calculate the average density and

standard deviation of the test results for the section under
investigation after taking out outliers.
vi. Plot the average density and standard deviation on the
Compaction judgement chart given in Appendix A

3. Reporting
a. Road name
b. Chainage
c. Position including off-set distances
d. Pavement layer
e. Visual description of material
f. Bulk density of sand
g. Wet density of soil
h. In-situ moisture content
i. Dry density of the soil

29
 j. Average density for the section under investigations and the standard
deviation of the density results.
k. For Compaction – apply the compaction judgement chart in Appendix
A and report Acceptance, Conditional Acceptance or Rejection.

4. Precautions
a. The walls of the hole must be vertical
b. The test does not give accurate results when the materials has large
stones. This affects the regularity of the hole and moisture content
tests.

30
5.11 MTM F11 Determination of Field Density using a Nuclear Density
Gauge (Troxler)
Test Number MTM Determination of field density using a nuclear density gauge (Troxler)
F11
Description: 1. Apparatus:
a. Nuclear Density/Moisture Gauge (Figure 5-9) with
This method
i. Source of high energy gamma rays
describes the
ii. Gamma ray detector
standard procedure
iii. Fast neutron source
for the
iv. Slow neutron source
determination of
v. A standardization testing block – for correction of radiation and
in-situ field density
to check that the gauge is operating properly
and moisture
b. A plate – for preparing a level surface to sit the gauge; it has the same
content of
dimensions as the base of the gauge.
materials using a
c. A graduated drive rod – diameter not more than 3 mm greater than
nuclear density
the diameter of the probe. It is hammered into the layer of materials
gauge.
to prepare a hole for the probe.
The process d. Drive rod extractor – a handle used to pull the pin out without
involves the damaging the hole.
preparation of the e. A hammer – 1 kg or more to drive the rod into the ground
nuclear density f. Hand tools – for leveling the surface of the material to be tested
gauge to ensure g. Sample bags – to collect samples for moisture content tests and
that it is in good moisture density-relationship tests.
working order.
Such checks include
2. Procedure
verifying that the
a. Check calibration of the nuclear density/moisture gauge:
instrument is
i. Check that the gauge is calibrated.
calibrated
ii. If the gauge is out of calibration the procedure for calibration
(calibration is
stipulated by the manufacturer should be followed and should
required every 12
include the use of standard blocks of constant density to obtain
months) and that
the calibration response of ± 16kg/m3 for wet density.
the calibration
iii. When calibrating using standard blocks the accuracy of the
curves are available
results i.e. the difference between the known density of the
or that any
block and the measured value should be ± 0.2%.
corrections are in-
iv. For verifying existing calibration, the accuracy should be
built in the
±32kg/m3
software or
v. For water content calibration and when standard blocks of
provided before the
constant moisture are used, the accuracy should be ± 16kg/m3
start field tests.
The surface of the Calibration should be carried out by a certified entity.
materials to be
tested should be Verification of calibration and standardization should be carried
leveled out so that by the user.
the nuclear density
gauge can sit Nuclear density gauges are safe when handled properly. The
properly on the manufacturer’s safety instructions should be strictly adhered to
surface without in order to prevent exposure to harmful radiation. The equipment
leaving gaps must be kept in its container unless it is being used. Under no
between the base circumstance should the probe containing the radioactive
of the gauge and material be exposed or tempered with.

31
the surface of the
material. Any gaps b. Preparation of the test position:
should be filled i. Check to ensure that there is no vertical wall within 600 mm of
with sand. the test position. If this is unavoidable then apply corrections
However, the total procedures provided by the manufacturer.
area to be covered ii. Check that there are no devices emitting radioactive materials
by the sand should within 10 m of the test position.
not exceed 30% of iii. Using hand tools make the sitting position the gauge as plane as
area of the base of possible and any irregularities should not be more than 3 mm
the gauge. The and the area with irregularities should not be more than 30% of
nuclear density the sitting area of the gauge.
gauge is placed on iv. Level off the irregularities with sand to ensure that there is no
the prepare area gap between the surface of the layer and the base of the gauge
over the material to during testing. The plate should be used during the preparation
be tested. The test of the test position.
is then carried out v. Decide on the method of testing to be used:
though counts of • Direct transmission method of in-situ nuclear density and
radiation of moisture content – in this method the radioactive source
radioactive is placed at some depth in the layer and the
particles detected sensor/counter is at the surface
by the sensor. The • Back Scatter or Backscatter/Air Gap Ratio method of in-
counts are situ nuclear density and moisture content – in this method
converted to field the radioactive source and the sensor/counter are placed
density and at the surface of the layer
moisture content vi. For the direct transmission method - place the plate on the test
values through position. Place the drive rod in the guide hole of the place and
calibration hammer it into the layer to a depth that is more than 50 mm
relationships, below the intended depth at which the radioactive probe will be
which may be in the place during testing. Use the graduation marks on the rod to
form of curves or determine the depth of penetration. Mark the position of the
in-built software plate and use the drive rod extractor to extract the rod while
algorithms. rotating back and forth to avoid damaging the hole.
The results are used vii. For the backscatter or back scatter/air gap ration method – use
to determine the the plate to make sure that the surface of the material/layer is
in-situ density and plane.
moisture content of c. Testing using the direct transmission method:
pavement layers for i. Place the gauge on the block and initiate standardization
control of procedure.
compaction or in ii. Place the gauge on the test position and within the marks
the investigation of placed on the surface during the preparation process
pavement layer iii. Lower the probe to the required depth in the layer.
strengths in- iv. Initiate the test procedure.
service. The dry v. The gauge will provide the counts and make the conversions
density can be automatically. If this cannot be done automatically the
calculated using in- calibration curves or coefficients should be used to convert
situ moisture counts to wet density and moisture content.
content obtained vi. Record 1 or more 1-min readings as specified
from the readings d. Testing using the backscatter or air backscatter/ air gap method:
or determined in i. Sit the gauge firmly on the test position
the laboratory on ii. For the backscatter method, initiate the tests and record 1 or
more 1-minute readings.

32
moisture content iii.
For the back scatter/air gap ration method, follow the
samples, MTM L3. manufacturer’s instructions. Take the same number of readings
for the air gap position as in the backscatter position then divide
The relative density
the counts from the air gap position by the counts in the
can be obtained by
backscatter position. Usually, these are automatically calculated.
inputting the value
iv. Record the readings for the wet density and moisture content. If
of the maximum
these are not calculated automatically, use the calibration
dry density of the
curves or predetermined coefficients to determine the in-situ
same material
wet density and moisture content.
obtained from the
e. Determination of relative density/compaction
laboratory through
i. Prior to testing, carry out the moisture-density relationship tests
moisture density
in the laboratory to determine the maximum dry density (mdd)
relationship test,
and optimum moisture content (OMC), (MTM L6-8).
MTM L8.
ii. Input the mdd value in the gauge before commencing the tests.
The gauge will be iii. The relative compaction is computed automatically
calculated and iv. Record the relative density/compaction in percentage (%).
display the relative
compaction as a f. Calculations
percentage (%). i. Calculate the limits of the standardization count upper and
Reference Test lower limits:
Method is AASHTO
𝑁0
T310 𝑁𝑠 = 𝑁0 ± 1.96√( )
𝐹
Where:
Ns = Current standardization count
N0 = Average of 4 Ns values taken in standardization in a previous
test
F = factory pre-scale factor (provided by the manufacturer)

ii. Calculate in-situ dry density using the following equation

𝜌𝑤
𝜌𝑑 =
1+𝑤

Where:
𝜌𝑤 = density of wet soil from hole
w = moisture content of soil from hole (%)

33
Figure 5-9 Measuring Field Density using a Nuclear Density Gauge

34
5.12 MTM F12 Determination of Field Permeability of Soil Masses
Test Number MTM Determination of field permeability of soils masses
F12
Description: 1. Apparatus:
a. Borehole drill complete with truck or other mounting – open ended
This method
with capability to extract the core of materials and leave an open
describes the
hole.
standard procedure
b. A water level measuring device/meter – for measuring the water
for the
levels in the borehole during testing
determination of
c. Perforated tubing – which allows free flow of ground water into the
field permeability
hole, Figure 5-10
of soil masses.
d. A water pump – a submersible water pump of minimum 600W fitted
Permeability of a
with flexible pipes
material is the
e. Extruder – for removing materials after coring
measure of its
f. Hand tools – for preparation of site for testing, handling materials
ability to allow a
and clearing site after tests.
fluid to pass
through it. In the
case of soils, rocks,
pavements,
underlying
subgrade,
surrounding natural
ground, and filter
materials the
movement of water
into, through and
out is determined
by the permeability
of these materials.
The procedure
involves the drilling
of a borehole. The
level of the water
table is measured,
and water is
allowed to seep
into the borehole to
the level of the
water table. Water
is then drained to a Figure 5-10 Field Measurement of Permeability of Soil Masses
specified depth in
the borehole. 2. Procedure
Ground water is The procedure below is called the borehole method.
then allowed to
seep in and the rate a. Drill a borehole to a depth of approximately 600mm (the depth shall
at which the water be between 200mm and 2000mm) below the water table;
level rises in the b. Wait until the water level in the hole has restored to the natural water
borehole gives an table. This may take approximately 2 hrs. for sand and 12 hrs. for clay
indication of the materials;
permeability of the

35
soil mass. The c. Pump the water out rapidly to a depth of approximately 300 mm or
permeability as appropriate and allow the water to rise to the natural water table;
coefficient of the
d. Record the rate at which the water table returns by measuring the
soil mass is
height and time.
calculated from
these
measurements.
The results are used
to determine the
permeability of the
soil masses which is
used in the design
of subsurface
drainage as well as
seepage of surface
water into the
ground.

Figure 5-11 Permeability Tests for Soil Masses

3. Calculations:
Refer to Figure 5-11.
H = depth of hole below the original water table after pumping out
water
R = radius of hole in mm
∆Y = Yo-Yt = the height (mm) which the water rises in a given time
∆T (seconds)
Ym = ∆Y/2+Yt = Distance from original water table to average
water level (in mm) in time interval ∆T (in seconds).
S = Depth of impervious layer below the depth of hole.
The following conditions should be met:
a. 30mm<r<70mm
b. 200mm<H<2000mm
c. ∆Y≤0.25Yo
d. 0.2H<Ym
Permeability coefficient in m/day
If S>H:
𝟒𝟎𝟎𝒓𝟐 ∆𝒀
𝑲= 𝒀 [ ]𝒎/𝒅𝒂𝒚
(𝑯+𝟐𝟎𝒓)(𝟐− ) ∆𝑻
𝑯

If S=0:

36
 𝟑𝟔𝟎𝒓𝟐 ∆𝒀
𝑲= 𝒀 [ ]𝒎/𝒅𝒂𝒚
(𝑯+𝟏𝟎𝒓)(𝟐− ) ∆𝑻
𝑯

Length in mm and time in seconds

See Determination of Permeability Coefficient K through Head Permeability Test,
MTM L6-13

37
5.13 MTM F13 Coring and Core-logging
Test Number MTM Sampling of AC and concrete cores and core-logging
F13
Description: 1. Apparatus:
a. Coring machine – complete with drill adaptors, Figure 5-12.
This method
b. Cylindrical drills – cylindrical core bits with diamond tips
describes the
c. Rubberized hammer – for extrusion of cores from coring bit
standard procedure
d. An elevated water tank – fitted with pipe connection to the coring
for the
machine to cool the bit
determination of
e. Calipers – for measuring the dimensions of the cores once extruded
characteristics of
f. Plastic sample bags – to place the cores and seal for further tests in
layers of asphalt
the laboratory
concrete or cement
g. Measuring tape – 30 m length to measure the off-sets of the test
concrete or other
points from the centerline
strata through
h. Measuring tape – 5 m steel tape to measure crack widths and other
profiling and
features
sampling for
i. An appropriate tray – to hold and prevent the samples from getting
detailed
damaged in the case of rough road during transportation from site to
assessment and
the laboratory.
laboratory testing.
j. Camera – to take photos of the cores
The procedure k. Forms – for logging cores
involves careful the l. A vehicle to transport the machine and samples
selection of the size
of coring cylinder
(100 mm and
150mm or as
specified) and
determination of
test positions that
are representative
of the layer under
investigation. This
is followed by
carefully coring into
the layer using the
coring machine
while ensuring
constant flow of Figure 5-12 Coring of Asphalt Layers
water to cool the
coring cylinder. 2. Procedure
After coring Coring is carried out to extract undisturbed samples of bound materials as in
through the layer(s) the case of asphalt and concrete or soil-cement with high cement content. In
the cylinder is then order for coring to be successful the core should remain intact during the
lifted slowly, and coring process.
the core extruded a. Assemble the equipment as directed by the manufacturer.
by tamping the
cylinder with a b. Check that the cylindrical coring bit is in good conditions
rubberized c. Select the right size of coring bit (100mm or 150mm diameter or as
hammer. The core specified)
is then
d. Attach and fasten the coring bit to the coring machine.
photographed and

38
examined, and e. Move the coring machine into position with the coring bit directly
features and its over the test point.
characteristics
f. Lower the coring bit to a height of about 5 mm above the surface of
recorded.
the layer to be cored
The results are used
g. Attach the water pipe from the tank to the coring machine and ensure
to determine the
that water is flowing freely from the tank to the coring bits
engineering
characteristics of h. Start the machine and ensure that it is running as specified.
the layer including i. Ensure that the water is streaming down the coring bit before
thickness, commencing the coring.
constituent
materials and their j. Lower the spinning coring bit gently to the surface and apply a
characteristics as constant but gentle force to press the coring bit into the layer.
well as any defects Observe the colour of the turbid water coming out of the cutting. Any
such as cracking, change of colour indicates that the coring bit has started cutting a
piping and pumping different layer; e.g. when cutting asphalt the colour would generally
or de-bonding, be black and grey. When cutting through crushed stone the colour
delamination in the would generally lighten to greyish or cream-grey. When cutting
case of multiple through soil or soil-cement it would term brownish or orange.
layers, etc. k. Pull out the drill gently while spinning
l. Extrude the core by tamping on the coring bit with a rubberised
hammer.
m. Collect the core and measure its height with a pair of callipers on 4
positions for its height and 3 positions for its diameter.
n. Weigh the core if the balance is available. Carry out initial logging of
the core.
o. Label the core.
p. Take photographs on all sides, the top and bottom.
q. Place the core in the sealed plastic bag.

3. Core logging
Core logging shall be carried out in a logging form illustrated in the Figure 5-13

39
Figure 5-13 Illustration of Core-Logging

40
5.14 MTM F14 Traffic Surveys – Determination Axle Loads
Test Number MTM Traffic Surveys – Determination of Axle Loads
F14
Description: 1. Apparatus:
a. Portable Weighbridge – with width of 45-55mm for mobile weighing
This method
operations; maximum limit of weight that can be measured by the
describes the
device is as specified by the manufacturer, Figure 5-14.
standard procedure
b. Fixed weighbridges – stationed at a fixed location and provided with
for the
a recess pit, support with a complete assembly and connectivity to a
determination of
central computer. They can weigh whole axles and can be set up to
vehicle axle loads
weigh in motion (WIM)
The procedure c. Display unit – a unit that shows the values of axle load transmitted
involves the from the weighbridge
measurement of d. Computer – for capturing axle load data (and wheel configuration for
axle loads on one or WIM).
both sides of the e. Forms – for recording values of axle loads manually
axle in a static f. Power source – An appropriate power supply is required for this
mode or weigh-in- purpose. For a fixed weighbridge, the power source could be a
motion (WIM) generator or mains. For a portable weighbridge a battery or
method. Portable connection to a power source on a vehicle would suffice.
or fixed g. Road signs – signage is required to warn and direct drivers to the
weighbridges can weighing position. Assistance may be required from local police.
be used for the
static mode. Weigh
in motion
equipment is used
in cases where axle
loads are carried
out as vehicle
wheels ride over
the weighing
equipment.
The results are used
to determine the
traffic loading on
pavements in
equivalent
standard axles
(ESAs). The ESAs
are used in Figure 5-14 Axle Load Survey
pavement and 2. Procedure:
rehabilitation a. For potable weighbridges:
design. Axle load i. Assemble the equipment as directed by the manufacturer.
surveys are also
used for overload ii. Set up the site and put in place all necessary controls to ensure
control. safety i.e. traffic signs, personnel, etc.
iii. Direct the vehicle such that the whole wheel or both wheels (if
the axle has 2 wheels either side) sits centrally on top of the
weighbridge.

41
 iv. Weigh one side of the axle and multiply the load by 2 to get the
full axle load
v. The transverse slope should not exceed 5 % and the longitudinal
slope should not exceed 2 % for the results to be within
reasonable margin of error of 100 kg.
vi. Weigh all the axles on the vehicle and record the weights
separately.
b. For fixed weighbridges with recess pit:
These can be weigh pads in recessed pits or a large weighbridge,
which can carry a whole articulated truck. The latter are commonly
used for overload control on highways.
i. Set up the weighbridge as stipulated by the manufacturer;
ii. Ensure that a recess pit is provided for weigh pads with
thickness > 60 mm.
iii. The recessed pits should have good drainage and a secure
channel for the cables. They should have a concrete base and
allow lateral movement of the pad of approx. 200mm. This is to
allow for correct positioning of the pads to suit the spacing of
the wheels on the axle.
iv. Experienced contractors should carry out the construction of
large weighbridges and the design should ensure adequate
support on the approaches and the foundations. The weigh
platforms should be connected to a central computer for data
capture and processing.
v. Measure the weight of the axles and ensure that the data is
stored for future use.
c. For weigh in motions sensors:
These are expensive and less accurate but can weigh a large sample
of axle loads. Note that the axles load weighed in motion would be
different from axle loads weighed in the static mode. WIN involves
significant dynamic loading in the case where undulations are
significant. These are mainly recording weighbridges or piezoelectric
cables
i. Recording weighbridges - set up the weigh pads on the surface
and connect to a recording device or computer to capture the
data. These weigh pads are thin thus minimising the error of
impact loading
ii. Piezoelectric cables – the cable should be set out as is done for
traffic counter. When a wheel load passes the cable send a signal
and at the same time the speed of the wheel is captured as it
passes. These values are required for weigh in motion load
calculations.
iii. Calibrate the weigh in motion systems. The WIM systems require
calibration at the site where they are installed. Site conditions
such as roughness and the actual installation influence impact

42
 loading of the wheels on the weigh device. The error is
significant and needs to be corrected through calibration.
iv. Measure axle loads for at least 7 consecutive days for 24 hrs/day.
Where overnight measurements are not possible surveys should
be carried out for at least 16hrs and not less than 12 hrs
v. The data should be recorded according to categories of traffic
classes
3. Calculations:
Axle load survey data collected from these surveys are used to calculate the
mean number of ESA for a vehicle in each class.
The number of equivalent standard axles (ef) of an axle is related to the
axle load as follows:

ef = (L/8160)n (for loads in kg)

or ef = (L/80)n (for loads in kN)
Where:
ef = number of equivalent standard axles (ESAs)
L = axle load (in kg or kN)
n = damage exponent (n = 4.5).
The vehicle equivalent factor is the sum ESAs of individual axles on the
vehicle.

43
5.15 MTM F15 Traffic Surveys – Traffic Counts, and Origin-Destination
Surveys
Test Number MTM Traffic Surveys – Traffic Counts and Origin-Destination Surveys
F15
Description: 1. Apparatus:
a. Apparatus for manual count:
This method
i. Handheld counters – click type, essential for counting high traffic
describes the
volumes
standard procedure
ii. Clip boards
for traffic data
iii. Traffic count forms – for classified counts to record traffic in both
including classified
directions separately
traffic counts and
iv. Chairs – for personnel to sit on
origin and
destination b. Automated counters, Figure 5-15:
i. Counting device - electric induction loops,
surveys.
ii. Pneumatic tube sensors,
The procedure iii. Piezo sensors, etc.
involves developing Cheaper automatic counters are usually used to count the
traffic categories number of axles passing over them
and counting traffic Expensive automatic counters are used to develop axle
in each direction configurations and therefore can give a general categorization of
usually for 24 hrs. the traffic.
for a minimum of 7 c. Data recorder – for capturing and storing traffic data from the
days. Where automatic counters
required longer d. Installation tools – equipment required to install the automatic
periods of counters.
collection of traffic
data can be achieve
using automatic
counters.
The results are used
to determine the
traffic volumes for
for geometric
design, estimation
of cumulative
traffic loading,
origin and
destination among
other purposes. Figure 5-15 Automatic Traffic Counters (ref: MetroCount)

2. Procedure:
a. Manual traffic counts:
i. Scope the traffic counting required in order to meet the purpose
or objective of the exercise i.e. whether the data is required for
traffic forecasting for design or maintenance or network
management.
ii. Acquire the requisite forms, which are current at the time the
traffic counts are required or as specified by the Engineer

44
 iii. Locate the most appropriate position for the count to be carried
out i.e. a position with good visibility, which is also safe and
secure. The position may be predetermined as the beginning of
a test section or junction or middle of a section under design.
iv. Engage the field staff – Training and standardisation of counting
is required unless if the staff are already knowledgeable and
experience.
v. Position the traffic counters as necessary and start the counts
early morning, usually 0600 hrs.
vi. Carry out full 24hrs of counting where it is safe to do so. If not
provide security or carry out a minimum of 16hrs of counting.
vii. Where traffic volumes are low record the counts directly on the
forms
viii. Where traffic volumes are high use handheld counters and then
record on the forms
ix. Hourly tallies should be made and this will help to categorise the
traffic flow with time to determine pick hour flows
x. Counting should be done by staff in pairs so that they can take
turns to do the counts to prevent fatigue.
xi. The traffic counts should be supervised to ensure good quality
data
b. Automatic traffic counts:
i. Assemble the equipment as directed by the manufacturer.
ii. Ensure that the equipment is in good working condition and any
faults should be repaired or rectified before use
iii. Install the equipment as directed and check that it is counting
properly
iv. Initial counts should be checked using manual counts which are
carried out simultaneously
v. For pneumatic tube systems – a passing wheel compresses the
tube and a pulse of air triggers the counter. The tubes are laid
on the surface and hence easier to install. The tubes are not
protected, and interference may occur.
vi. Buried loop systems – an induction wire loop is connected to a
counter encased in secure metal or concrete cabin for security
and placed on the side of the road. A separate loop should be
placed in each direction or each lane. Classification of traffic is
not possible with this method.
vii. Piezo systems – piezo electric sensor encased in an aluminium
extrusion or rubberised former. The force applied by a passing
wheel load is transformed into an electric pulse, which is
proportional to the magnitude of the force. These pulses are
interpreted into number of axles (including their weight) and
vehicles by category if necessary. Cut a slot into the pavement

45
 perpendicular to the direction of flow of traffic 50mm deep and
70 mm wide, place the piezo sensors and fill with epoxy so that
the sensor is flash with the surface of the road. The surface
should be levelled as much as possible with epoxy to minimise
the effect of impact loading generated due to irregularities in the
surface of the road and installation. It may be necessary to grind
the surface to remove any high points or irregularities.
viii. Cameras and intelligent counting units – These are tailor-made
cameras and intelligent traffic counters which are capable of
sensing and categorising vehicles in motion including direction
of travel on road sections and junctions. The intelligent counting
units used CCTV footage to count and categorise traffic and
upload the data wirelessly. There accuracy is approx. 98%. They
are expensive to procure and install and required adequate
capacity to maintain.
Maintenance of the automatic counters is of paramount
importance to ensure accurate results and this includes
maintenance of power source, and the tubing. As well as
installation should any damaged or general wear and tear occur.

3. Calculations:
The AADT is the sum of the traffic in both directions. In the first year of
analysis it consists of the current traffic plus an estimate of the diverted
traffic. If the total traffic is denoted by AADT0 and the general growth rate is i
per cent per annum, then the traffic in any subsequent year, x, is given by the
following equation:
AADTx = AADT0 (1+r/100)x
For structural pavement design the cumulative traffic loading of each of the
motorised vehicle classes over the design life of the road in one direction is
required. For a given traffic class, m, this is given by the following equation:

T(m) = 365 x AADT(m)0 [(1+i/100)n – 1]/(i/100)

Where
T(m) = the cumulative traffic of traffic class m
AADT(m)0 = The AADT of traffic class m in the first year
n = the design period in years
i = the annual growth rate of traffic in percent

46
6 Tests on Soils and Gravels
The tests on soils and gravels refer to all tests, which are carried out to determine their
engineering properties and behaviour. The results are usually required for engineering
processes including materials prospecting and approvals, pavement design and quality
control of road works.

47
6.1 MTM L6-1 Dry Preparation of Soil Samples for Tests
Test Number MTM Dry preparation of soil samples for tests
L6-1
Description: 1. Apparatus:
a. Balance – accurate enough to give a value of 0.1% of the sample being
This test method
measured, also measuring in SI units.
describes the
b. Drying oven or air-drying platform – not exceeding 60 °C
preparation of
c. Standard sieves – given in Test Method MTM L6-4
samples of soils and
d. Soils disaggregation device – for separating soil particles without
soil aggregate for
breaking up the individual particles
laboratory testing.
e. Riffling device – for partitioning representative sub-samples from the
The procedure main sample.
involves sampling,
quartering, drying,
2. Determination of size of samples
sieving and
a. Determination of size of sample for particle size distribution
separating the
i. Partition material into 2 portions by sieving through the 4.75 mm
different fractions
sieve or 2.00 mm sieve.
particularly the
ii. For particle size distribution involving materials passing 2.00 mm
coarse and fine
sieve with involves the hydrometer test, the quantities should be
fractions.
110 g for sandy soils and 60 g for silty or clayey soils.
Reference Test: iii. The amount of materials required for sieve analysis for the fraction
AASHTO T87 retained on the 4.75 mm or 2.0 mm shall be based on the nominal
maximum particle size, mm:
0.5 kg for 9.5 mm nominal maximum size
2.0 kg for 25 mm nominal maximum size
4.0 kg for 50 mm nominal maximum size
5.0 kg for 75 mm nominal maximum size
iv. A larger sample will be required where the material is fine and little
material is retained on the 4.75 mm or 2.00 mm
b. Determination of sample size for test on physical properties
The tests are carried out on materials passing 0.425 mm sieves, and
the amounts required are as follows:
100 g for liquid limit
20 g for plastic limit
30 g for shrinkage limit
50 g for field moisture
100 g for check tests
c. Determination of sample size for specific gravity tests:
Materials passing 2.00 mm is required in the following quantities:
25 g when volumetric flask is used
10 g when stoppered bottle is used
3. Procedure for initial sample preparation:
a. Disaggregate the soil particles in an appropriate devise while ensuring
that individual particles are not broken

48
 b. Weigh the mass of soil without correcting for hygroscopic moisture
c. Split coarse and fine fractions of the soil
i. Using 2.00 mm sieve separate material retained and material
passing the sieve. Grind the material retained on 2.00 mm sieve
without breaking the particles and re-sieve on the 2.00 mm sieve
ii. Using 4.75 mm sieve and 2.00 mm sieves – sieve first on the 4.75
mm sieve and grind the material retained on the 4.75 mm sieve
then re-sieve the ground material again on the 4.75 mm sieve.
Mix both potions, which passed through the 4.75 mm sieves.
iii. Through quartering weigh out a proportion required for the
subsequent tests. Sieve this potion of material on the 2.00 mm
sieve. Process these potions as in 3c(i).

4. Procedure for sample preparation for individual tests:

a. Procedure for sample preparation for particle size distribution and
specific gravity
i. The coarse fraction retained on 2.00 mm sieve from procedure
3c(i) or 4.75 mm in procedure 3c(ii) shall be used in sieve analysis
of the coarse material.
ii. The fine fraction passing 2.00 mm shall be analysed for particle
size distribution using the hydrometer test.
b. Procedure for sample preparation for physical tests
i. Sieve material passing 2.00mm on the 0.425mm sieve
ii. Grind the material retained on the 0.425 mm sieve and re-sieve
on the 0.425 mm sieve.
iii. Repeat the process until only a little proportion of the ground
material is passing 0.425mm sieve.
iv. Mix all the portions finer than 0.425 mm and use this fraction to
perform the physical tests.
c. Procedure for sample preparation for compaction
i. The quantity shall be as specified in MTM L6-8
ii. 11 kg size sample would normally suffice.

49
6.2 MTM L6-2 Wet Preparation of Disturbed Soil Samples for Tests
Test Number MTM Dry preparation of soil samples for tests
L6-2
Description: 1. Apparatus:
a. Balance – accurate enough to give a value of 0.1% of the sample being
This test method
measured, also measuring in SI units.
describes the wet
b. Drying oven or air-drying platform – not exceeding 60 °C
preparation of
c. Standard sieves – given in test method MTM L6-4
disturbed samples
d. Soils disaggregation device – for separating soil particles without
of soils and soil
breaking up the individual particles
aggregate for
e. Riffling device – for partitioning representative sub-samples from the
laboratory testing.
main sample.
The procedure f. Pans – 300 mm diameter pan and 75 mm height
involves sampling,
quartering, drying,
2. Wet preparation of soil samples
wet sieving on the
a. Dry wet soil samples in air or in an oven at temperatures not
0.425 mm sieve and
exceeding 60°C
separating the
b. Disaggregate the soil in a device with rubber pestles.
different fractions
c. Avoid breaking up individual particles
particularly the
d. Using a method of quartering separate a representative sample with
coarse and fine
adequate amounts to perform the necessary subsequent tests
fractions.
e. Weigh the air-dried sample and record it as the total mass of sample
Reference Test: without correction for hygroscopic moisture
AASHTO T146 f. Sieve the material on a 0.425 mm sieve and set aside the material
passing the 0.425 mm sieve.
g. Place the material retained on the 0.425 mm sieve in a milk pan and
cover it with water.
h. Allow it to soak for 2 to 24 hours until the aggregations have softened
and broken down
i. Place the empty 0.425 sieve in a pan and pour the sample into it.
j. Transfer all the material into the sieve washing the with a little water.
k. Added a little bit water into the sieve and holding such that the level
of the water is 13 mm above the mesh of the sieve.
l. Wash the material through the sieve by hand until most of the fine
materials have passed through the sieve
m. Break up any remaining aggregations by hand while washing the fines
through the sieve.
n. Lift the sieve above the water and material and wash the remaining
fine materials into the pan
o. Repeat the process if there are additional materials that need to be
washed in the same way.
p. Allow the material in pan to settle undisturbed for a few hours until
the water above the settled material is clear.
q. Decant or syphon the water carefully avoiding loss of materials
r. Place the fine material in an oven to dry at temperatures not
exceeding 60 °C.
s. Grind the dry material with rubber covered pestle.
t. Mix the material with the other portion of fines obtained during dry
sieving in procedure 2(f).

50
u. Set aside 60 g of the fine material for subsequent mechanical analysis
tests.
v. Subject the coarse fraction to sieve analysis and the fines to the
hydrometer test to determine the particle size distribution if
specified, MTM L6-4.

51
6.3 MTM L6-3 Laboratory determination of Moisture Content of Soils
Test Number MTM Laboratory determination of moisture content of soils
L6-3
Description: 1. Apparatus:
a. Oven – capable of maintaining 110 ± 5°C
This test method
b. Containers for moisture content tests - with tight fitting lids
describes the
c. An evaporating dish (porcelain)
standard procedure
d. A weighing balance – capable of accuracy of 0.01 g
for the
determination of
moisture content of 2. Preparation of samples
soils. Collect samples of soil as specified and if not specified use the guidance in
Table 6-1 below to determine the size of sample
Moisture content
refers to the Table 6-1 Minimum Sample Sizes for Moisture Content Tests
percentage by mass Maximum particle Minimum size of
of the moisture in a size (mm) sample (g)
soil sample to the
oven dried mass of 0.425 10
the same soil 4.75 100
sample.
12.5 300
Reference Test:
AASHTO T265 25 500
50 1000

3. Test procedure
a. Weight an empty container
i. With the lid if during the test the sample could gain or loose
moisture.
ii. Without the lid where weighing is carried out immediately after
placing wet sample in the container or where weighing will be
carried out soon after drying leaving no chance for the sample
to lose or gain moisture.
b. Place sample in the container and weigh with lid tightly fitted for
scenario 3a(i) or without lid for scenario 3a(ii).
c. After weighing, remove lid in the case of 3a(i).
d. Place the container and wet sample in the oven to dry at 110 ±5°C
until there is no change in weight; 15-16hrs of drying is sufficient.
Materials with organic matter or hydrated calcium carbonate should
be dried at 60°C.
e. After drying is completed remove container with dry sample from
oven:
i. In the case of 3a(i), replace the lid and allow to cool to room
temperature and weigh the container and dry sample.
ii. In the case of 3a(ii), allow to cool slightly and weigh the container
and dry sample before it absorbs moisture
f. Discard the material, clean and dry the containers.
g. Use 3 to 5 sub-samples in order to be able to determine an average
value of moisture content of the soil.

52
4. Calculations
Calculate the percentage by mass of the moisture to the oven dried mass of
the soil sample i.e. moisture content, w:
𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑚𝑜𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑚1 − 𝑚2
𝑤= 𝑥 100 = 𝑥 100
𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑜𝑣𝑒𝑛 𝑑𝑟𝑖𝑒𝑑 𝑠𝑎𝑚𝑝𝑙𝑒 𝑚2 − 𝑚 𝑐
Where:
m1 = mass of container +wet sample (g)
m2 = mass of container + oven dried soil (g)
mc = mass of container (g)

5. Report
a. Test reference
b. Moisture content to the nearest 0.1%

53
6.4 MTM L6-4 Particle Size Analysis of Soil Samples
Test Number MTM Particle size analysis of soil samples
L6-4
Description: 1. Apparatus:
a. Oven – controlled by thermostat to a temperature of 110 ±5 °C
This method
b. Balance – preferably electronic and accurate enough to be able to measure
describes the
0.1 % of the mass of the sample
standard procedure
c. Thermometer – preferably digital and accurate to 0.5 °C
for determining
d. Sieves – The sieves given in Table 6-2 meeting AASHTO M145 and M147
particle size
shall be used (Figure 6-1)
distribution, which
is also referred to as
sieve analysis. It is
the quantitative
measure of the
particle sizes in a
soil or gravel. It is
expressed in
percentage by dry
mass of the particle
sizes passing or
retained on a sieve
of the total dry
mass of the sample
being tested.
Reference Test
Standard is AASHTO
T 88

Figure 6-1 Apparatus for Sieve Analysis and Hydrometer Test

54
 Table 6-2 Standard Sieve Sizes for use in Grading Analyses for Soils and
Gravels
Standard Sieves
Sieve Size (mm) Other designation
1 75 3 in.
2 50 2 in.
3 37.5 1 ½ in.
4 25 1 in.
5 19 ¾ in.
6 13.2 ½ in.
7 9.5 3/8 in.
8 4.75 No. 4
9 2.36 No. 8
10 1.18 No. 16
11 0.60 No. 30
12 0.425 No. 10
13 0.30 No. 50
14 0.15 No. 100
15 0.075 No. 200

e. Stirring Apparatus – electric fan type stirring device placed inside a

dispersion cup such that it is not less than 19 mm or more than 38 mm from
the bottom. Alternatively, air-jet dispersion may be used blowing through
at 0.06m3/min.
f. Hydrometer – a device used to determine or quantify materials in
suspension either in specific gravity of the suspension or grams per litre of
water; ASTM 151H or 152H
g. Glass sedimentation cylinders – 460mm height and 60 mm diameter, 1000
ml capacity with the 1000 ml mark at 360 ±20mm from the internal bottom
of the cylinder
h. Glass beaker – 250 ml ≤ volume ≤ 500 ml
i. Stopwatch – for timing
j. Containers – with tight fitting lids to prevent moisture loss from wet samples
or moisture gain into dry samples
k. Glass rod – for stirring samples
l. Tank – for maintaining constant temperature

2. 2. Dispersion agent
a. Use sodium hexametaphosphate with shelf-life of 1 month.
b. The required pH of 8 or 9, achieved by adding of sodium carbonate.
c. Sodium hexametaphosphate shall be applied at 40 g/litre of solution.

3. 3. Preparation of Samples
The preparation of samples shall be in accordance with in MTM L6-1 or MTM L6-2.
a. Sieve Analysis of the material retained on 2.00 mm sieve
i. Sieve the materials retained on the 2.00 mm through the standard
sieves given in MTM L6-1.
ii. Include the 2.00 mm sieve if the sample was prepared using method
MTM L6-2.

55
 iii. In conducting the sieving use mechanical vibrators (note that sieving
can also be done by hand). Continue the process until not more that
1% of the material passes the sieves in 60 secs.
iv. Weigh and record the weight of the material retained in each sieve and
sum these up. Compare with the material weight of the material, which
was in the original sample. There should be negligible differences.

b. Hydrometer Analysis of the fraction passing 2.00 mm sieve

There 2 components for this test

Determine the composite correction factors.
i. Hydrometer tests should be carried out at 20°C and if it is carried out
at a different temperature correction of the readings will be required.
ii. The readings should be carried out at the bottom of the meniscus but
often this is no possible because of the turbidity of the water caused
by the suspension. The reading is thus carried out at the top of the
meniscus and correction of the readings is required.
iii. Equations for the percentage of materials remaining in suspension are
based the assumption that the water is distilled or deionized but in
practice a dispersion agent is added hence the specific gravity of the
fluid is higher that of distilled or deionized water. Correction is
therefore required.
iv. The sum of these corrections is referred to as the composite
corrections factor.

Develop this correction factors:

i. Determine the temperature ranges at which the hydrometer tests will
be carried out.
ii. Place a sedimentation cylinder with 1000 ml of a mixture of distilled or
deionized water and the dispersion agent in a constant temperature
bath.
iii. Insert the hydrometer and allow a short time for temperature to
equalize.
iv. Take a reading at the top of the meniscus
v. For hydrometer 151H the composite correction factor is the difference
between the reading and 1. For hydrometer 152H the composite
correction factor is the difference between the reading and 0.
vi. Adjust the temperature to the other value to be used and repeat steps
(iii) to (v)

4. Dispersion of soil sample passing 2.00 mm sieve

a. First measure the hygroscopic moisture of the soil using test method for the
determination of moisture content (MTM L6-3) and record.
b. Carry out dispersion of the soil sample using dispersion cups:
i. Place 50 g or 100 g in a 250 ml beaker and immerse with 125 ml of
solution, stir and leave to soak for 12 hrs.
ii. Transfer the contents to dispersion cup and add distilled water until
cup is half full
iii. Apply mechanical stirring for 60s
c. Alternatively, carry out dispersion of soil sample using air jar dispersion cup.

56
 i. Place 50 g or 100 g in a 250 ml beaker and immerse with 125 ml of
solution, stir and leave to soak for 12 hrs
ii. Apply air through the system at 6.9 kPa
iii. Transfer the content from the beaker to the air-jar dispersion cup.
iv. Apply cap and valve and adjust air pressure to 138kPa and allow 5min
dispersion for PI≤5, 10 min for 6≤PI≤20, 15 min for PI>20.
v. Wash the soil water mixture into a 1000 ml graduated glass
sedimentation cylinder

5. Hydrometer test:
a. Add the soil water mixture to a 1000 ml graduated glass sedimentation
cylinder and add distilled water at the same temperature until a volume of
1000 ml.
b. Place in constant temperature bath to attain the same temperature as the
bath.
c. Remove sedimentation cylinder and shake for 60 s while closing the mouth
of the cylinder with a stopper or palm and upside down and right way up 60
times
d. Place the cylinder back into the bath, place the hydrometer and take a
reading at 120 s to the nearest 0.5 g/L or 0.0005 specific gravity
e. Take readings at 5 min, 15 min, 30 min, 60 min, 250 min, and 1140 min
taking it out each time to a container with clean water and back 25-30 s
before the next reading.

6. Sieve analysis of the +0.075 mm material from the hydrometer test

a. Sieve material from the hydrometer test on the 0.075 mm sieve
b. Oven dry the material retained
c. Sieve it through the standard sieves given in MTM L6-1.

7. Calculations
a. Hygroscopic moisture

𝑚−𝑚1
%𝑎𝑔𝑒 ℎ𝑦𝑔𝑟𝑜𝑠𝑐𝑜𝑝𝑖𝑐 𝑚𝑜𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒 = 𝑥 100 (to the nearest 0.001)
𝑚1

Where:
m = mass of air-dried soils
m1= mass of oven dried soil
100
𝑐𝑜𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑎𝑖𝑟 𝑑𝑟𝑖𝑒𝑑 𝑠𝑜𝑖𝑙 = 𝑀
100 + %𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑜𝑓 ℎ𝑦𝑔𝑟𝑜𝑠𝑐𝑜𝑝𝑖𝑐 𝑚𝑜𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒

d. Total mass of sample = mass of material retained on 2.00 mm sieve + mass

passing 2.00 mm sieve (corrected for hygroscopic moisture)
e. Express the mass of materials retained in different sieves as a percentage of
the total mass (corrected for hygroscopic moisture)
f. Determine percentage of soil in suspension
i. Apply composite correction to hydrometer readings

57
 ii. Percentage soil remaining in suspension is given by the following
equations

For hydrometer 152 H

𝑅𝑎
𝑝= 𝑥 100
𝑚
For hydrometer 151 H

1606(𝑅 − 1)𝑎
𝑝= 𝑥100
𝑚
Where:
P = percentage of original dispersed soil still in suspension
R = corrected hydrometer reading
m = mass of dispersed sample (corrected for hygroscopic moisture)
a = constant based on density of the suspension

Values of ‘a’ are obtained using the following formula and Table 6-3
below

2.6500−1.000 𝐺
𝑎=( ) (𝐺−1.000)
2.6500

Table 6-3 Values of ‘a’ for Different Specific Gravities

Specific gravity, G Constant, a

2.95 0.94
2.85 0.96
2.75 0.98
2.65 1.00
2.55 1.02
2.45 1.05
2.35 1.08

8. Diameter of soil particles:

Determine the diameter of soil particles using the simplified equation derived from
Stoke’s Law

𝐿
𝐷 = 𝐾√
𝑇

Where
L = values given in Table 6-4
K = values given in Table 6-5 for different temperatures and specific gravities of the
soils

58
Table 6-4 Values of hydrometer depth - L

Table 6-5 ‘K’ Valued for Use in the Calculation of Particle Sizes for Given Specific
Gravity and Temperature Values

59
9. Report
a. Particles sizes d > 2 mm sieve, %
b. Coarse sand, 0.425 mm ≤ d < 2.0 mm, %
c. Fine sand 0.075 mm ≤ d < 0.425 mm, %
d. Silt, 0.200 mm ≤ d < 0.075 mm
e. Clay d < 0.002 mm, %
f. Colloids d < 0.001 mm (extent reading time to 2880 mins to get colloids)
g. Sieve Analysis (to the nearest 0.1 %)
i. Percentage passing 75 mm
ii. Percentage passing 50 mm
iii. Percentage passing 25 mm
iv. Percentage passing 4.75 mm
v. Percentage passing 2.0 mm
vi. Percentage passing 0.425 mm
vii. Percentage passing 0.075 mm
h. Hydrometer Analysis (to the nearest 0.1 %)
i. Percentage passing 0.02 mm
ii. Percentage passing 0.002 mm
iii. Percentage passing 0.001 mm

10. Precision
For single person Standard deviation for and range for 2 results
a. Hygroscopic moisture, % for single
i. 4.75 mm: Standard Deviation 0.15 Range 0.4
i. 2.0 mm: Standard Deviation 0.21 Range 0.6
b. Percentage passing
i. 2.0 mm: Standard Deviation 0.66 Range 1.9
ii. 0.425 mm: Standard Deviation 1.07 Range 3.0
iii. 0.075 mm: Standard Deviation 1.19 Range 3.4
c. Hydrometer analysis
i. 0.02 mm: Standard Deviation 1.98 Range 5.6
ii. 0.00 2mm: Standard Deviation 1.34 Range 3.8
iii. 0.001 mm: Standard Deviation 1.45 Range 3.4

For multilaboratory standard deviation for and range for 2 results

a. Hygroscopic moisture, % for single
i. 4.75mm: Standard Deviation 0.89 Range 2.5
ii. 2.0 mm: Standard Deviation 0.88 Range 2.4
b. Percentage passing
i. 2.0 mm: Standard Deviation 1.39 Range 3.9
ii. 0.425 mm: Standard Deviation 1.98 Range 5.6
iii. 0.075mm: Standard Deviation 2.31 Range 6.5
c. Hydrometer analysis
i. 0.02 mm: Standard Deviation 4.32 Range 12.4
ii. 0.002 mm: Standard Deviation 3.19 Range 9.0
iii. 0.001 mm: Standard Deviation 3.16 Range 8.9

60
6.5 MTM L6-5 Determination of Liquid Limit of Soils
Test Number MTM Determination of liquid limit of soils
L6-5
Description: 1. Apparatus:
a. A mixing dish (porcelain dish)
This test method
b. Cassagrande apparatus (manual or mechanical), Figure 6-2
describes the
c. Spatula
standard procedure
d. Weighing balance measuring the nearest 0.1 g (AASHTO M231)
for the
e. A grooving tool
determination of
f. A height gauge 10 ±0.02 mm thick and 50 mm long to determine the
liquid limit of soils.
drop of the Cassagrande cup during testing
Liquid limit is the
g. Containers - with tight lids for determination of moisture content
moisture content of
h. Oven – capable of maintaining 110 ± 5°C
the soil at which the
For the assembly of the Cassagrande equipment and description of other
soil begins to flow.
equipment refer to AASHTO T89
The test involves
the placement of
consistently
moistened and
mixed sample of
soil of maximum
size of 0.425 mm in
a Cassagrande
apparatus. The
number of blows of
the Cassagrande
apparatus which
cause the material
to flow and close a
gap slit cut in the
material is used to
determine the LL at
25 blows. The
sample is oven
dried to determine
the moisture
content which is
the LL.
Reference Test:
AASHTO T89

Figure 6-2 Cassagrande Apparatus

61
2. Preparation of Samples
The sample for the liquid limit test shall be 100g of material passing 0.425 mm
sieve (MTM L6-1 and MTM L6-2 for sample preparation for grading analysis)
3. Preparation of equipment
a. Check equipment to ensure that it is in good working condition.
b. Adjust the drop height to 10 ± 0.2 mm.

4. Procedure using the curved grooving

a. Place the material in a mixing dish
b. Add 15 to 20 ml of distilled water and mix thoroughly while kneading
and cutting using a spatula for 5-10 mins or longer for highly plastic
soils. The water should be added incrementally. Care should be taken
to avoid over application of the water.
c. Place the material in the cup (Cassagrande cup) while the cup is
resting on the base.
d. Using the spatula level out the materials in the cup while pressing the
material down and sideways to achieve a thickness of 10 mm at the
deepest point. This should take approx. 3 min
e. Trim out excess soil and place it back in the mixing dish.
f. Make a groove using the grooving tool in incremental depths using 6
strokes where the last stroke shall result in the scrapping of the
bottom of the cup. The groove should be approx. 13 mm long.
g. Turn the crank at a rate of 2 stroke per second to cause the cup to lift
and drop to the base at the same rate.
h. Record the number of drops, which cause the groove to close. Check
that the material in the cup flows and does not slide on the surface of
the cup.
i. Using a spatula scrap the soil in the cap perpendicular to the groove
form end to end and subject it to a moisture content test.
j. Transfer the remaining soil to the mixing dish,
k. Clean and dry equipment ready for the next test.
l. Add a little bit more water (approx. 1 ml) to the material in the mixing
dish and repeat steps 3(c) to 3(j) above at different moisture contents
recording the number of blows or drops each time.

5. Calculations
a. Determine moisture content
𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟
𝑀𝑜𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑡, % = 𝑥 100
𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑜𝑣𝑒𝑛 𝑑𝑟𝑖𝑒𝑑 𝑠𝑜𝑖𝑙
b. Plot a graph of the moisture content on the x-axis on a normal
arithmetic scale and the number of drops on a log scale.
c. Read from the graph the moisture content corresponding to 25
blows.
d. Record this as the liquid limit of the soil to the nearest whole number.
6. Precision
a. For tests by an individual on different days – the percent difference
from the mean should be ≤ 7 %
b. For test by different laboratories – the difference in result should be
≤13 %

62
6.6 MTM L6-6 Determination of Plastic Limit (PL) and Plasticity Index
(PI) of Soils
Test Number MTM Determination of plastic limit (PL)and plasticity index (PI)of soils
L6-6
Description: 1. Apparatus:
a. A mixing dish (porcelain dish)
This test method
b. Surface for rolling – glass with roughened surface or smooth paper on
describes the
which to roll the soil sample
standard procedure
c. Spatula
for the
d. Rolling device to roll the soil sample. Alternatively, rolling can be done
determination of
by hand.
plastic limit of soils.
e. Paper for rolling device attached to the top and bottom plates. New
Plastic limit is the
rolling paper should be used for each test. The use of rolling paper is
lowest moisture
optional.
content of the soil
f. Containers – with tight lids for determination of moisture content
at which the soil
samples
remains plastic.
g. Weighing balance measuring the nearest 0.01 g (AASHTO M231)
The plasticity index h. Oven – capable of maintaining 110 ± 5°C
is the difference in For the assembly and specifications equipment refer to AASHTO T90
moisture content
2. Preparation of samples
between the liquid
The sample for the plastic limit test shall be 20 g of material passing 0.425 mm
limit and the plastic
sieve (refer to MTM L6-1 and MTM L6-2 for sample preparation for grading
limit and it is the
analysis). If the sample is collected before liquid limit is carried out, it should
range within, which
be allowed to season for at least 30 min in air at room temperature.
the material
remains plastic. 3. Procedure
a. Take a sample of 1.5 to 2.0 g of the thoroughly mixed soil and mould
Reference Test:
it into an elliptical form.
AASHTO T90
b. Using a rolling device or plates roll the soil sample into a thread of 3
mm diameter; rolling at a rate of 80 strokes/min (single movement
forward and back constitutes a stroke)
c. Alternatively, roll the soil sample for approx. 3 min between the
finders or palm of your hand and the rolling plate or glass plate to
achieve a thread of 3 mm diameter.
d. Break the thread into 6 to 8 pieces and remould into an elliptical as in
3(a) above and repeat steps (3b) or (3c)
e. Repeat (3d) until the thread crumbles before it reduces to 3 mm
diameter
f. Collect the crumbled thread of soil into a container for measuring
moisture content.

4. Calculations
a. Determine moisture content, w:
𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟
𝑤= 𝑥 100
𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑜𝑣𝑒𝑛 𝑑𝑟𝑖𝑒𝑑 𝑠𝑜𝑖𝑙

5. Reporting
a. Test reference
b. Report the moisture content to the nearest 1 % as the plastic limit of
the soil.

63
 c. Plasticity index (PI) is the difference between liquid limit (LL) and
plastic limit (PL)
𝑃𝐼 = 𝐿𝐿 − 𝑃𝐿
d. Report the value of PI the plasticity index of the soil.
e. If the liquid limit or the plastic limit cannot be determined report it as
the non-plastic (NP)
f. If PL is greater than LL report the plasticity index as NP.

Precision
a. For tests by an individual on different days – the percent difference
should be ≤ 10 %
b. For test by different laboratories – the difference in result should be
≤18 %

64
6.7 MTM L6-7 Determination of Shrinkage Factors of Soils
Test Number MTM Determination of shrinkage factors of soils
L6-7
Description: 1. Apparatus:
a. A mixing dish (porcelain)
This test method
b. An evaporating dish (porcelain)
describes the
c. Milk dish (metal) with a flat bottom.
standard procedure
d. Straightedge (100 mm long) Glass cup
for the
e. Graduated glass (25 ml capacity)
determination of
f. Transparent plate (with 3 metal prongs for immersing sample in
shrinkage
mercury)
properties of soils.
g. Mercury
The properties
h. A weighing balance
include shrinkage
i. Spatula
limit, shrinkage
j. Oven capable of maintaining 110 ± 5°C
ratio, volumetric
For the assembly and specifications equipment refer to AASHTO T92
change and linear
shrinkage. 2. Preparation of samples
The sample for the plastic limit test shall be 30g of material passing 0.425 mm
The test involves
sieve MTM L6-1 and MTM L6-2 for sample preparation for grading analysis).
the preparation of a
soil specimen, 3. Test procedure
mixing it with water a. Place the sample into a mixing dish.
and placing it in the b. Add water:
container, oven i. The amount of water shall be adequate to fill all the voids in the
drying and soil.
determining the ii. For friable soil the amount of water to be added shall be that
volumetric which brings the moisture content to the liquid limit or slightly
changes, which is higher.
the shrinkage iii. For plastic soils the amount of water to be added shall be
adequate to bring the moisture content to approx. 10% above
Reference Test:
the liquid limit.
AASHTO T92
iv. Mix thoroughly. After mixing the sample shall be in the form of
a paste or pat.
c. Coat the inside of the milk dish with vaseline or heavy grease to
prevent the soil from sticking to the walls of the dish.
d. Place mixed soil of approx. 1/3 of the volume of the dish in the middle
and spread it by tampering the dish until it is level.
e. Repeat process (3e) twice to fill the dish and scrap off the excess
material level with the top of the dish using the straightedge.
f. Clean the dish and weigh it to get the mass of the dish and wet soil.
g. Allow it dry in air until the material starts to dry and change colour.
h. Place the dish in the oven to dry the soil at 110 ±5°C.
i. Weigh to get the mass of the dish and dry sample.
j. Determine the volume of the wet soil and the dry soil as follows:
i. Pour mercury into the dish after cleaning it and press the
transparent plate on top of the dish to remove excess mercury
while ensuring that it is flash with the top of the dish.
ii. Pour out the mercury into the graduated glass and read out the
volume at the top of the meniscus of the mercury. This is the
volume of the dish, which is equal to the volume of the wet soil,
(V).

65
 iii. Alternatively, measure the mass of the mercury and divide by
13.5g/ml (density of mercury) to get the volume of mercury.
k. Determine the volume of the dry soil:
i. Fill a glass cup with mercury till it overflow. Level out the
mercury by pressing a glass with prongs on top of the glass cup
to displace excess mercury. Wipe off any mercury adhering to
the glass cup of plate.
ii. Place the cup into an evaporating dish.
iii. Remove the glass plate and place the dry soil pat on top of the
mercury and then press it down using the glass plate with prongs
to immerse it completely in the mercury while the glass plate is
pressed firmly over the top of the cup.
iv. Measure the displaced mercury as in k(ii) and k(iii).

4. Calculations
a. Determine moisture content:
𝑀 − 𝑀0
𝑀𝑜𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑡, 𝑤 = 𝑥 100
𝑀0
Where:
M = mass of wet soil in the dish (mass of wet soil and dish minus
mass of dish)
M0 = mass of dry soil in the dish after oven drying (mass of dry
soil and dish minus mass of dish)

b. Calculate shrinkage limit – the moisture content at which any loss of

moisture would not cause any change of volume of the soil.

𝑉 − 𝑉0
𝑆ℎ𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑘𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑙𝑖𝑚𝑖𝑡, 𝑆 = 𝑤 − 𝑥 100
𝑀0
Where:
W = moisture content of wet soil
V = volume of wet soil
V0 = volume of dry soil
M0 = mass of dry soil

Alternatively: using shrinkage ratio and specific gravity if known

calculate the shrinkage limit, S

1 1
𝑆 = ( − ) 𝑥 100
𝑅 𝐺

c. Determine shrinkage ratio, R:

𝑀0
𝑅=
𝑉0
d. Determine volumetric change, VC.

𝑉𝐶 = (𝑤1 − 𝑆)𝑅

Or
𝑉𝐶 = (𝐹𝑀𝐸 − 𝑆)𝑅

66
 Where:
w1 = a given water content
FME = field moisture equivalent where it is required that w1 be
equal to the FME.
e. Determine linear shrinkage, LS:

3
√100
𝐿𝑆 = 100 (1 − )
𝑉𝐶 + 100

5. Reporting
a. Water content
b. Shrinkage limit
c. Shrinkage ratio
d. Volumetric change (to the nearest 1 %)
e. Linear shrinkage

6. Precision
For individual person
a. Shrinkage limit: Standard deviation 0.91, range for 2 results 2.6
b. Shrinkage ratio: Standard deviation 0.020, range of 2 results 0.06
For different laboratories
c. Shrinkage limit: Standard deviation 2.42, range for 2 results 6.8
d. Shrinkage ratio: Standard deviation 0.055, range of 2 results 0.16

67
6.8 MTM L6-8 Compaction Moisture and Density Relationship of Soils,
Mod. AASHTO
Test Number MTM Compaction moisture density relationship of soils - Modified AASHTO
L6-8
Description: 1. Apparatus:
a. Moulds, 152.4 ±0.66mm diameter and 116.43 ±0.13 mm in height and
This test method
approx. volume of 0.002124 m3 consisting of a metal cylinder and
describes the
detachable base plate, and collar with height of 60 mm.
standard procedure
For full configuration and tolerances refer to AASHTO T180.
for the
b. Rammer:
determination of
i. Manual rammer - (4.536 ±0.009 kg) with a mechanism to guide
the relationship
the drop height (457 ±2 mm) and with a flat ramming circular
between moisture
face of 50.80 ±0.25 mm diameter.
content and
ii. Mechanical rammer – to vibrate in a manner required to effect
compaction density
compaction similar to the manual rammer. The mechanical
of a soil using a
hammer should be calibrated using a manual rammer.
4.54kg rammer
c. Oven – capable of maintaining 110 ± 5°C
falling 457 mm
d. Mixing tools
referred to as
e. Containers for moisture content tests
Modified AASHTO
f. Standard sieves (50 mm, 19 mm, 4.75 mm)
compaction.
g. Weighing balance – with accuracy 0.01g
The test involves For the assembly and specifications equipment refer to AASHTO T180
compacting the soil
2. Preparation of samples
samples in moulds
a. Dry soil sample from the field in air or in an oven at 60°C
in 3 or 5 layers and
b. Disaggregate the soil – break up the soil without breaking up the
applying the
individual particles.
specified number of
c. Sieve the material through a 19 mm sieve and discard the material
blows per layer
retained in the sieve.
corresponding to
d. Collect a representative sample of the materials passing 19 mm sieve
the test standard.
weighing 11kg or more for the compaction test.
The compaction
moisture is also
3. Test procedure
determined. The
a. Weigh the mass of the mould with the base plate and without the
dry density of the
collar (M1)
material is
b. Mix the sample thoroughly with water to approx. 4 % below the
determined using
optimum moisture content
the compaction
c. Collect small samples of the moistened material and place into
moisture. The dry
containers and follow the procedure for the determination of
density is then
moisture content of soils (MTM L6-3)
plotted against the
d. Compact the material in the mould in 5 layers of equal thickness to
compaction
achieve a compacted depth of 127 mm. Apply 56 blows of the rammer
moisture to
uniformly throughout the surface of each layer.
determine the
e. Remove the collar.
maximum dry
f. Remove the compacted material above the top edge of the mould
density (MDD) and
and trim it to level using the straight edge.
optimum moisture
g. Weigh the mass of the mould and the wet sample (M2)
content (OMC).
h. Add water to the remaining sample to increase the moisture content
The results are used by 1 or 2 % and repeated 3(a) through to 3(g).
in the control of i. Repeat (h) adding water incrementally until there is either a decrease
compaction in the or no change in wet density.

68
construction
materials in roads. 4. Calculations
Reference Test: a. Calculate the moisture content of the sample, w:
AASHTO T180
𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑚𝑜𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑚1 −𝑚2
𝑤= 𝑥 100 = 𝑥 100
𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑜𝑣𝑒𝑛 𝑑𝑟𝑖𝑒𝑑 𝑠𝑎𝑚𝑝𝑙𝑒 𝑚2 −𝑚𝑐

Where:
m1 = mass of container +wet sample (g)
m2 = mass of container + oven dried soil (g)
mc = mass of container (g)
b. Calculate density of wet compacted sample in mould (ρ1):

𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑤𝑒𝑡 𝑠𝑎𝑚𝑝𝑙𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑚𝑜𝑢𝑙𝑑 𝑀2 −𝑀1

𝜌1 = =
𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑤𝑒𝑡 𝑠𝑎𝑚𝑝𝑙𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑚𝑜𝑢𝑙𝑑 0.002124

Where:
M1 = mass of mould (kg)
M2 = mass of mould + wet compacted sample (kg)

c. Calculate dry density (ρd)

𝜌1
𝜌𝑑 = 100+𝑤
𝑥 100

d. Plot dry density (ρd) against moisture content (w) to obtain a

graph/curve.
e. Read out the maximum value of the dry density and the moisture
content corresponding to this value and record them as the maximum
dry density (MDD) and optimum moisture content (OMC) of the soil.
Record the MDD to the nearest 10kg/m3 and OMC as percentage (%)
to the nearest whole number.

5. Reporting
a. Optimum moisture content
b. Maximum dry density in kg/m3
c. Type of face if not 50.8 mm

69
6.9 MTM L6-9 Laboratory Determination of California Bearing Ratio
(CBR)
Test Number MTM Determination of California Bearing Ratio (CBR)
L6-9
Description: 1. Apparatus:
a. 3 moulds: - 152.4 ±0.66mm diameter and 177.80 ±0.46 mm in height
This test method
and approx. volume of 0.002124 m3 consisting of
describes the
i. metal cylinder
standard procedure
ii. detachable and perforated base plate
for the
iii. collar with height of 50 mm
determination of
iv. a spacer disk 150.8 ±0.8 mm diameter and 61.37 ± 0.25 mm in
the relationship
height.
between moisture
v. When placed inside the mould the effective depth of the sample
content and
shall be 116.43 mm as given in MTM L6-8
compaction density
For full configuration and tolerances refer to AASHTO T180.
of a soil using a
(Illustrated in Figure 6-3
4.54kg rammer
b. Rammer:
falling 457 mm
i. Manual rammer - (4.536 ±0.009 kg) with a mechanism to guide
referred to as
the drop height (457 ±2 mm) and with a flat ramming circular
Modified AASHTO.
face of 50.80 ±0.25 mm diameter.
The test involves ii. Mechanical rammer – to vibrate in a manner required to effect
the mixing of soil compaction similar to the manual rammer. The mechanical
with water to hammer should be calibrated using a manual rammer.
achieve c. Surcharge weights – each weighing 2.27 ±0.04kg, and 149.2 ±1.6 mm
incremental values in diameter with center hole of 54.0 mm
of moisture d. Apparatus to measure swell including swell plate, tripod and gauge.
content. The e. A soaking tank providing a cover of water above the samples of 25
material is then mm.
compacted in f. Electric CBR Machine with penetration pistol of 49.63 ±0.13 mm in
moulds at specified diameter and surface area of 1935 mm2 and an automated hydraulic
moisture content to loading system.
achieve the g. Computer – for capturing and analysing results/data
specified h. Oven – capable of maintaining 110 ± 5°C
compaction level i. Mixing tools
e.g. 95 % of MDD. j. Containers for moisture content tests
The specimen are k. Standard sieves (50 mm, 19 mm, 4.75 mm)
then placed in a l. Weighing balance
CBR machine to For the assembly and specifications equipment refer to AASHTO T193. An
determine their illustration is given in Figure 6-3
CBR strength values
at 2.54 mm and
5.08 mm
penetration of the
plunger.
Reference Test:
AASHTO T193

70
 Figure 6-3 Configuration of the CBR Machine

2. Preparation of samples
There are two options for the preparation of samples:
a. For the determination of CBR at optimum moisture content
i. Dry soil sample from the field in air or in an oven at 60°C
ii. Disaggregate the soil – break up the soil without breaking up the
individual particles.
iii. Measure a sample of 35kg or more.
iv. Sieve the material through a 19 mm sieve and discard the
(oversized) material retained on the sieve.
v. Sieve some extra material through the 19 mm sieve and 4.75 mm
sieve. Replace the oversize materials discarded in (g) with an
equal mass of the material passing 19 mm sieve and retained in
4.75 mm sieve.
vi. Collect a representative sample of the materials passing 19 mm
sieve weighing 11kg or more for the compaction test, MTM L6-
8.
vii. Measure 3 subsamples of the remaining materials of 6.8 kg each
for the CBR test.
b. For the determination of CBR at various moisture contents
i. Follow procedure 2a(i) to 2a(ii)
ii. Measure a sample of 113 kg or more.
iii. Follow procedure 2a(iv) to 2a(vi).
iv. Of the remaining material separate 5 subsamples of 6.8 kg each
for the CBR test.

3. Test procedure
Consider both options for the determination of CBR
a. Apply the following procedure for the determination of CBR at OMC

71
 i. Carry out the compaction moisture density test on the 11 kg
samples as specified in method MTM L6-8 (AASHTO T180) to
obtain MDD and OMC of the material.
ii. Determine the moisture content of the sample at the beginning
of compaction and of the remaining material at the end of the
compaction process using method MTM L6-3.
iii. Fix the base plate and collar to the mould and weigh them.
iv. Please a spacer disc into the mould and put a coarse filter paper
on top of the spacer disc.
v. Measure sufficient water (percentage by mass of oven dried soil
to achieve OMC) and add to each of the 6.8 kg samples and mix
thoroughly.
vi. Compact the first 6.8 kg sample to different densities from 95%
MDD (or lower) to 100% MDD (or higher)
vii. Prepare for 3 compaction efforts applying 10 blows/layer, 30
blows/layer and 65 blows/layer. The results will be used to plot
3 curves.
viii. More than 56 blows are generally required to compact the
sample to 100%
ix. Determine the moisture content of the sample at the beginning
of compaction and of the remaining material at the end of the
compaction process using method MTM L6-3 (AASHTO T265)
x. Remove the collar and trim the top of the compacted sample to
be level with the top of the mould.
xi. Remove the base plate, place filter paper on a perforated base
plate and place and fix the mould and sample up-side-down on
the perforated base plate such that the sample sits on the filter
paper.
xii. Attach the collar and weigh to the nearest 5 g.
xiii. Repeat procedure 3a(iii) to 3a(x) for the other two 6.8 kg
potions.
xiv. Alternatively, calculate the amount of added water required to
bring the sample to OMC and compact following procedure
MTM L6-8 to obtain a specimen, which is compacted at OMC for
the CBR test.
b. Apply the following procedure for the determination of CBR at
different moisture contents:
xv. Prepare a minimum of 3 parallel tests
xvi. Calculate the amount of water required to achieve the require
moisture content (moisture content required = percentage by
mass of the weight of oven dried soil)
xvii. Add the water to the soil and mix thoroughly.
xviii. Follow procedure 3a(vi) through to 3a(x).
xix. Where specified repeat 3b(ii) through to 3b(iv) at different
moisture contents as specified, which could be 0.5OMC, 0.7OMC
OMC (as in 3a) and 1.1OMC.
c. Place the swell plate and fix the tripod and gauge.
d. Place the surcharge weights to represent the surcharge of the
pavement layers expected to be placed over the layer whose sample
material is being tested and record the first reading.

72
 e. Immerse in water to allow a 25 mm depth of water above the top of
the sample.
f. Allow to soak for 4 days.
g. Take the final reading and calculate swell, Sw:
ℎ2 − ℎ1
𝑆𝑤 = 𝑥 100
116.43
Where:
h1 = initial height, mm
h2 = final height, mm
h. Remove the mould from the water tanks, pour out the water allowing
15 min to drain and remove the weights.
i. Place the sample and mould into the CBR machine with stress and
strain dial gauges, or preferably an automated one.
j. Place the surcharge weights and apply 44N to seat the piston on the
sample then apply the rest of the weights used during soaking.
k. Apply load at a rate that achieves 1.3 mm penetration per min.
l. Record load readings at penetration of 0.64mm, 1.27 mm, 1.91 mm,
2.54 mm, 3.81 mm, 5.08 mm and 7.62 mm
m. Weigh the mass of the mould and the wet sample (M2)

4. Calculations of CBR
a. Plot the stress-strain curve:
b. Correct the bottom part of the curve, which may be concaved upwards
by extending the straight part of the curve to intercept the x-axis. The
correction is the difference between the x-axis intercepts of the
straight line and original curve, Figure 6-4a.
c. Determine the position on the curve corresponding to 2.54 mm and
5.08 mm penetration, apply the correction on the x-axis and determine
the corresponding positions on the curve.
d. Record the corresponding load values relating to the corrected
positions on the curve.
e. Determine the CBR as the percentage of the load at 2.54 mm (L2.54)
and 5.08 mm (L5.08) with the standard loads for the same
penetrations, which are 6.9MPa and 10.3Mpa respectively.

𝐿2.54
𝐶𝐵𝑅2.54 = 𝑥 100
6.9

𝐿5.08
𝐶𝐵𝑅5.08 = 𝑥 100
10.3

Take the CBR of the material as the CBR2.54.

a. Record the CBR of the material as CBR2.54 or CBR5.08

i. The CBR of the material is CBR2.54 if CBR2.54 > CBR5.08
ii. If CBR5.08 > CBR2.54 then repeat the test.
iii. If CBR5.08 > CBR2.54 after repeating the test, then the CBR of the
material shall be CBR5.08
b. Determine the Design CBR of the material specified as CBR at a given
percentage of MDD, Figure 6-4b

73
 c. Determine the Design CBR for 1 moisture content at the desired
compaction level:
i. Plot CBR-MDD graph for the 5 samples.
ii. Record the CBR at the required percentage of MDD

(a) Correction of Stress-Strain Curve

(b) A plot of Soaked CBR vs Dry Density for Varying Number of

Blows

Figure 6-4 (a)CBR Correction and (b) Soak CBR vs MDD for
Different Compaction Blows

74
 d. Determine the Design CBR for a range of moisture contents at the
desired compaction level.
i. Plot the MDD-MC curves, corrected CBR-MC curves and
corrected CBR-MDD curves as shown in Figure 6-5
ii. Record the CBR of the material as the lowest CBR within the
specified MC achieving the lower limit specification (Ls) for
MDD

Figure 6-5 Relationship Between Moisture Content and Dry Density

5. Report
a. Compaction effort in blows per layer
b. Dry density as moulded, %
c. Moisture content as moulded, %
d. Swell, %
e. CBR, %

75
6.10 MTM L6-10 Unconsolidated, Undrained Compression Strength of
Cohesive Soils in Triaxial Compression

Test Number MTM Determination of Unconsolidated, Undrained Compressive Strength of

L6-10 Cohesive Soils in Triaxial Compression
Description: 1. Apparatus:
a. Axial loading device – a device with the capacity to deliver the required
This test method
rate of strain of 1% per minute for plastic material and 0.3%/min for
describes the
brittle material with the test lasting for 15-20 mins. Vibrations should
standard procedure
be minimal not to cause any ripples in water in a glass.
for the
For full configuration and tolerances refer to AASHTO T269.
determination of
b. Triaxial compression chamber – this is the chamber inside which the
the unconsolidated
sample will be placed. It should be able to withstand the sum of the
strength of soil
effective confining pressure and the back pressure. It should have a top
samples while not
plate and base plate supported by the cylinder as well as an inlet at the
allowing drainage
bottom plate for the pressure fluid.
to occur.
c. Axial load piston – with a seal which is such that the friction is less than
The results provide 0.1% the axial load at failure
data on the d. Axial load measuring device – capable of measuring the load to an
strength and accuracy of ± 1% of the axial load at failure. If placed inside the
deformation chamber, it shall be sensitive to horizontal forces in the pressure
properties of chamber
cohesive soils. e. Chamber pressure control – capable of applying and controlling
The tests are pressure to an accuracy of ±2 kPa for chamber pressure < 200kPa and
carried out under ± 1% for chamber pressure > 200 kPa.
undrained and f. Chamber pressure measuring device - capable of measuring pressures
unconsolidated to the accuracy given in 1(e) above.
conditions g. Deformation indicator – the deformation indicator measures the travel
simulating actual of the piston during testing and should have an accuracy of ± 0.02 % of
field conditions the initial height of the sample with a travel range of 20% of the initial
where soils are height of the test sample.
stressed without h. Rubber membrane – the rubber that is used to encase the sample
the time to drain or should be in good condition to prevent leakages. It should be tested by
consolidate. The filling it with air with both ends tightly closed and immersed in water
results are used in and check for air bubbles, This will give an indication of leakage or
the analysis of perforation. The size shall be 90-95% of the size of the sample in order
embankment to minimize its restraint on the sample.
stability, i. Sample cap and base – For total stress measurement the cap shall be
foundation design rigid and impermeable to prevent drainage. The weight of the cap
and road should exert axial stress on the specimen of < 1kN/m2 and the diameter
pavements shall be equal to the initial diameter of the sample. The cap and the
base shall be fixed to the compression chamber to prevent lateral
The test involves movement. The cap shall not tilt more than 5° during testing.
preparation of the j. Sample size measuring device – with accuracy of ± 0.1% of the total
cylindrical samples dimension and should not cause any deformation of the sample during
obtained measurement (calipers, circumferential measuring tapes, etc.)
undisturbed k. Thermometer – the testing should be carried in constant temperatures
through extraction with a tolerance of ± 4°C.
or moulded into a l. Weighing device – with accuracy of ± 0.05 % of total mass of sample.
cylindrical mould m. Recorders – manual or electronic recorders can be used. Automatic
through compacted electronic recorders are preferred.

76
using a kneading n. Extruders – capable of extruding the sample from the sampling tube at
process and placed a constant rate in the direction of travel as the sample entered the tube
in a chamber filled while avoiding bending or deformation
with fluid and then o. Tamping rod – with an end surface area < the cross-sectional area of
placed in a Triaxial the sample being compacted.
machine. p. Other equipment – tools for trimming the sample such as wire saw,
trimming lathe, compaction equipment, membrane, water containers,
Axial stress is
containers for moisture content measurement, etc.
applied axially using
a piston and the
confining fluid is For the assembly and specifications equipment refer to AASHTO T269. An
also pressurized. illustration is given in Figure 6-6
The load is applied
and readings of
stress and strain are
recorded. A
stress/strain
relationship is then
prepared in order
determined
maximum stresses
at point of failure.
Reference Test:
AASHTO T296

Figure 6-6 Configuration of the Triaxial Compression Machine

2. Preparation of samples
The diameter of the sample should be 33 mm minimum and height to
diameter ratio should be 2 to 2.5. The maximum size of particle should be
< 1/6 the sample diameter.
Check the size of the particles after testing and if it appears that there are
particles larger than the maximum size a sieve analysis should be carried
out and be part of the report.
There are two options for the preparation of samples:
a. Undisturbed samples:
i. Obtain undisturbed samples from a sampling tube or cut from a
large undisturbed sample or use any other means that is
acceptable in accordance (refer to AASHTO T207 for more
guidance).
ii. If samples are from a sampling tube only cut the edges unless
instructed otherwise.

77
 iii. Ensure that the end surfaces are plane and perpendicular to the
longitudinal axis
iv. Avoid disturbance or damage or moisture loss during the
preparation by working in a room with high humidity
v. Fill voids created by the trimming and cutting action with
moulded soil.
vi. Place the sample in a miter box and cut the end to size using a
wire saw.
vii. Trim the edges with a straight edge.
viii. Weigh the mass of the sample
ix. Measure the length of the sample in 3 positions 120° apart and
the diameter on 3 parts at the quarter points along its length.
x. Carry out moisture content determination using standard
methods (MTM L6-3)
b. Moulded specimen:
i. Take the undisturbed sample after testing while still in the
membrane and work it thoroughly with fingers
ii. Remould the sample in a mould with the same dimensions as the
undisturbed sample.
iii. Ensure that no air is traped in the sample in order that the
density is similar to the undisturbed sample and thus the same
voids ratio.
iv. Preserve the natural moisture of the sample by carrying out the
process in a room with high humidity.
c. Compacted samples
i. Apply the specified moisture content before compaction, cover
and allow to sit for 16hrs to condition properly.
ii. Compact the material in a split mould in 6 layers using a pressing
or kneading action. Scarify the top of each layer before applying
the next layer to achieve one compacted soil mass.
iii. Adjust the number of layers and the kneading or tamping and
force per tamp to achieve the mass required for the
predetermined volume in order to achieve the required density.
iv. Remove the sample and weigh. It is possible that the density may
change slightly due to the slight expansion of the sample
v. Measure the dimensions of the sample as specified in 2a(ix).
vi. Determine the moisture content using MTM L6-3.

7. Mounting sample for the test

a. Place a membrane on the membrane expander or roll on the
membranes depending on the type of membrane to be used.
b. Place the membrane around the sample and seal the cap and the base
with 2 rubber o-rings. Apply silicon grease on the vertical surfaces of
the cap and base to aid sealing of the membrane.

8. Procedure:
a. Determination of total stress
i. Place the sample in the triaxial chamber with the membrane, cap
and base already in place.
ii. Place the piston into contact with the top of the cap ensuring
proper sitting and alignment by repeating this several times.

78
 iii. When the piston Is finally positioned for the test record the
reading on the deformation indicator.
iv. Ensure that during this assembling process the load on the
sample does not exceed 0.5% of the estimated compressive
strength of the sample.
v. If the piston is heavy as to exert a load that is more than the
maximum specified in 4a(iv) lock the piston while in the proper
sitting position to avoid it exerting its full weight on the sample.
vi. Place the chamber into the axial loading machine and correctly
position the axial loading device in order to prevent lateral
loading on the piston during testing.
vii. Attach the pressure maintaining and measuring device
viii. Fill the chamber with the confining fluid and achieve the
specified chamber pressure.
ix. Allow the sample to sit for 10 mins to condition to the confining
chamber pressure
x. Apply the axial load to achieve an axial strain at a rate of 1% per
minute for plastic material and 0.3%/min for brittle material that
achieve maximum deviator strain at 3 to 6 percent strain with
the test lasting for approx. 15-20 mins.
xi. Record the loading and deformation at percentage strain of 0.1,
0.2, 0.3, 0.4, 0.5% and from 0.5% to 3% at 0.5% increments, then
1% increments thereafter. Take frequent readings at the
beginning and towards failure point to be able to plot a good
stress-strain curve.
xii. Stop the axial loading at 15% strain or at the point where the
deviator stress has peaked and dropped 20% or the axial strain
has reached 5% beyond the strain at which the deviator stress
peaked.
xiii. Remove axial load and reduce the chamber pressure and back
pressure to zero
xiv. Remove the sample quickly to prevent entry of moisture.
xv. Remove the rubber membrane.
xvi. Blot out any free water showing on the sample.
xvii. Take a photo of the sample showing the mode of failure i.e.
failure plane and bulging.
xviii. In the case where trimming yielded sufficient materials use the
excess materials to carry out index property tests.
xix. In the case where the is no excess material, weigh the mass of
the sample before removing a potion for index property tests.

9. Calculations
a. Using the dry mass of the total sample calculate:
i. Initial moisture content
ii. Volume of solids = dry mass by the specific gravity of the soils
and divide by the density of water
iii. Volume of voids = volume of the sample - volume of the solids
iv. Initial voids content = volume of voids divided by the volume of
solids
v. Initial degree of saturation = volume of water divided by volume
of voids

79
 vi. Initial dry density = mass divided by volume of sample

b. Calculate axial strain: Є

∆𝐿
∈=
𝐿𝑣

Where:
∆L = change in length of specimen
Lv = initial length of test sample less any change in length before
loading

c. Calculate the average cross-sectional area, A

𝐴𝑜
𝐴=
(1−∈)

Ao = initial average cross-sectional area of the sample

Є = axial strain for the given axial load (expressed as a decimal)

i. If the chamber pressure results in significant strain i.e. change in

length of the specimen, assume that the vertical strain is equal
to the lateral strain and adjust Ao accordingly by determining the
diameter, D, after the strain caused by the pressure in the
chamber:

1 − ∆𝐿
𝐷 = 𝐷0 ( )
𝐿
Where:
D0 = the initial diameter of the sample
L = initial length of the sample
∆L = change in length due to the loading

d. Calculate total stress

i. Calculate principal stress difference i.e. deviator stress,
𝑃
𝜎1 − 𝜎3 =
𝐴
Where:
P = measured applied axial load (corrected for piston friction or
uplift)
A = corresponding average cross-sectional area.

e. Prepare a stress-strain curve – with stress plotted in the y-axis and

strain in the x-axis. Selected the stress and strain at failure as defined
in 4a(xii).
f. Correct the strength values to eliminate the effect of the restraint
caused by the rubber membrane if the error in the deviator stress is
more than 5%. Use the following equation:

80
 4𝐸𝑚 𝑡 ∈1
∆(𝜎1 − 𝜎3 ) =
𝐷
Where:
∆(𝜎1 − 𝜎3 ) = correction value to be subtracted from deviator
stress
D = diameter of sample
4𝐴
𝐷= √
𝜋
Em = Young’s modulus for the membrane material
∈1 = axial strain
T = thickness of membrane

g. Determine Young’s modulus of the membrane:

Place a 12.5 mm wide membrane to hang over a thin rod and
place another road at the bottom of the hanging membrane. Pull
and record the force and the strain and determine the force per
unit strain. Use the following equation:

𝐹𝐿
𝐸𝑚 =
𝐴𝑚 ∆𝐿
Where:
Em = Young’s modulus of the membrane material, typically
1400kPa (usually assumed to be negligible)
F = force applied to stretch the membrane material
Am = 2 x the initial thickness x the width of membrane
L = unstretched length of the membrane
∆L = change in length of the membrane as a result of the
stretching.

h. Calculate the principal major and minor stress at failure:

σ1 = major principal total stress = deviator stress at failure +

chamber pressure
σ3 = minor principal total stress = chamber pressure

i. Calculate initial degree of saturation from the initial mass and

dimensions of test sample, using the specific gravity of soils (MTM
L6-12)

10. Report
a. Data which specifies the sample – whether disturbed or undisturbed,
e.g. soil classification
b. Results of plasticity and liquid limit tests (MTM L6-5, MTM L6-6)
c. Specific gravity of the soil (MTM L6-12)
d. Particle size distribution (MTM L6-4)
e. Initial sample properties – dry density, voids ratio, water content,
percentage saturation.
f. Initial dimensions – height and diameter both measured in 3 places.
g. Failure criteria

81
 h. Deviator stress, value of effective minor stress and major principal
stress at failure.
i. Axial strain at failure expressed as a percentage.
j. Rate of strain applied
k. Stress strain curve
l. Photo showing mode of failure
m. Departures from procedures and any additional information necessary
for interpretation of results.

11. Precision – Not applicable

82
6.11 MTM L6-11 Consolidated-Undrained Triaxial Compression Test on
Cohesive Soils

Test Number MTM Determination of Consolidated, Undrained Compressive Strength of Cohesive

L6-11 Soils in Triaxial Compression
Description: 1. Apparatus:
a. Axial loading device – a device with the capacity to deliver the required
This test method
rate of strain which the deviation from the specified value shall not
describes the
deviate by more ± 1%. Vibrations should be minimal not to cause any
standard procedure
ripples in water in a glass. The requirement is that the vibrations of the
for the
loading device during operation should not cause any change in the
determination of
dimensions of the sample or changes in the pore-water pressure when
the isotropically
the valves are closed.
consolidated,
For full configuration and tolerances refer to AASHTO T269.
undrained strength
b. Triaxial compression chamber – this is the chamber inside which the
and stress-strain
sample will be placed. It should be able to withstand the sum of the
relationships for a
effective confining pressure and the back pressure with a top plate and
cylindrical moulded
base plate supported by the cylinder as well as an inlet at the bottom
or undisturbed
plate for the pressure fluid. Inlet shall be allowed to the base of the
sample.
sample as well as connection to the sample cap to allow for saturation
The sample is and drainage.
loaded in c. Axial load piston – with a seal which is such that the friction is less than
compression at a 0.1% the axial load at failure. The piston size can be 1/6 the diameter
constant rate of of the sample.
strain in a Triaxial d. Axial load measuring device – capable of measuring the load to an
machine. accuracy of ± 1% of the axial load at failure. If placed inside the
The test simulates chamber it shall be sensitive to horizontal forces and the pressure
actual field chamber
conditions where e. Pressure and volume control devices – capable of applying and
soils are stressed controlling pressure to an accuracy of ±2 kPa for effective consolidation
without the time to pressure < 200kPa and within ± 1% for effective consolidation pressure
drain but are > 200 kPa. The vacuum control device should apply and control partial
consolidated under vacuums to within ±2 kPa, using mechanisms such vacuum regulators.
specified f. Pressure and vacuum measuring device - capable of measuring
conditions. The chamber pressure, back pressure and vacuum to the accuracy given in
results are used in 1(e) above. If different devices are used to measure these pressures
the calculation of they must be calibrated under the same pressure and since they
Young’s modulus as measure pressure at midpoint of the sample correction must be made
well as Mohr for the hydraulic head of the fluid and back pressure control systems.
strength envelopes g. Pore-water pressure measuring device – the pore-water pressure shall
required for the be measured to the tolerance specifications given in 1(e) above. A stiff
analysis of transducer or null indicating device should be used. The former
embankment measure pore-water pressure directly while the latter measures
stability, indirectly by maintaining the position of the interface between the
foundation design mercury and water and pressure required to prevent the movement is
and road equal to the pore pressure. The change in the volume of the measuring
pavements device shall conform to the following specification:

83
(base/subbase ∆𝑉
( )
strength) 𝑉 < 3.2𝑥10−6 𝑚2 /𝑘𝑁
∆𝜇
Reference Test: Where:
AASHTO T297 ∆V = change in the volume of the pore-water pressure measuring
system/device due to change ii pore-water pressure, mm3
V = total volume of test sample, mm3
∆μ = change in pore-water pressure, kPa
The tubing should be thick with small bores to prevent excessive
volumetric changes

h. Volume change measuring device – for accurately measuring the water

entering the test sample to an accuracy of ± 0.05% of the total volume
of the test sample.
i. Deformation indicator – the deformation indicator measures the travel
of the piston during testing and should have an accuracy of ± 0.02 % of
the initial height of the sample with a travel range of 20% of the initial
height of the test sample.
j. Rubber membrane – the rubber that is used to encase the sample
should be in good condition to prevent leakages and should eb tested
by filling it with air with both end tightly closed and immersed in water
and check for air bubbles which will give an indication of leakage or
perforation. The size shall be 90-95% of the size of the sample in order
to minimize its restraint on the sample.
k. Sample cap and base – For total stress measurement the cap shall be
rigid and impermeable to prevent drainage except for the design
drainage points or holes and must be in contact with porous discs. The
weight of the cap and porous disc should exert axial stress on the
sample of < 0.5% of the applied axial load at failure. The diameter shall
be equal to the initial diameter of the sample. The cap and the base
shall be fixed to the compression chamber to prevent lateral
movement. The cap shall be designed such that the eccentricity of
piston to ca contact is ≤ 1.3 mm. The surfaces of the base and cap in
contact with the cylinder walls shall be free of scratches have a good
seal.
l. Porous discs – the test sample shall be separated from the cap and base
by rigid porous discs with permeability approx. equal to that of fine
sand (1x10-6 cm/s) and the same diameter as the sample. Check
clogging before use and use filter paper of the same diameter as the
discs to prevent clogging where possible.
m. Filter paper strips and discs – should not be soluble in water and must
have permeability ≥ 1 x 10-6 cm/s. The strips should not cover the full
perimeter of the sample in order to avoid or minimize the hoop
tension. The effect on the deviator stress is calculated using the
equation below.
n. Sample size measuring device – with accuracy of ± 0.1% of the total
dimension and should not cause any deformation of the sample during
measurement (calipers, circumferential measuring tapes, etc.)
o. Thermometer – the testing should be carried in constant temperatures
with a tolerance of ± 4°C.
p. Weighing device – with accuracy of ± 0.05 % of total mass of sample.

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 q. Recorders – manual or electronic recorders can be used. Automatic
electronic recorders are preferred.
r. Sample extruders – capable of extruding the sample from the sampling
tube at a constant rate in the direction of travel as the sample entered
the tube while avoiding bending or deformation.
s. Timer – capable of measuring time lapse to the nearest 1 second with
measuring range that is adequate to accumulate time lapse for the
duration of the consolidation test process.
t. Water deaeration device – capable of reducing or removing the
dissolved air in the water that is used to saturate the test sample. The
dissolved air can be removed by boiling, heating and spraying into a
vacuum or other suitable method to meet the requirements for the
saturation.
u. Tamping rod – with an end surface area < the cross-sectional area of
the sample being compacted.
v. Other equipment – tools for trimming the sample such as wire saw,
trimming lathe, compaction equipment, membrane, water containers,
containers for moisture content measurement, etc.

For the assembly and specifications equipment refer to AASHTO T269. An

illustration is given in Figure 6-7

Figure 6-7 Configuration of the Triaxial Compression Machine

2. Preparation of sample:
The diameter of the sample should be 33 mm minimum and height to
diameter ratio should be 2 to 2.5. The maximum size of particle should be
< 1/6 the sample diameter.
Check the size of the particles after testing and if it appears that there are
particles that are larger than the maximum size a sieve analysis should be
carried out and be part of the report.
There are two options for the preparation of sample:

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 a. Undisturbed samples:
i. Obtain undisturbed samples from a sampling tube or cut from a
large undisturbed sample or use any other means that is
acceptable in accordance (refer to AASHTO T207 for more
guidance).
ii. If samples are from a sampling tube only cut the edges unless
instructed otherwise.
iii. Ensure that the end surfaces are plane and perpendicular to the
longitudinal axis of the sample.
iv. Avoid disturbance or damage or moisture loss during the
preparation including cutting and trimming to the required size
by working in a room with high humidity
v. Fill voids created by the trimming and cutting action with
moulded soil.
vi. Place the sample in a miter box and cut the end to size using a
wire saw.
vii. Trim the edges with a straight edge.
viii. Weigh the mass of the sample
ix. Measure the length of the sample in 3 positions 120° apart and
the diameter on 3 parts at the quarter points along its length.
x. Carry out moisture content determination using standard
methods (MTM L6-3).

b. Remoulded sample:
i. Take the undisturbed sample after testing while still in the
membrane and work it thoroughly with fingers.
ii. Remould the sample in a mould with the same dimensions as the
undisturbed sample.
iii. Ensure that no air is trapped in the sample in order that the
density is similar to the undisturbed sample and thus the same
voids ratio.
iv. Preserve the natural moisture of the sample by carrying out the
process in a room with high humidity.

c. Compacted samples
i. Apply the specified moisture content before compaction, cover
and allow to sit for 16hrs to condition properly.
ii. Compact the material in a split mould in 6 layers using a pressing
or kneading action. Scarify the top of each layer before applying
the next layer to achieve one compacted soil mass.
iii. Adjust the number of layers and the kneading or tamping and
force per tamp to achieve the mass required for the
predetermined volume in order to achieve the required density.
iv. Remove the sample and weigh. It is possible that the density may
change slightly due to the slight expansion of the sample.
v. Measure the dimensions of the sample as specified in 2a(ix).
vi. Determine the moisture content using MTM L6-3.

3. Mounting sample for the test

a. Check the rubber membrane for leaks

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b. Place membrane on membrane expander or roll on the membranes
depending on the type of membrane to be used.
c. Place the membrane around the sample and seal the cap and the base
with 2 rubber o-rings. Apply silicon grease on the vertical surfaces of
the cap and base to aid sealing of the membrane.
d. Check that the porous discs and all tubing is not blocked by blowing air
or passing water through them.
e. Assemble the equipment including the volume measurement
equipment, pressure control and pore-pressure measurement devices
to the pressure chamber.
f. Carry out a wet mounting or dry mounting as required and follow the
appropriate procedure below.
g. Wet Mounting:
i. Fill all drainage lines of the test sample and the pore-water
pressure measuring device with deaired water.
ii. Place the porous discs in boiling water for 10 mins and allow to
cool at room temperature to saturate them. Wipe off free water.
iii. If filter paper and filter strips are used, deep them in water
before placing them in position. The strips should not cover
more than 50% of the perimeter of the sample in order to avoid
tension.
iv. Place sample on the disc at the bottom and the disc on the top
of surface of the sample followed by the cap. Where filter papers
are used, place them in between the discs and the sample on
each side ensuring good alignment between the cap, porous
discs and sample and the base.
h. Dry Mounting:
i. Dry the sample drainage system by blowing dry air through the
system.
ii. Dry the porous discs in an oven over night and cool in a
desiccator at room temperature.
iii. Use dry filter paper and strips if required.
iv. Place the porous discs (and the filter paper if required) at the
bottom of the sample
v. If required place the strips around the sample and use fine tape
at the top and bottom to fasten the strips.
vi. Place the rubber membrane on the expander and place it over
the sample and seal the top and bottom using rubber O-rings.
Apply the silicon grease on the vertical surfaces of the base and
cap before placing the O-rings to aid the sealing where
necessary.
vii. Attach the top drainage line
viii. For dry mounting, apply a partial vacuum of approx. 35kPa
ix. Check alignment of the cap discs, (filter paper if included) and
base.
x. If there is some eccentricity release the vacuum pressure,
correct the alignment and reapply the partial vacuum again.
xi. Repeat the process until alignment is achieved after applying the
vacuum pressure as in procedure 3h(viii) and 3h(ix).

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4. Procedure:
a. Before saturation:
i. Place the sample in the triaxial chamber with the membrane, cap
and base already in place.
ii. Place the piston into contact with the top of the cap ensuring
proper sitting and alignment by repeating this several times.
iii. When the piston is finally positioned for the test record the
reading on the deformation indicator.
iv. Ensure that during this assembling process the load on the
sample does not exceed 0.5% of the estimated compressive
strength of the sample.
v. If the piston is heavy as to exert a load that is more than the
maximum specified in 4a(iv) lock the piston while in the proper
sitting position to avoid it exerting its full weight on the sample.
vi. Place the chamber into the axial loading machine and correctly
position the axial loading device in order to prevent lateral
loading on the piston during testing.
vii. Attach the pressure maintaining and measuring device
viii. Fill the chamber with the confining fluid and achieve the
specified chamber pressure. Avoid trapping air in the chamber
while filling.
b. Saturating the test sample: - fill all voids in test sample with water
i. Apply vacuum for test sample (35kPa)
ii. Dry the drainage system, i.e. porous discs, tubing, pore-water
pressure device, filter paper discs and strips.
iii. Allow deaired water into the sample and the whole system while
maintaining the partial vacuum.
iv. Alternatively, saturate the system by boiling the porous discs in
water and allow water to flow through the system.
v. Ensure that as much air as possible is removed from the system
and the sample
vi. Apply back pressure to turn any minute amounts of air
remaining in the system into solution, i.e. entering into the
deaired water.
c. Starting with dry drain system:
i. Apply the maximum possible partial vacuum on top of the
sample.
ii. If the effective consolidation stress which will be applied during
the test is lower than the maximum partial vacuum, then use a
lower partial vacuum.
iii. Ensure that the difference between the partial vacuum and the
chamber never exceeds the effective consolidation stress for the
test and shall not be less that 35kPa to allow water to flow
through the sample.
iv. After 2 hrs. allow deaired water to flow through the sample from
the bottom of the sample at a pressure differential < 20kPa.
v. The stress at the bottom should be positive and ≥ 13 kPa.
vi. Close the bottom valve when water appears in the burette above
the sample.
vii. Fill the burette with deaired water.

88
 viii. Simultaneously adjust the pressure above the sample and the
chamber to atmospheric pressure ensuring that the difference
between the pore-water pressure and the chamber pressure
does not exceed the required effective consolidation pressure.
ix. Allow the pore pressure at the bottom of the sample to stabilize.
Close drainage valves to the samples and measure the pore-
water pressure for 1 min and it should not fluctuate by more
than 1 % of the chamber pressure.
d. Starting with initially saturated drainage system:
i. When the burette at the top of sample is filled with deaired
water apply chamber pressure of 35kPa then open the drain
valves
ii. When the pore-water pressure at the bottom of the sample
stabilizes (4c(ix), proceed to apply the back pressure.
e. Applying back pressure:
i. With drainage valves open apply back pressure and chamber
pressure incrementally in steps so that the water in the burette
connected to the bottom and top of the sample can flow into the
sample. Each increment could be 35kPa or 70kPa or 140kPa
depending on the compressibility of the soil, the required
effective consolidation pressure and degree of saturation of the
sample.
ii. Allow adequate time between steps of increasing back pressure
for all the pore-water pressure to equalize throughout the
sample.
iii. The difference between back pressure and chamber pressure
should be ≤ 35kPa unless ii is required to prevent swelling of the
sample.
iv. The difference between the back pressure and chamber
pressure must be within ± 5 % when pressure is changed and
within ± 2 % when both are constant.
v. Check equalization of pore pressure in the sample and constant
pressure after increment or when full back pressure is applied by
closing drainage valves to the sample and measure pore-water
pressure for 1 minute. Equalization would have occurred if the
change in pore-pressure is less than 1 %
vi. When the pore-water pressure has equalized an increment can
be made or a reading then be taken of the pore-water pressure
parameter B to determine if saturation has been reached i.e. if B
> 0.95 or B remains constant for additional pressure increments.
vii. Note that B increases with decrease in soil stiffness.
viii. Also note that the back pressure required to saturate a
compacted sample may be higher for wet mounted sample (up
to 1400kPa) than a dry mounted sample
ix. Differential pressure regulators may be used to keep the
difference between back pressure and chamber pressure low.

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f. Measurement of pore-water pressure parameter, B
i. Determine the pore pressure parameter B using the procedure
below: Use the following equation to calculate B

∆𝑢
𝐵=
∆𝜎3
Where:
∆u = the change in pore pressure in the sample resulting
from change in the chamber pressure when valves are
closed
∆σ3 = change in chamber pressure
ii. Close the chamber valves and apply pressure in increments of 70
kPa for approx. 2 mins.
iii. Record the maximum induced pore pressure
iv. If the pressure first decreases as the first response, plot ∆u with
time. The asymptotic pore pressure is used as the change in pore
pressure.
v. If there is a large change in pore pressure, then there could be a
leak of the chamber fluid into the sample.
vi. If there is a decrease in ∆u then there could be a leak in the pore
pressure measuring system located outside the chamber.
vii. Calculate the value of B
viii. Reapply the effective consolidation stress there was applied
prior to the B value by reducing the pressure by 70 kPa or by
increasing the back pressure by 70 kPa.
ix. If B is continuing to increase with increasing back pressure, then
continue with back pressure saturation.
x. If B is ≥ 0.95 or if a plot of B with back pressure shows no further
increase in B then initiate consolidation.
g. Consolidation – the purpose is to allow the sample to equilibrium in a
drained state under effective consolidation stress at which its strength
is to be determined. The procedure for consolidation is as follows:
i. Once saturation is completed put the axial load piston centrally
into contact with the top of the sample cap and record the
reading on the deformation indicator.
ii. At this stage do not apply a load that is more that 0.5% of the
estimated load at failure.
iii. Lift the pistol a small distance above the sample cap and lock it
in that position.
iv. With the sample drainage values closed, hold maximum back
pressure constant and increase the chamber pressure until the
difference between the chamber pressure and the back pressure
equals the desired effective consolidation pressure.
v. It may be desirable to carry out the consolidation in stages when
dial drainage is used.
vi. Take initial burette reading
vii. Open sample valves to allow the sample to drain into the
burette.
viii. Record burette readings at intervals of 0.1, 0.2, 0.5, 1, 2, 4, 8, 15,
30 mins, and 1, 2, 4 and 8hrs

90
 ix. After 15 min record the corresponding deformation indicator
readings by carefully fixing the piston with the sample cap.
x. If the burette readings are to be plotted against square root of
time then the time intervals should be adjusted to numbers
whose square roots can be easily calculated e.g. 0.09, 0.25, etc.).
xi. Time intervals may also be adjusted to suit soil types in order to
obtain adequate volume change against time.
xii. If there is potential to lose significant quantities of fines during
drainage of the sample increase the chamber pressure gradually
for up to 10mins to minimize the resultant hydraulic gradient.
xiii. Plot the burette and deformation readings against logarithm or
square root of time.
xiv. Allow consolidation to take place for a long cycle of time or
overnight after 100% of primary consolidation has been
achieved.
xv. If there is a marked deviation of the burette and deformation
curves towards the end of the consolidation, then there could be
leakage from the pressure chamber into the sample.
xvi. Determine the time to 50% primary consolidation, t50.
h. Shear – during shear the chamber pressure should be kept constant
while advancing the piston under controlled strain. Sample should not
drain while shearing.

Before applying the axial loading carry out the following procedure:
i. Ensure appropriate valves are closed to prevent drainage from
the sample and that the pore pressure is measured by the pore
pressure measuring device.
ii. Put the chamber in position ensuring that the axial loading
device, the axial load measuring device and the triaxial chamber
are in perfect alignment to prevent lateral loading.
iii. Place the axial loading piston to allow proper seating on the
sample cap and prevent any eccentricity
iv. Take care to prevent application of any loading on the sample
that is greater than 0.5% of the anticipated load at failure.
v. If the axial load measuring device is located outside of the triaxial
chamber start the shear while the piston is slightly above the
sample cap
vi. During shear and before the sample cap touches the piston,
measure and record the initial piston friction and upward force
caused by the chamber pressure and use this value to correct
the force applied during the test or adjust the axial load to
compensate for this friction and force from the chamber
pressure.
vii. The correction or compensation mentioned in 4h(vi) above is not
necessary if the axial load measuring device is located inside the
pressure chamber.
viii. The values on the axial load measuring device should not change
by more than 0.1% when the piston is moved to touch the
sample cap.

91
 ix. If the internal axial load measuring device is significantly flexible,
then the deformation measured using an external device may
need to be corrected.
x. Record the readings on the pore pressure measuring device
before and after the piston touches the sample cap.
xi. Record the reading of deformation indicator when the piston
touches the sample cap.
i. Applying the axial load
i. Apply the axial load to produce axial strain which will result in
uniform pore pressure throughout the sample at failure.
ii. Divide the assumed percentage strain at failure (e.g. 4%) by 10 x
t50. [t50 is obtained from 4g(xvi) above]. This will allow the
determination of accurate effective stress paths in the range
required to determine effective strength envelopes.
iii. Record load, deformation, and pore pressure at increments from
0.1% to 1% and then increments of 1% from 1% to 15% strain
iv. Stop loading when the principal stress difference (deviator
stress) has dropped by 20% or additional 5% strain occurs after
peak principal stress difference (deviator)has been reached.
v. Continuous monitoring is required if manually adjusted null
indicating device is sued.
5. Removing sample
a. Remove the axial load
b. Reduce the pressure in the chamber and back pressure to zero
c. With valves closed quickly remove the sample from the apparatus to
prevent sample from absorbing water through porous discs.
d. Remove the rubber membrane and filter paper strips of present.
e. Free water remaining on the sample surface after removing the
membrane should be removed using absorbent tissue paper or cloth.
f. Make a sketch or take a photo to show the mode of failure including
the shear plane and bulging.
g. Determine the water content of whole sample (MTM L6-3)
h. In the case where no spare material was set aside for index properties
tests weigh the sample before separating a representative portion of
the sample for the index property tests. Use the rest of the material
sample for the determination of water content.

6. Calculations
a. Determine sample properties before consolidation
i. Volume – from values measured in 2(a) and 2(b).
ii. Volume of solids – divide the dry mass by the specific gravity of
the solids and divided by the density of water.
iii. Volume of voids is the difference between the volume of sample
and the volume of solids calculated in 6(a).
iv. Voids ratio – divide the volume of voids by the volume of solids
v. Dry density – divide dry mass by volume of sample MTM L6-12.

92
b. Determine sample specifications after consolidation
i. Height of sample, Hc

𝐻𝑐 = 𝐻𝑜 − ∆𝐻
Where:
Ho = initial height of sample, mm
∆H = change in height of sample at the end of consolidation, mm.
ii. Cross-sectional area of the sample after consolidation, Ac
Method A:
(𝑉0 − ∆𝑉𝑠𝑎𝑡 − ∆𝑉𝑐 )
𝐴𝑐 =
𝐻𝑐
Where:
Vo = initial volume of sample, mm3
∆Vc = change in volume of sample during consolidation as shown
by burette measurements, mm3
∆Vsat = change in volume of sample during saturation, m3.

3𝑉0 ∆𝐻𝑠
∆𝑉𝑠𝑎𝑡 =
𝐻0
Where
∆Hs = Change in height of sample during saturation, mm

Method B:
𝑉𝑤𝑓 + 𝑉𝑠
𝐴𝑐 =
𝐻𝑐
Where
Vwf = final volume of water (obtained from final water content),
mm3
Vs = volume of solids, mm3

𝑚𝑠
𝑉𝑠 =
𝐺𝑠 𝜌𝑤
Where:
ms = dry mass of sample, kg
Gs = specific gravity of solids
ρw = density of water, kg/mm3
iii. Calculate the consolidated voids ratio and degree of saturation
Consolidated voids ration = volume of voids divided by volume
of solids.
Degree of saturation = divide volume of voids by volume of
water assuming that the water content after consolidation is the
same as the final water content. If the sample absorbs water
through the porous discs during removal from the apparatus the
water content would be more than 100%
c. Shear results
i. Calculate axial strain,

∆𝐻
∈1 =
𝐻𝑐

93
 Where
∆H = change in height of sample during loading obtained from
loading indicator, mm.
Hc = height of sample after consolidation
Calculate cross-sectional area, A.

𝐴𝑐
𝐴=
(1 −∈1 )
Where
Ac = average cross-sectional area of sample after consolidation,
mm2 (assume uniform cylindrical area but where bulging
occurred measure the sample after consolidation and average
the areas obtained).
∈1 = axial strain for the corresponding axial load

ii. Calculate the principal stress difference (or deviator stress)

𝑃
𝜎1 − 𝜎3 =
𝐴
Where
P = applied axial load (corrected for piston friction and uplift
caused by pressure chamber), kN.
A = corresponding cross-sectional area, mm2

Calculate the effective minor principal stress, σ’3

𝜎′3 = 𝜎3 − ∆𝑢
Where
σ3 = effective consolidation stress, kPa
∆u = Induced pore water pressure at the applied axial load, kPa

d. Plot principal stress difference (deviator stress) and induced pore

pressure against strain curves
i. Plot principal stress difference and induced pore pressure in the
y-axis and the axial strain in the x-axis.
Determine the principal stress difference and axial strain at
failure (defined in 4i(iv))
ii. Produce a p’- q graph

Plot p’, (σ'1+σ'3)/2 and q, (σ1-σ3)/2 with q as the y-axis and p’ as

the x axis
P’ can also be calculated using the following formula.

(𝜎1 − 𝜎3 ) + 2𝜎′3
𝑝′ =
2
Where
σ1-σ3 = principal stress difference (deviator stress), kPa
σ'3 = effective minor stress, kPa

e. Calculate correction for filter paper strips

i. For axial strain above 2% use the following formula

94
 𝐾𝑓𝑝 𝑃𝑓𝑝
∆(𝜎1 − 𝜎3 ) =
𝐴𝑐
Where
∆(σ1-σ3) = correction to be subtracted from the principal stress
difference (stress deviation), kPa
Kpf = load carried by filter paper strips per unit length of
perimeter covered by filter paper, kN/mm
Pfp = perimeter covered by filter paper, mm
Ac = cross-sectional area of sample after consolidation, mm2

ii. For axial strain ≤ 2% use the following equation for correction of
stress deviator

50 ∈1 𝐾𝑓𝑝 𝑃𝑓𝑝
∆(𝜎1 − 𝜎3 ) =
𝐴𝑐

Where
∈1 = axial strain (in decimal form)
Kfp = 0.19kN/m for most filter paper used in triaxial tests

f. Calculate correction for rubber membrane

Use the following equation to calculate correction of axial stress
difference (stress deviator)

4𝐸𝑚 𝑡𝑚 ∈1
∆(𝜎1 − 𝜎3 ) =
𝐷𝑐
Where
∆(σ1-σ3) = correction to be subtracted from the principal stress
difference (stress deviation), kPa
Em = young’s modulus for the membrane material, kPa
tm = thickness of membrane, mm
∈1 = axial strain (in decimal form)
Dc = diameter of sample after consolidation.
4𝐴𝑐
𝐷𝑐 = √( )
𝜋

g. Calculate Young’s modulus, Em (usually latex has Em = 1400kPa and

assumed to be negligible)
i. Hang a membrane strip (membrane ring) with a circumference
of 15mm.
ii. Place a thin rod at the top and another at the bottom and stretch
the strip while measuring the force and strain.
iii. Determine Young’s modulus by measuring the strain per unit
force.
iv. Use the following equation to calculate Young’s Modulus.

(𝐹⁄𝐴 )
𝑚
𝐸𝑚 =
(∆𝐿⁄𝐿)
Where:

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 Em = Young’s modulus of the membrane material, kPa
F = force applied to stretch the membrane, kN
L = is length before stretching, mm
∆L = change in length of membrane strip, mm
Am = area of membrane

𝐴𝑚 = 2 𝑡𝑚 𝑊𝑠

Where
Tm = thickness of membrane, mm
Ws = width of circumferential strip, mm

h. Calculate major and minor stress at failure using total stresses

i. Total minor stress at failure = Effective consolidation stress
𝜎3𝑓 = 𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑖𝑑𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠
ii. Total major stress at failure
𝜎1𝑓 = (𝜎1 − 𝜎3 )𝑎𝑡 𝑓𝑎𝑖𝑙𝑢𝑟𝑒 + 𝜎3𝑓
iii. Minor principal stress
𝜎′3𝑓 = 𝜎3𝑓 − ∆𝑢𝑓
iv. Major principal stress
𝜎′1𝑓 = (𝜎1 − 𝜎3 ) 𝑎𝑡 𝑓𝑎𝑖𝑙𝑢𝑟𝑒 + 𝜎′3𝑓

i. Plot Mohr’s Circle, Figure 6-8

i. Plot Mohr’s circle circles at failure using the total and effective
stress.
ii. Plot shear stress on the Y-axis and the normal stress on the X-
axis
iii. Draw the semi-circle with its centre on the X-axis at the value
corresponding to the average of the minor and major total
principal stresses. The radius should be ½ the principal stress
difference (deviator stress)

96
 A = Total of effective minor principal stress (σ3 or σ’3)
B = average of total or effective principal stresses
C = Total or effective major principal stresses (σ1 or σ’1
D = Radius of Mohr’s circle = ½ the principal stress difference.

Figure 6-8 Plot of Mohr’s Circle

7. Report
a. Description and data defining the sample
i. Photos and visual descriptions
ii. Soil classification
iii. Condition of sample (undisturbed, compacted)
b. Index property test results
c. Specific gravity and test method used
d. Particle size distribution and method used
e. Sample dry density, void ratio, water content and percentage
saturation
f. Initial dimensions (height and diameter) of sample
g. Method used for saturating the sample (dry or wet method)
h. Total back pressure
i. Pore pressure parameter, B at the end of saturation
j. Effective consolidation stress
k. Time to 50% consolidation t50
l. Sample dry density, void ratio, water content and percentage
saturation after consolidation
m. Sample cross-sectional area after consolidation and the method used
to determine it.
n. Failure criterion used
o. Values of principal stress difference (deviator stress) and effective
major and minor principal stresses at failure
p. Axial strain at failure, %

97
 q. Rate of strain used, %/min
r. Curves of principal stress difference (deviator stress) and induced pore
pressure against axial strain
s. P’ – q diagram for test results
t. Mohr’s stress circle plot based on total and effective stress
u. Photo or sketch showing failure mode of the sample
v. Notes on any observations, departure from the standard procedures,
uncommon occurrences or conditions.

8. Precision and bias

The variability of soils and lack of a true reference value make it
difficult to prescribe any assessment of precision or bias.

98
6.12 MTM L6-12 Specific Gravity of Soils
Test Number MTM Determination of Specific Gravity of Sols
L6-12
Description: 1. Apparatus:
a. Balance – with sufficient capacity and accuracy of 0.1 % of the mass of
This test method
sample which can be used with a volumetric flask. Where the
describes the
volumetric flask is used the weight should be measured to an accuracy
standard procedure
of 0.01g and if a stopper bottle is used then the accuracy shall be
for the
0.001g.
determination of
b. Pycnometer – A flask or other container which should be calibrated
specific gravity of
before use (MTM L11-3, Figure 11-1) and the volume can be reproduced
soils. If the soils are
within 100mm3. The volume of the pycnometer should be at least 50%
composed of
greater that the volume of the sample. A 500 ml flask fitted with a
particles > 4.75mm
pycnometer would suffice for a 500 g sample of fine aggregate.
follow test method
c. Oven – a controlled by a thermostat and capable of maintaining and
Specific Gravity and
temperature of 110°C ±5°C.
Absorption for
d. Thermometer – capable of measuring the temperature within the range
Coarse Aggregate,
specified for the test and graduated to 0.5 °C.
MTM L8-13. If the
soil has particles
that are both > 4.75 2. Calibration of the Pycnometer
mm and ≤ 4.75 The method MTM L11-3 for the calibration of the pycnometer.
separate the a. Clean, dry and weigh the pycnometer
material by sieving b. Fill with water at room temperature and weigh the pycnometer with
on the 4.75 mm the water, Ma. (Kerosene may be used instead of the water).
sieve. Follow c. Measure the temperature of the water, Ti.
method MTM L8-13 d. Repeat 2(a) and 2(b) at different temperatures to create a table of
for the course values of Ma with temperature, Ti which can be used when masses Mb
material. If the are determined later.
specific gravity of e. Calculated Max (which is mass Ma at temperature Tx) as follows:
the material should
be carried out 𝜌𝑤𝑥
𝑀𝑎𝑥 (𝑎𝑡 𝑇𝑥 ) = 𝑥 (𝑀𝑎𝑖 − 𝑀𝑝 ) + 𝑀𝑝
including the 𝜌𝑤𝑖
hydrometer portion Where:
of the MTM L8-2 Ma = mass of pycnometer and water, g
specific gravity tests Mp = mass of pycnometer, g
should be carried ρwx = density of water at temperature Tx.
out on the potion ρwi = density of water at temperature Ti.
passing 2 mm sieve Ti = observed temperature of water in °C
too. In this case Tx = any other desired temperature in °C
specific gravity shall f. Use Table 6-6 below to determine the relative density of water at
be carried out for 3 different temperature from 18°C to 30°C
potions i.e.
particles>4.75mm,
2mm<particles≤4.75
mm, and particles≤
2mm.
The test results are
used in determining
the volume
occupied by solids in

99
triaxial and other
Table 6-6 Relative Density of Water and Conversion Factor K for
tests where for Various Temperatures
example the volume
Temperature (°C) Relative Density of Water Correction Factor, K
of voids and water
content need to be 18 0.9986244 1.0004
determined. 19 0.9984437 1.0002
Reference Test: 20 0.9982343 1.0000
AASHTO T100
21 0.9980233 0.9998
22 0.9978019 0.9996
23 0.9975702 0.9993
24 0.9973286 0.9991
25 0.9970770 0.9989
26 0.9968156 0.9986
27 0.9965451 0.9983
28 0.9962652 0.9980
29 0.9959761 0.9977
30 0.9956780 0.9974

3. Sample Preparation
a. Follow method MTM L8-1 for sampling.
b. Prepare the soil in its natural moisture or oven dried.
c. For volumetric flask use 25 g of soil
d. For stoppered bottle use 10 g of soil
e. Soils containing natural moisture
i. Measure the dry mass (Md) at the end of the test by drying in an
over at 110 ± 5°C.
ii. For clay soils containing their natural state – disperse the clay in
in distilled water in a 500 ml flask using dispersion equipment
(MTM L6-4.
f. For oven dried soil
i. Dry sample for at least 12 hrs. in an oven at 110 ± 5°C to constant
mass.
ii. Weigh and transfer to the pycnometer
iii. Add distilled water to allow the sample is full submerged.
iv. Allow to soak for 12 hrs.
v. If the soils have water of hydration which may be lost and is not
necessarily normal soil moisture, dry the sample at reduced
pressure and temperate to preserve the water of hydration (or
composition) in the material.
vi. Use a 500 ml pycnometer when dispersion is carried out in a 500
ml flask

4. Procedure
a. Place the sample into the volumetric flask and put distilled water to ¾
full or about ½ full for a stoppered bottle.
b. Remove trapped air by either:

100
 i. Subjecting the contents in the flask to a partial vacuum of
13.33kPa.
ii. Boiling gentle for 10 mins while gently rolling or agitating the
pycnometer to assist removal of air.
iii. If the heating option is used, allow to cool for to room
temperature before proceeding with the test.
iv. If the vacuum method is used apply the water in layers and apply
the vacuum each time till air bubbles stop coming out.
v. When partial vacuum is used soils with high plasticity may require
6-8 hrs. and samples with low plasticity may requires 4-6 hrs.
Oven dried samples may require 2-4 hrs. to remove the air
completely
c. Fill the pycnometer with distilled water to its full capacity
d. Dry with a dry cloth
e. Measure the mass of the pycnometer and contents, Mb
f. Measure the temperature of the contents, Tx

5. Calculations
a. Calculate specific gravity of the soils at temperature Tx using the
following equation

𝐺𝑥 𝑀0
=
𝑇𝑥 [𝑀0 + (𝑀𝑎 − 𝑀𝑏 )]

Gx = specific gravity measured at temperature, Tx.

M0 = mass of sample of oven-dried soil, g
Ma = mass of pycnometer filled with water at temperature Tx, g
Mb = mass of pycnometer filled with soils and water at temperature Tx,
g
Tx = temperature of the contents of the pycnometer when mass Mb was
determined, °C.
The value of Ma shall be obtained from the table created in 2(d) for
temperature Tx at a time when Mb is measured.
b. The values of specific gravity shall be based on a temperature of 20°C
unless otherwise specified using the following equation

𝐺20 𝐺𝑥
=𝐾
20°𝐶 𝑇𝑥

Where
K = the number obtained by dividing the relative density of the water at
Tx by the relative density of water at 20°C and given in Table 6-6 above

6. Reporting
a. Unless specified, report specific gravity at a temperature of 20°C
b. When using a volumetric flask report the specific gravity to the nearest
0.01
c. When using a stoppered bottle report specific gravity to the nearest
0.001.

101
 d. When a portion of the original sample is separated and eliminated then
the result of specific gravity shall pertain to the portion of the sample
that has been tested.

7. Precision
Follow the requirements given in Table 6-7 for determining acceptability
of the test results for specific gravity of soils.

Table 6-7 Precision Assessment for Specific Gravity Test for Soils
Material and Standard Deviation Acceptable Range of 2
Type Index Results (%age of Mean)
ASTM AASHTO ASTM AASHTO
(passing (passing (Passing (Passing
4.75mm) 2mm) 4.75mm) 2mm)
Single
operator
Precision
Cohesive 0.021 0.02 0.06 0.05
soils
Non-
cohesive soils
Multi-
laboratory
precision
Cohesive 0.056 0.04 0.16 0.11
soils
Non-
cohesive soils

102
6.13 MTM L6-13 Permeability of Granular Soils (Constant Head)
Test Number MTM Determination of Permeability of Granular Soils by a Constant Head Method
L6-13
Description: 1. Apparatus:
a. Balance – with sufficient capacity to measure 2kg and with accuracy of
This test method
1g.
describes the
b. Permeameters (Figure 6-9) – with sample cylinders with diameter of
standard procedure
approx. 8-12 times the maximum particle size and other components
for the
given below
determination of
i. Porous disc or screen with higher permeability than the sample
the Coefficient of
to be tested but with openings ≤ 10% of the finer particle size.
Permeability by
ii. Manometer outlets to measure head loss (h) over length (l)
constant head
equivalent to the diameter of the cylinder.
method. The soil
iii. Porous disc or screen – at the top with similar properties as in
must have no more
1b(i) above attached a spring capable of exerting a force of 22-
that 10% passing
44N on the sample when assembled to prevent volume change
0.075mm to
during saturation and permeability testing.
minimise influence
c. Constant Head Filter Tank – fitted with control valves to remove the air
of consolidation.
in tap water and to supply the water during saturation and the
In order to obtain permeability test. (Use de-aired water if available).
admissible results d. Large Funnels – fitted with cylindrical sprouts 25 mm diameter for 9.5
there must not be mm maximum particle size and 13mm diameter for 20mm maximum
any volume change particle size. Sprouts should be > the length of permeability chamber
of the soil during and ≥ 150 mm.
testing, the soil e. Vacuum pump – for evacuating air during the saturation process
must be fully f. Compaction equipment – any suitable compaction can be used.
saturated, the i. Vibrating tamper of 51 mm in diameter
hydrostatic ii. Sliding tamper of 51 mm in diameter
gradient must iii. A rod of sliding weights of 100 g for sands to 1kg for gravel, with
remain constant adjustable drop height of 102mm for sands and 203 mm for
and the flow gravel
velocity must be g. Scoop – with capacity of 100 g of soil.
directly h. Other: thermometers, clock/timer, 250 ml graduated, jar, mixing pan,
proportional to the etc.
hydrostatic head
where turbulence
should not occur.
Other options
would require more
complex tests
which are beyond
the scope of this
test standard.
The results are used
to determine the
permeability of
naturally occurring
soils or soil masses.
This is applicable

103
subsurface
drainage and
natural soils used in
road structures
such as
embankments
Reference Test:
AASHTO T215/
ASTM D2434

Figure 6-9 Constant Head Permeameter

2. Sample Preparation
a. Air dry the soils to be tested.
b. Carry out a sieve analysis (MTM L6-4)

104
 c. Separate any particles larger than 19 mm and record the percentage of
oversize.
d. It may be necessary to obtain representative coefficients of
permeability for the range of soils under investigation and to do this
samples of finer, average and coarser soils shall be used for the test.
e. Carry out a quartering processes to obtain a sample equal to 2 times
the size of the permeameter chamber.
f. Use Table 6-8 to determine the size of the permeameter chamber
which is appropriate for the test.

Table 6-8 Permeability Cylinder Diameter

Maximum Minimum cylinder diameter
particle
size range
<35% of total sample >35% of total sample
retained on sieve size retained on sieve size
2 mm 9.5 mm 2 mm 9.5 mm
2mm and 76 mm 114 mm
9.5 mm
9.5 mm 152 mm 229 mm
and 19 mm

g. Determine the dimensions of the permeameter chamber and record

the diameter (D), the length (L) between manometer outlets, depth
(H1) measure at 4 symmetrically spaced points from the upper surface
of the top plate of the permeability chamber to the upper surface of
the bottom porous disc.
h. Measure the depth (H2) from the top surface of the top plate in
positions described in 2(g) to the top surface of the top porous disc.
Use the large holes in the top plated which are symmetrically placed to
determineH1 and H2.
i. Determine the volume of the soil placed in the permeability cylinder.
j. Using a small portion of material that was compacted determine the
moisture content (MTM L6-3)
k. Record the weight of the remaining air-dried portion M1 for the
determination of dry density
l. Prepare the soils as follows and place in thin layers approx. equal in
thickness to the largest particle size but ≥ 15mm after compaction.
m. For 9.5 mm maximum aggregate size or less
i. Place the appropriate size of funnel in the permeability cylinder
such the bottom of the sprout touches the bottom porous plate
ii. Fill the funnel with the soil collected from different potions of
the soil in the pan.
iii. Lift the funnel 15mm or to the uncompacted layer thickness and
spread the soils in a slow spiral motion from the perimeter
towards the centre.
iv. Follow procedure 2(o) below to compact each layer and achieve
the required relative density
v. Mix the soil in the pan and repeat procedures 2m(ii) for
successive layers.

105
 n. For soils with maximum particle size greater than 9.5 mm
i. Spread the soil from a scoop by sliding the scoopful of soil a
nearly horizontal position down the inside surface of the
permeability cylinder to the bottom
ii. Tilt the scoop and draw it towards the centre to create a
windrow. This prevents segregation of the particles.
iii. Follow procedure 2(o) below to compact each layer and
achieve the required relative density
iv. Turn the permeability cylinder for the next scoopful position and
repeat 2n(i) to 2n(ii) around the inside perimeter to produce a
uniformly compacted layer with thickness that is equal to the
maximum particle size
o. Compact each layer to the minimum specified relative density.
i. Continue to place layer using procedure 2(m) for soil with
maximum particle size ≤ 9.5 mm or 2(n) for soil of maximum
particle size > 9.5 mm.
ii. Fill it up to a level of 2 cm above the upper manometer level.
p. Compact each layer to 100% relative density using vibratory tamper
i. Apply light tampering uniformly over the surface
ii. Apply adequate pressure and allow adequate time in each
position to avoid loosening materials adjacent to the tamping
foot.
iii. Continue tamping in different positions until refusal i.e. when
there is no indication of any further densification of the soil or
movement of particles.
iv. Repeat the process for subsequent layers until full thickness
specified in 2(p) is achieved.
q. Compact each layer to 100% relative density using sliding weight
tamper
i. Apply blows uniformly throughout the surface of the layer.
ii. Adjust the drop height depending on the coarseness of the soil
to achieve the maximum density.
iii. Compact to refusal
iv. Repeat the process for subsequent layers until full thickness
specified in 2(p) is achieved.
r. Other methods of compaction
i. Compact to the required maximum density
ii. Work the material in such a way as to prevent segregation
s. For Compaction to relative density between 0 and 100%
i. Carry out trials of compaction in a separate container that is
similar to the permeability cylinder and measure the densities.
ii. Use the appropriate procedure or level of compaction obtained
in the trials in 2s(i) above to achieve the specified density in the
permeability cylinder.
iii. Carry out a series of permeability tests at different relative
densities to represent the range of conditions in the field.

3. Preparation of test sample for permeability test (see Figure 6-10)

a. Place the porous plate on top of the compacted soil in the permeability
cylinder.

106
b. Rotate the porous plate gently back and forth to level the top surface
of the test sample.
c. Measure H1 using procedure given in 2(g)
d. Measure the depth H2 from the surface of the top plate to the top
surface of the top porous plate as given in procedure 2(h).
e. Determine the height of the sample i.e. H1-H2
f. Weigh the air -dried soil that is left in the pan after placement and
compaction of the test sample to the required height, M2
g. Determine the weight of the air-dried soil used in the test (M1-M2)
h. Determine and record the following parameters:
i. Unit weights
ii. Voids ratio
iii. Relative density
i. Place the gasket and press the top plate against spring which will in
turn exert a force on the top porous plate as required in 1b(ii) and make
the seal airtight.
j. Apply a vacuum at 50cm Hg (mercury) for 15 mins.
k. Supply water of saturation from the bottom of the sample under full
vacuum, preferably using de-aired water at a temperature that is
sufficiently high to cause a decreasing temperature gradient during
permeability testing. Water of low mineral content from in-situ rock or
soil may also be used. Make a record of the water that was used in the
test.
l. When saturation is completed and the permeameter is full of water.
i. Close the bottom valve on the outlet tube
ii. Disconnect the vacuum
iii. Open the filter tank valve to fill the inlet tube with water from
the constant head tank
iv. Connect the inlet tube to the top of the permeameter and open
the inlet valve slightly
v. Open the manometer outlet cocks slightly to allow water to flow
freely to remove air.
vi. Connect the manometer tubes to the manometer outlets and fill
with water to remove air.
vii. Close the inlet valve and open the outlet valve to allow the water
levels in the manometer tube to reach their stable positions
under zero hydraulic head.

107
 Figure 6-10 Evacuating and Saturating Test Sample.

4. Procedure (refer to Figure 6-10)

a. Slightly open the inlet valve to allow water to flow from the constant
head filter tank into the permeameter. Ensure that the conditions
given under ‘Description of Test Standard where care should taken to
ensure full saturation, no volumetric change during testing and no
turbulent flow are satisfied.
b. When the levels in the manometers are steady, measure and record
the following:
i. Time, t
ii. Hydraulic head, h
iii. Difference in water levels in the manometer tubes
iv. Quantity of flow, Q
v. Water temperature, T
vi. Repeat tests with increments of hydraulic head of 0.5 cm to
establish the regions of laminar flow with velocity (v) is directly
proportional to hydraulic gradient (i)

𝑄
𝑣=
𝐴𝑡

ℎ
𝑖=
𝐿

vii. When the relationship becomes non-linear and region of

turbulence is reached use increments of 1 cm to determine the
region of turbulent flow if this is thought to significantly occur in
the field
viii. Usually for low density use h/L range of 0.2 to 0.3 (for coarse
materials) and for high density use h/L of 0.3 to 0.5 (for finer
materials)
c. When testing is completed, drain the water and examine the test
sample

108
 i. Check whether the test sample is homogeneous
ii. Check for light and dark horizontal streaks, they indicate
segregation

5. Calculations
a. Using the following formula, calculate the coefficient of permeability,
k

𝑄𝐿
𝑘=
𝐴𝑡ℎ
Where
K = coefficient of permeability
Q = volume of water discharged in time in time t, mm3
L = distance between the manometer outlets, mm
A = cross-sectional area of test sample, mm2
t = total time discharge, min
h = difference in hydraulic head between manometers
b. Calculate k at 20°C using the following formula

𝑣𝑇
𝑘20°𝐶 = 𝑘 𝑇
𝑣20°𝐶

Where
k20°C = Viscosity at 20°C, centistokes
k T = viscosity at the test temperature T, °C
v20°C = viscosity of water at 20°C, centistokes
vT = viscosity of water at test temperature T, centistokes

6. Reporting
a. Test details
i. Project name
ii. Sample number
iii. Location of materials source
iv. Depth, etc.
b. Materials properties
i. Particle size distribution,
ii. material classification,
iii. maximum particle size,
iv. percentage of oversize particles
c. Properties of the test sample
i. Dry density
ii. Voids ratio
iii. Relative density after compaction if compacted
iv. Maximum and minimum densities.
d. Departures from standard procedure given above.
e. Complete form in Figure 6-11 with test results

109
 Test Manometer Head h Q, t, s Q/At h/L T, °C k
No. readings (cm cm3

H1 H2

Figure 6-11 Reporting Test Results

7. Report
a. General information
i. Project
ii. Sample number
iii. Location
iv. Depth, etc.
b. Soil description
i. Grading,
ii. soil classification,
iii. Maximum particle size,
c. Sample Description
i. Dry unit weight
ii. Voids ratio
iii. Relative density
iv. Maximum and minimum densities
d. Completed form, Figure 6-11
e. Plot of velocity (Q/At) vs hydraulic gradient (h/L)

110
7 Tests on Stabilized Materials
This section covers the main tests on stabilized materials. Stabilisation of materials is a
key component of the provision of roads due to the poor quality of materials obtaining in
many parts of Mozambique.

111
7.1 MTM L7-1 Moisture Density Relationships of Cement Treated Soils
Test Number MTM Moisture density relationship of cement treated soils (CTB) - Mod AASHTO
L7-1
Description: 1. Apparatus:
a. Moulds, 101.6 ±0.4mm diameter and 116.43 ±0.13 mm in height and
This test method
approx. volume of 944 ±8.5 cm3 consisting of
describes the
i. a metal cylinder,
standard procedure
ii. detachable base plate,
for the
iii. collar with height of 60 mm.
determination of
For full configuration and tolerances refer to AASHTO T180.
the relationships
b. Rammer:
between moisture
i. Manual rammer - (2.495 ±0.009 kg) with a mechanism to guide
content and
the drop height (304.8 ±1.524 mm) and with a flat ramming
compaction density
circular face of 50.80 ±0.25 mm diameter.
of cement treated
ii. Mechanical rammer – to vibrate in a manner required to effect
soils using a 4.54kg
compaction similar to the manual rammer. The mechanical
rammer falling 457
hammer should be calibrated using a manual rammer.
mm referred to as
c. Straight edge – length ≥ 254 mm
Modified AASHTO.
d. Oven – capable of maintaining 110 ± 5°C
The test involves e. Mixing tools
mostly the f. Containers for moisture content tests
procedures given in g. Standard sieves (75 mm, 19 mm, 4.75 mm)
MTM L6-8. In h. Weighing balance – which can weigh 1000 g to an accuracy of 0.1 g
addition to these i. A sample extruder
procedures is the j. Hard concrete platform on which the carry out the compaction
addition of the For the assembly and specifications equipment refer to AASHTO T134
stabilizer e.g.
2. Preparation of samples
cement and the
a. Dry soil sample from the field in air or in an oven at 60°C
changes that are
b. Disaggregate the soil – break up the soil without breaking up the
required to make it
individual particles.
work properly.
c. Sieve the material through a 4.75 mm sieve and if 100% of the
Reference Test: material passes proceed to the test procedure
AASHTO T134 d. If some material is retained in the 4.75 mm sieve then sieve the
material through the 75 mm, 19 mm and 4.75 mm sieves.
e. Discard the material retained in 75 mm sieve.
f. Determine the percentage of material retained in 19 mm sieve, and
the percentage of material retained in the 4.75 mm sieve and the
percentage of material passing 4.75 mm sieve.
g. Saturate aggregate retained in 4.75 mm sieve with water and surface-
dry the aggregate.
h. Keep the materials passing 19 mm sieve and retained in 4.75 mm
sieve and the material passing 4.75 mm sieve separately both
weighing a total of 4.99 kg.
i. The percentage by mass of oven dry sample of the material passing
19 mm and retained in 4.75 mm sieve shall be the same as the
percentage of material passing 75 mm minus percentage passing 4.75
mm sieve.
j. Collect a representative sample of the materials obtained through
procedure 2(c) or 2(h) for moisture density tests.

112
3. Test procedure
a. For materials with 100% passing 4.75 mm sieve:
i. Weigh a representative sample of 2.7 kg or more.
ii. Add the required amount of cement, which is a percentage by
mass of the dry soil and mix to achieve a homogeneous uniform
colour.
iii. It may be necessary to moisten the soil cement mix to 4-6
percent below OMC and leave for 5 to 10 min to allow
absorption of the moisture.
iv. Disaggregate the soil without breaking the individual particles
and pass through 4.75 mm sieve and remix.
v. With the collar attached compact the prepared sample in the
mould in 3 layers applying 25 blows per layer to a depth of
130mm
vi. Remove the collar and carefully trim the compacted specimen
level with the top of the mould using a knife and straight edge.
vii. Weigh the specimen and the mould. Subtract the mass of the
mould then divide by the volume of the specimen (942.95 cm3)
to obtain the wet density of the compacted specimen.
b. For sample with material retained in 4.75 mm sieve:
i. Add the specified cement to the subsample of material passing
4.75 mm and mix until it’s homogeneous.
ii. Follow procedure 3a(iii) to 3a(iv).
iii. Add the subsample obtained stage 2(g) and mix until it’s
homogeneous.
iv. Prepare a compacted sample of soil cement mixture and
determine the wet density of the compacted sample following
procedure 3a(v) to 3a(vii).
c. Collect small samples for moisture content tests:
i. Remove the specimen from the mould and slice it down the
middle. Scrap a sample from material from top to bottom of
specimen on the cut face; 100 g if all materials pass 4.75 mm
sieve (3a) or more than 500 g for a sample where some material
is retained in 4.75 mm sieve (3b).
ii. Place samples into containers and follow the procedure for the
determination of moisture content of soils (MTM L6-3)
d. Disaggregate the compacted specimen, add to rest of the material in
the sample.
e. Add sufficient amounts of water in increments of 1 or 2 percent, mix
and repeat procedures (3a) or (3b) and (3c).

4. Calculations
a. Calculate the moisture content of the sample, w:

𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑚𝑜𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑚1 − 𝑚2
𝑤= 𝑥 100 = 𝑥 100
𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑜𝑣𝑒𝑛 𝑑𝑟𝑖𝑒𝑑 𝑠𝑎𝑚𝑝𝑙𝑒 𝑚2 − 𝑚 𝑐
Where:
m1 = mass of container +wet sample (g)

113
 m2 = mass of container + oven dried soil (g)
mc = mass of container (g)
b. Calculate density of wet compacted sample in mould (ρ1):

𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑤𝑒𝑡 𝑠𝑎𝑚𝑝𝑙𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑚𝑜𝑢𝑙𝑑 𝑀2 −𝑀1

𝜌1 = 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑤𝑒𝑡 𝑠𝑎𝑚𝑝𝑙𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑚𝑜𝑢𝑙𝑑
= 0.002124

Where:
M1 = mass of mould (kg)
M2 = mass of mould + wet compacted sample (kg)

c. Calculate dry density (ρd

𝑊1
𝜌𝑑 = 𝑥 100
100 + 𝑤
i. Plot dry density (ρd) against moisture content (w) to obtain a
graph/curve.
ii. Read out the maximum value of the dry density and the moisture
content corresponding to this value and record them as the
maximum dry density (MDD) and optimum moisture content
(OMC) of the soil. Record the MDD to the nearest 10kg/m3 and
OMC as percentage (%) to the nearest whole number.

5. Report
a. Test refence
b. Maximum dry density
c. Optimum moisture content

114
7.2 MTM L7-2 Standard Test Method for the Determination of Cement
Content in Cement Treated Materials

Test Number MTM Standard test method for the determination of cement content in cement
L7-2 treated materials
Description: 1. Apparatus:
a. 100 ml titrating burette capable slow titration complete with stand and
This test method
clamps.
describes the
b. 4 polyethylene containers or jars (1.9 L), wide mouthed.
standard procedure
c. 2 plastic containers, carboys, 18.9 L complete with clamps and tubing.
for the
d. Glass dropping bottle
determination of
e. Sieves – sizes 37.5 mm and 9.5 mm
the cement content
f. Weighing – balance capable of 0.1 g accuracy.
in cement treated
soils (CTB). When
cement hydrates it 2. Reagents
produces water a. Prepare hydrochloric acid, approx. pH 3
soluble alkaline i. Pour 11.9 L of water into the 18.9 L plastic container
-
ions, OH . The ii. Add 5.4 L of reagent grade hydrochloric acid and mix thoroughly
cement content can for 1 minute.
be determined by iii. Add more water to obtain 18.9 L of the diluted hydrochloric acid
measuring the and mix thoroughly.
quantity of acid iv. Allow to stand overnight and mix again thoroughly
required to v. Mix once every week and each time before use.
neutralize the b. Prepare phenolphthalein indicator, 1 % solution; it turns red in alkaline
alkaline. conditions.
i. Dissolve 5 g of phenolphthalein powder in 250 ml of ethanol and
Reference Test:
mix thoroughly.
AASHTO T211
ii. Add 250 ml of distilled water and mix thoroughly.

3. Preparation of samples
a. Prepare calibration sample:
The test should be calibrated by determining a standard curve for the
material to be stabilized, and the cement and water to be used on site.
This is done for 5% cement content by mass of dry material to be
stabilized. Follow the following procedure:
i. Add a few drops to a small sample of material from site and if
the phenolphthalein turns red it means that the untreated
mixture is already alkaline. If this happens then a parallel
duplicate test on untreated material should be carried out as the
material, which is cement treated.
ii. Collect samples from the field after compaction and subject
them to moisture content test, MTM L6-3.
iii. With this moisture determine the corresponding sample size of
untreated dry material to make a calibration specimen of 300 g.

115
Table 7-1 Quantity of materials Required for Calibration of Specimens Containing 5%
Cement
Percentage Mass of Volume Mass of
Moisture Aggregate, of Cement,
g Water, g
ml
5 271 15 13.6
6 270 17 13.5
7 267 20 13.3
8 265 22 13.2
9 263 24 13.1
10 260 27 13.0
11 257 30 12.9
12 255 32 12.8
13 252 35 12.6
14 250 37 12.5
15 249 39 12.4
16 247 41 12.3
17 244 44 12.2
18 242 46 12.1
19 240 48 12.0
20 238 50 11.9

iv. If the aggregate is not dry, then make the necessary

adjustments.
v. From the sieve analysis determine proportion of the percentage
passing the 9.5mm sieve and retained on the 9.5 mm.
vi. Sieve the material obtained in 3a(iii) and 3a(iv), (i.e. the mass of
dry material obtained from the table to the give field moisture)
on the 37.5 mm and discard the material retained.
vii. Add material retained material that is finer than 37.5 and coarser
than 9.5 mm to replace the discarded oversize material remove
in 3a(vi) to attain the proportion of percentage passing and
retained on 9.5 mm sieve given in 3a(v). This is the specimen to
be used in the calibration.
viii. Place the specimen in the 1.9 L white polyethene container, add
the corresponding quantity of cement given in Table 7-1 and dry
mix thoroughly.
ix. Add the corresponding amount of water given in Table 7-1 and
mix thoroughly.
x. Prepare the specimens in duplicate in order to determine
average values during calculations.
xi. Allow the mixture to sit for the same time it would take to mix
soils cement in the field and to collect the sample to the
laboratory and prepare the 300 g sample for testing. The
calibration specimen is ready for testing.

b. Prepare sample from the field

i. Collect 4 by 3 kg samples from the field.
ii. Sieve on the 9.5 mm sieve to determine the proportions of
percentage passing and percentage retained of dry mass of
sample
iii. Sieve the material retained on the 9.5 mm sieve on the 37.5 mm
sieve and discard the material retained in 37.5 mm sieve

116
 iv. Replace the discarded material with material passing 37.5 mm
sieve and retained on 9.5 mm sieve to achieve the proportions
derived in 3b(ii).
v. After mixing separate a 300 g specimen for testing.

4. Test procedure
a. For calibration
i. Add 250 ml of water to each specimen and start the timer.
ii. Add approx. 40 drops of phenolphthalein
iii. Weigh and record the mass of each container
iv. At 10 min add hydrochloric acid to each specimen and stir for 3
secs. Determine the quantity of acid given the chart in Figure 7-1
using the line labeled ‘initial addition of acid’ corresponding to
the cement content (in this calibration specimen it is 5%). The
red colour should disappear due to neutralization of the alkaline.
v. When the red colour begins to appear again add more acid and
stir for 3 sec. Determine the quantity of acid as in 3a(xv) but
using the line below and the corresponding cement content (in
this calibration specimen it is 5%).
vi. Repeat procedure 3a(xvi) but this time only add just enough acid
to make the red colour disappear and stir for 3 sec. This keeps
the specimen neutral.
vii. Additionally, stir at every minute for 3 sec and 5th minute for 6
sec regardless of the colour of the specimen.
viii. Repeat stages 3a(xvii) and 3a(xviii) for 1 hour.
ix. Weigh the containers and record their masses.
x. Calculate the mass of hydrochloric acid used to neutralise the
specimens.
xi. Plot a straight-line graph of mass of hydrochloric acid vs cement
content starting from the origin of the graph (y=0, x=0)
xii. Where a parallel blank test has been carried out where the
untreated mixture is alkaline 3a(i) also plot the point for the
blank test and connect this point to the one obtained

117
 Figure 7-1 Calibration of Quantities of Acid and Cement Content
Using Constant Neutralisation Method

b. For the field sample

i. Place all the specimens prepared from samples obtained from
the field in a line on a bench.
ii. Follow procedure 4a(i) through to 4a(x).
iii. Using the values of mass of acid used to neutralize the alkaline
mixture on the y-axis on the calibration graph (Figure 7-1)
determine and record the cement content for each of the
specimens.
iv. Report this as the cement content achieved during the field
compaction.

5. Report
a. Test reference
b. Cement content to the nearest 0.1%

118
7.3 MTM L7-3 Standard Test Method for the Determination of Lime
Content in lime Treated Materials
Test Number MTM Standard test method for the determination of lime content in lime treated
L7-3 materials
Description: 1. Apparatus:
a. 100 ml titrating burette capable slow titration completed with stand and
This test method
clamps.
describes the
b. 10 polyethylene containers or jars (1.9 L), wide mouthed.
standard procedure
c. 2 plastic containers, carboys, 18.9 L complete with clamps and tubing.
for the
d. Glass dropping bottle
determination of
e. Sieves – sizes 37.5 mm and 9.5 mm
the lime content in
f. Weigh balance – capable of 0.1 g accuracy.
materials which
g. Glass dropping bottle
have been treated
h. 4 stirring rods
with hydrated lime.
i. Fluorescent light 915 mm long or 2 x 457 mm long
The alkaline ions
j. 4 plastic beakers (500 ml)
(OH-) i.e. the lime
k. Glass beaker 200 (ml)
content can be
determined by
measuring the 2. Reagents
quantity of acid a. Prepare hydrochloric acid, approx. pH 3
required to i. Pour 11.9 L of water into the 18.9 L plastic container
neutralize the ii. Add 5.4 L of reagent grade hydrochloric acid and mix thoroughly for 1
stabilized material. minute.
iii. Add more water to obtain 18.9 L of the dilute hydrochloric acid and
Reference Test:
mix thoroughly.
AASHTO T232
iv. Allow to stand overnight and mix again thoroughly
v. Mix once every week and each time before use.
b. Prepare phenolphthalein indicator, 1 % solution; it turns red in alkaline
conditions.
i. Dissolve 5 g of phenolphthalein powder in 250 ml of ethanol and mix
thoroughly.
ii. Add 250 ml of distilled water and mix thoroughly.
c. Prepare a flocculating agent, polyacrylamide stock solution
i. Mix 0.5 g of polyacrylamide with 1000ml of distilled water in a glass
beaker.
ii. Stir and allow time for all the suspension to disappear. The shelf- life
is 1 week.

3. Preparation of samples
a. Prepare a calibration sample:
The test should be calibrated by determining a standard curve for the
material to be stabilized, and the cement and water to be used on site. This
is done for 1% more and 1% less than the lime content of the specified in
the field by mass of dry material to be stabilized. Follow the following
procedure:
i. Collect samples from the field after compaction and subject them to
moisture content test, MTM L6-3.
ii. With this moisture and lime content determine the corresponding
sample size of untreated dry material from Table 7-2 to make a
calibration specimen of 300 g.

119
Table 7-2 Minimum Mass of Test Sample for Specified Lime Content
and Compaction Moisture

iii. If the aggregate is not dry, then make the necessary adjustments.
iv. From the sieve analysis determine proportion of the percentage
passing the 9.5 mm sieve and retained on the 9.5 mm.
v. Sieve the on the 37.5 mm sieve material obtained in 3a(ii) or 3a(iii),
(i.e. the mass of dry material obtained from Table 7-2 corresponding
to the given field moisture) and discard the material retained.
vi. Add material that is finer than 37.5 mm and coarser than 9.5 mm to
replace the discarded oversize material removed in 3a(v) to attain the
proportion of percentage passing and retained on 9.5 mm sieve given
in 3a(iv). This is the sample to be used in the calibration.
vii. Place the specimen in the 1.9 L white polyethylene container, add the
corresponding quantity of lime given in Table 7-2 and dry mix
thoroughly.
viii. Add the corresponding amount of water given in Table 7-2and
corrected existing moisture in the material if not dry and mix
thoroughly.
ix. Place all specimens in a row on a testing table and cure for 4-5 hrs.
for situations where the field samples must be tested the same day.
Cure for 24 hrs. in situations where the field samples must be tested
after 24 hrs. The sample is ready for testing at the end of the curing
period.

b. Prepare sample from the field

i. Collect 4 by 3 kg samples from the field.
ii. Sieve on the 9.5 mm sieve to determine the proportions of
percentage passing and percentage retained of dry mass of sample
iii. Sieve the material retained on the 9.5 mm sieve on the 37.5 mm sieve
and discard the material retained in 37.5 mm sieve

120
 iv. Replace the discarded material with material passing 37.5 mm sieve
and retained on 9.5 mm sieve to achieve the proportions derived in
3b(ii).
v. After mixing separate a 300 g specimen for testing.
vi. Follow process 3a(vii) through to 3a (ix) in preparing the sample for
testing.
c. Prepare the sample for the determination of the correction curve
i. Using the materials, water, and lime from the project prepare 10
specimens and the lime content planned for the project
ii. Follow procedure 3b to prepare the specimens in pairs.
iii. Prepare the specimens also in pairs to cure at 1, 3, 7, 24 and 48 hrs.
and proceed to carry out the constant neutralization tests for each
pair.

4. Test procedure
a. For calibration
i. Towards the end of the curing period prepare the flocculation
solution in a beaker containing 50 ml polyacrylamide mixed with 200
ml of water and place behind each of the samples.
ii. For each specimen weigh a graduated glass, add 50 ml of
polyacrylamide solution and weigh again to the nearest 0.1 g.
iii. Add the polyacrylamide to the 1st specimen and start the timer.
iv. Add polyacrylamide to the subsequent specimens at intervals of 120
sec.
v. Add approx. 40 drops of phenolphthalein
vi. Weigh and record the mass of each container to the nearest 0.1 g.
vii. Place fluorescent light behind the plastic containers.
viii. At 8 min after adding polyacrylamide, add hydrochloric acid to each
specimen using the burette only enough to make the red colour
disappear and stir for 3 sec.
ix. Add to subsequent specimens at 120 sec intervals
x. When the colour begins to reappear add acid again just enough to
make the red colour disappear.
xi. Additionally, stir at every minute for 3 sec and 5th minute for 6 sec
regardless of the colour of the specimen.
xii. Repeat procedure 4a(x) and at 25 min from the first addition of
polyacrylamide solution add more 50 ml of this solution.
xiii. Add hydrochloric acid to each specimen using the burette only
enough to make the red colour disappear and stir for 3 sec.
xiv. Repeat 4a(ix) to 4a(x).
xv. At 38 min weigh the 1st container and specimen and weigh the other
3 containers and specimen at 120 sec intervals.
xvi. Determine the mass of acid used for the constant neutralization test
by subtracting the initial mass of specimen and container and the
mass of polyacrylamide solution from the final mass of the container
plus specimen at the end of the test.
xvii. Plot the average mass of acid against the percentage lime used for
the paired specimens.
xviii. Draw a line between the 2 points to produce the calibration curve.

121
 b. Prepare a curing correction curve to take care of the difference in curing
time between the calibration sample and the field samples.
i. At the end of the curing period carry out the constant neutralization
test for each of the pairs of samples following procedure given in 4(a)
above.
ii. Plot the mass of acid used against the curing time to establish the
correction curve.
c. Carry out constant neutralization tests on field specimen
i. At the end of the curing period follow procedure 4(a) to carry out the
constant neutralization test of the pairs of samples.
ii. Determine the curing correction factor from the curing correction
curve for the difference in curing time between the calibration
specimens and field/project specimens. Use a (+) correction factor if
the curing time for the field specimens is greater that of the
calibration specimen and (-) correction factor for the contrary.
iii. Use the curing correction factor.
iv. From the calibration curve and using the corrected mass of acid
determine the lime content.
v. Additionally, stir at every minute for 3 sec and 5th minute for 6 secs
regardless of the colour of the specimen.
vi. Repeat stages 3a(xvii) and 3a(xviii) for 1 hour.
vii. Weigh the containers and record their masses.
viii. Calculate the mass of hydrochloric acid used to neutralise the
samples.
ix. Plot a straight-line graph of mass of hydrochloric acid vs lime content
starting from the origin of the graph (y=0, x=0), Figure 7-2.
x. Where a parallel blank test has been carried out where the untreated
mixture is alkaline, 3a(i), also plot the point for the blank test and
connect this point to the one obtained

d. For the field sample

i. Place all the specimens prepared from samples obtained from the
field in a line on a bench.
ii. Follow procedure 4a(i) through to 4a(x).
iii. Using the values of mass of acid used to neutralize the alkaline
mixture on the y-axis on the calibration graph (Figure 7-3) determine
and record the lime content for each of the sample.
iv. Report this as the lime content achieved during the field compaction.

5. Report
a. Lime content to the nearest 0.1%
b. Curing time, hrs.

122
Figure 7-2 Calibration for Curing Time for Field Samples

Figure 7-3 Lime Titration Calibration Curve

123
7.4 MTM L7-4 Determination of Unconfined Compression Strength of
Cohesive and Stabilized Soils
Test Number MTM Determination of unconfined compression strength (UCS) of cohesive and
L7-4 stabilised soils
Description: 1. Apparatus: (Figure 7-4)
a. Sample extruder – to extrude compacted samples from moulds
This test method
b. Dial gauges – accurate to 0.02 mm to measure deformation of
describes the
specimen.
standard procedure
c. Dial comparators – to measure changes in dimensions of the specimen
for the
during testing.
determination of
d. Compression device – hydraulic press required to apply the load at a
the unconfined
constant rate.
compressive
e. Straight edge of length ≥ 254 mm – for trimming the specimen
strength UCS) of
f. Oven – capable of maintaining 110 ± 5°C
cohesive and
g. Mixing tools and remoulding equipment – for remoulding disturbed
stabilized soils. This
samples.
is the compressive
h. Containers - for moisture content tests
strength of
i. Weighing balance which can weigh 1000 g to an accuracy of 0.1 g
cylindrical
specimen of soils. It
is taken as the
maximum load
reached per unit
area (kPa or MPa)
or the load per unit
area at 15% axial
strain whichever
comes first.
Reference Test:
AASHTO T208

Figure 7-4 Determination of Unconfined Compression Test of Soils

2. Preparation of samples
a. Samples size:
i. Diameter, D ≥ 30 mm
ii. Largest particle shall be < D/10
iii. If diameter of specimen ≥ 72 mm largest particle shall be <D/6
iv. Ration of height/diameter shall be between 2 and 2.5.
v. Measure height in 3 positions and diameter in 4 positions and
report averages.
b. Preparation of undisturbed specimen:
i. Core samples from the ground or stabilized pavement layers.

124
 ii. Cut and trim the ends to make them perpendicular to the
cylindrical faces.
iii. Tube specimens may be tested without trimming but squaring of
the edges is required.
iv. Prevent any moisture loss or gain and to achieve this prepare the
sample in a humidity-controlled room.
v. Some samples may need to be carved and when this is done the
specimen should have perfectly circular sections.
vi. If there are irregularities after trimming, level off with
remoulded soil or thin plaster or capping.
vii. Measure the mass and dimensions of the specimen (without the
capping in the case where capping is applied).
viii. If moisture content is required parts of the sample or the whole
specimen shall be subject to moisture content tests (MTM L6-3)
c. Preparation of remoulded specimens for samples obtained from
boreholes
i. Use material from the failed undisturbed samples after testing
or another sample, which is representative of the failed
undisturbed specimen.
ii. When using the disturbed sample place the specimen in a rubber
membrane and rework the material with fingers to a uniform
density.
iii. Form the specimen into a cylindrical mould to given it shape. The
dimensions should conform to specifications given in 2(a).
d. Preparation of compacted specimens
i. Compact the material to the specified moisture and density.
MTM L6-8 and MTM L7-2.
ii. Trim the ends perpendicular to the circular faces.
iii. Extrude from the mould.
iv. Weigh the specimen.

3. Test procedure
a. Place the specimen centrally on the bottom plate.
b. Adjust the upper plate to touch the top of the specimen
c. Zero the deformation indicator dial.
d. Apply the load to cause a strain or deformation of 0.5% to 2%/minute.
e. Record the values of load, deformation and time; 10-15 values are
sufficient.
f. Apply the load at a lower rate for stiffer material e.g. stabilized
materials and at a higher rate for softer materials such as samples from
boreholes
g. The loading should be such that the sample would fail within 15 min.
h. Continue loading until the load begins to decrease with increase in
strain or until 15% strain/deformation is reached.
i. Subject the whole specimen or samples of the specimen to moisture
content test (MTM L6-3) and report the moisture content of the
specimen indicating whether the moisture content test was carried out
at the beginning or end of the test.
j. Take an image to show the failure of the specimen.

125
4. Calculations
a. Calculate the strain of the sample:

∆𝐿
𝑆𝑡𝑎𝑖𝑛, ∈1 =
𝐿0
Where:
∆L= Change in length of the specimen from deformation readings,
mm
L0 = Original length of specimen, mm
mc = mass of container (g)
b. Calculate the average cross-sectional area, A.

𝐴0
𝐶𝑟𝑜𝑠𝑠 − 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑎𝑙, 𝐴 =
1 −∈1
Where:
A0 = Original average area of specimen calculated from initial
measurements, mm2
Є1 = Axial strain for a given load percent.
c. Calculate the compressive stress, σc

1000𝑃
𝜎𝑐 =
𝐴
Where:
P = load, N
A= corresponding average cross-sectional area, m2
d. Plot the stress strain graph and read the maximum compressive stress
attained or the stress at 15 % strain, qu.
e. Determine the sensitivity, ST.
𝑞𝑢 (𝑢𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑏𝑒𝑑)
𝑆𝑇 =
𝑞𝑢 (𝑟𝑒𝑚𝑜𝑢𝑙𝑑𝑒𝑑)

5. Report
a. Samples information
b. Description
c. Grading
d. Soil classification
e. Undisturbed or disturbed
f. Location test and project
g. Borehole number, etc.
h. Dry density and water content (whether obtained before or after the
test.
i. Degree of saturation
j. Specific gravity (MTM L8-13)
k. Unconfined compression strength (UCS)
l. Shear strength
m. Dimension of sample (height and diameter)

126
n. Strain at failure
o. Stress-strain curve
p. Photo or diagram showing mode of failure
q. Sensitivity
r. Any other information pertaining to the test.

127
8 Tests on Aggregates
This section covers tests for the determination of engineering properties of aggregates for
surfacing and concrete works.

128
8.1 MTM L8-1 Standard Method of Sampling Aggregate
Test Number MTM Standard method of sampling of aggregates
L8-1
Description: 1. Apparatus:
a. Pans or bins, which are firmly supported
The method
b. Sample bags and boxes
describes the
c. Hand tools
standard procedure
d. Weighing device
for the sampling of
e. Power equipment
aggregate for
f. A board
verifying suitability
g. Sampling tubes
of sources and
quality control at
source and on site. 2. Collection of samples
Aggregate tends to a. Sampling from stockpiles:
segregate during i. Use power equipment to collect materials from different parts
stockpiling and this of the stockpile at different positions and different levels and
method is aimed at create a smaller stockpile.
ensuring that the ii. Collect material from the smaller stockpile i.e. from the top
sample is third, middle third and the bottom third.
representative of iii. Shove the board into the pile above the sampling position to
the aggregate in the prevent materials falling into the excavation while sampling.
stockpile or batch. Avoid segregated materials.
iv. Alternatively, shove sampling tubes at 5 positions into the
Reference Test:
stockpile and collect the material into one sample.
AASHTO T2
v. Where a stockpile is formed into a prism with a flat top, collect
samples digging from the top at the 4 corners and one in the
middle.
vi. Place the 5 samples into separate sample bags.

b. Sampling from transportation units:

i. Sample aggregate from transportation units before offloading.
ii. Use power equipment to expose materials at different levels
iii. Excavate a trench into the materials if there is no power
equipment, 0.3 m deep and 0.3 m bottom width.
iv. For fine aggregate use sampling tubes to sample in several
locations till the required size of sample is obtained.

c. Sampling from quarries:

i. Check the different strata available.
ii. Collect a sample of approx. 25kg from each stratum
iii. The samples should be 150 mm x 150 mm x 100 mm free of
fractures or fissures.
iv. Mark the bedding plane.
v. Record the material profile in the quarry and estimates of
quantities.
d. Sampling roadside sand and gravel deposits
i. Identify potential sources through remote sensing (e.g. satellite
imagery), exposed faces, photo interpretation and geophysical
exploration.
ii. Take samples from each stratum

129
 iii. Excavate trial pits at several locations
iv. For each trial pits collect more than 12 kg for sand, 35 kg for
gravel.
v. Record information on quantity of material, depth of
overburden, haul distances, position of pegs demarcating the
deposit.

e. Size of sample:
Determine the maximum size of sample using Table 8-1 and Table 8-2.

Table 8-1 Size of sample for fine aggregate

Nominal Maximum Size Approximate Minimum Mass
(mm) of Field Sample (kg)
2.36 10
4.75 10

Table 8-2 Size of sample for coarse aggregate

Nominal Maximum Approximate
Size (mm) Minimum Mass of
Field Sample (kg)
9.5 10
13.2 15
19 25
25 50
37.5 75
50 100
63 125
75 150
90 175

130
8.2 MTM L8-2 Grading Analysis of Material Passing 0.075 mm
Test Number MTM Grading analysis of material passing 0.075 mm
L8-2
Description: 1. Apparatus:
a. Oven – controlled by thermostat to a temperature of 110 ±5 °C
This method
b. Balance – preferably electronic and accurate enough to be able to
involves the
measure 0.1 % of the mass of the sample
determination of
c. Thermometer – preferably digital and accurate to 0.5 °C
the quantity of
d. Mechanical sieve shaker
materials finer than
e. Sieves – The sieves given in Table 8-3 meeting AASHTO M145 and M147
0.075 mm, through
shall be used
wet sieving. It is
f. Container – big enough to contain the sample covered in water
expressed in
allowing for agitation through vigorous shaking or similar means.
percentage by dry
g. Wetting agent – e.g. dishwashing detergent which aids in washing off
mass of the particle
very fine particles such as clay clinging onto larger particles.
sizes passing the
0.075 mm sieve of
the total dry mass
of the sample being Table 8-3 Standard Sieve sizes for use grading analyses for soils and gravels
tested. Standards Sieves
Sieve Size (mm) Other designation
Reference Test
1 2.36 No. 8
Standard is AASHTO
2 1.18 No. 16
T 11
3 0.075 No. 200

2. Wetting agent – an agent, which is capable of washing off very fine

particles such as clay from larger particles e.g. dish washing agent.

3. Preparation of Samples
a. Determine the size of sample using Table 8-4 below unless specified
otherwise. The size of sample should be determined in relation to the
subsequent test assigned.

Table 8-4 Minimum sizes of samples

Nominal maximum size Minimum mass, g
(mm)
≤ 4.75 300
9.5 1000
19.0 2500
37.5 5000

b. If the content of material passing 0.075 sieve should be expresses as a

percentage of materials passing a given sieve size say 37.5 mm then
the material should be sieved on 37.5 mm. The content of the material
passing 0.075 mm shall therefore be expressed as a percentage of dry
oven dried material passing 37.5 mm.

4. Testing procedure

131
There are two testing procedures: washing the sample using plain water and
washing the sample using water with wetting agent. The former is the
common option and should be used unless specified otherwise.
a. Washing with plain water:
i. Dry the sample in the oven at 110±5°C until constant mass is
achieved.
ii. Weigh the dry sample to the nearest 0.1 percent of the mass.
iii. Place the sample into the container and cover it with water.
iv. Shake the container or use a big spoon to agitate the mixture to
wash off the fine from the coarse particles. The fine particles
would go into suspension.
v. Pour out suspension through a series of sieves.
vi. Add more water and repeat procedure 4a(iv) to 4a(v) until the
water remains clear after agitating.
vii. Rinse any material, which may have fallen on the sieves during
decanting.
viii. Return any materials retained on the sieves into the washed
sample by flushing
ix. Dry the washed aggregate in the oven at 110±5°C.
x. Weigh the sample to the nearest 0.1% of the mass of sample.
xi. Include the 2.00 mm sieve if the sample was prepared using
method MTM L6-2.
b. Washing using wetting agent:
i. Follow procedure 4a(i) to 4a(iii).
ii. Add wetting agent.
iii. Follow procedure 4a(iv) to 4a(v).
iv. Add plain water without adding wetting agent and follow
procedure 4a(vi) to 4a(xi).

5. Calculations
Calculate the percentage passing 0.075 mm (to the nearest 0.1%)

𝑊1 −𝑊2
𝑃0.075 = 𝑊1
𝑥 100
Where:
P0.075 = Percentage passing 0.075 mm
W1= mass of original sample after oven drying
W2 = mass of sample after washing and oven drying

132
8.3 MTM L8-3 Sieve Analysis of Fine and Coarse Aggregates
Test Number MTM Sieve analysis of fine and coarse aggregate
L8-3
Description: 1. Apparatus:
a. Oven – controlled by thermostat to a temperature of 110 ±5 °C
This method
b. Balance – preferably electronic and accurate enough to be able to
involves the
measure 0.1 % of the mass of the sample
determination of
c. Thermometer – preferably digital and accurate to 0.5 °C
particle size
d. Mechanical sieve shaker
distribution,
e. Sieves – The sieves given Table 8-5 meeting AASHTO M145 and M147
through sieving. It is
shall be used
expressed in
percentage by dry
Table 8-5 Standard Sieve sizes for use grading analyses for soils
mass of the particle and gravels
sizes passing or
Standards Sieves
retained on a sieve
Sieve Size (mm) Other designation
of the total dry
mass of the sample 1 75 3 in.
being tested. 2 50 2 in.
3 37.5 1 ½ in.
Materials finer than 4 25 1 in.
0.075 mm cannot 5 19 ¾ in.
be determined 6 13.2 ½ in.
through this 7 9.5 3/8 in.
method but by wet 8 4.75 No. 4
sieving, MTM L15
9 2.36 No. 8
Reference Test 10 1.18 No. 16
Standard is AASHTO 11 0.60 No. 30
T 27 12 0.425 No. 10
13 0.30 No. 50
14 0.15 No. 100
15 0.075 No. 200

2. Preparation of Samples
a. The preparation of samples shall be in accordance with in MTM L8-1.
b. For fine aggregate prepare a sample of 300 g minimum
c. For coarse aggregate follow guidance in Table 8-6. Use the same table
if the sample contains both course and fine aggregate.

133
 Table 8-6 (a) Minimum size of sample, (b) Maximum allowable
quantity of material in each sieve (kg)
(a)
Nominal maximum size Minimum size of
of aggregate (mm) sample (kg)
9.5 1
13.2 2
19.0 5
25.0 10
37.5 15
50 20
63 35
75 60
90 100
100 150
125 300

(b)
Sieve dimensions
203.2 mm 354 mm 304.8 mm
Sieve diameter diameter diameter
2 2
sizes 0.0285 m 0.0457 m 0.067 m2
(mm) Maximum allowable quantity of materials retained (kg)
125
100
90 15.1
75 8.6 12.6
63 7.2 10.6
50 5.6 5.7 8.4
37.5 2.7 4.3 6.3
25 1.8 2.9 4.2
19 1.4 2.2 3.2
13.2 0.89 1.4 2.1
9.5 0.67 1.1 1.6
4.75 0.33 0.54 0.8

d. For samples with large size particles carry out sieve analysis of the
separate subsamples and then combine them to form the required size
of sample given in the Table 8-6 (a).
e. For samples containing material finer than 13.2 mm first apply MTM
L8-2 (AASHTO T2) before carrying out the sieve analysis using this
method on the same sample.
f. For sample with material that is greater than 13.2 mm use different
sample for this method and MTM L8-1.
g. Place the sieves in order of decreasing size of openings.
h. Place the portion of the sample on the top sieve and shake by hand or
use a mechanical sieve shaker. Check to ensure that the sieves are not
overloaded and follow guidance, Table 8-6 (b)

134
 i. For particles larger than 75 mm, place the particles in different
positions by hand to see if they can pass through the holes in the sieves
without applying any force.
j. If the test is carried out after MTM 14, add the mass of materials finer
than 0.075 mm
k. Weigh the material retained in each sieve.

3. Calculations
a. Calculate the mass retained in each sieve as a percentage of the mass
of dry sample. The summation of these percentages should add up to
100 %.
b. Subtract these values from 100 % to get the percentage passing and
record these in a table and/or graphical form as the sieve analysis of
the aggregate.
c. Where MTM L8-1 is carried out first, add the mass of materials finer
than 0.075 mm to get the total mass of sample. Use this mass to
calculate values of percentage passing and report the sieve analysis as
in 3(b).
4. Report
a. Total percentage of material passing each sieve
b. Total percentage of materials retained in each sieve
c. Percentage of material retained between consecutive sieves
d. All percentages to the nearest 1 %. For small quantities e.g. percentage
passing 0.075mm can be reported to the nearest 0.1%.
e. Fineness modulus to the nearest 0.01.

135
8.4 TM L8-4 Determination of Organic Impurities in Fine Aggregate
for Concrete Works
Test Number MTM Determination of organic impurities in fine aggregate for concrete
L8-4
Description: 1. Apparatus:
a. Glass bottles – approx. 350 ml or 470-ml graduated glass bottles with
This test method
oval cross-section and with watertight caps; outside thickness of the
covers the standard
bottle should be between 40mm – 60 mm.
procedure for the
Mark 75 ml for standard colour solution
determination of
Mark 130 ml for fine aggregate level
the presence of
Mark 200 ml for NaOH solution level
impurities in
b. 5 Glass colour standards hoisted on a plastic holder.
aggregates, which
are earmarked for
the production of 2. Reagent and standard colour solution
concrete and a. Reagent – Sodium Hydroxide Solution (3%) obtained by dissolving 3
cement mortar. parts by weight of NaOH in 97 parts water
b. Standard colour solution – dissolve reagent grade potassium
Reference Test
dichromate (K2Cr2O7) in concentrate sulfuric acid, 0.250 g/100 ml of
Standard is AASHTO
acid
T 21
c. If glass colour standard is used, the standard colour solution would not
be necessary.

3. Preparation of Samples
a. The preparation of samples shall be in accordance with in MTM L8-1
b. Obtain specimen of 450 g
c. Air-dry specimen

4. Test Procedure
a. Place 130 ml of sample of fine aggregate to be tested in the glass bottle.
b. Add NaOH (3%) to the sample to reach 200 ml level.
c. Close the bottle and agitate and allow to stand for 24 hrs.
d. After 24 hrs add 75 ml of freshly prepared standard colour solution –
procedure 2(b)
e. Compare the light passing through the suspension above the sample to
that passing through the standard colour solution.
f. Record whether it is lighter, darker or same colour to the standard.
g. When using the glass colour standard procedure compare the glass
colour, out of the 5 glass colour standards, which is closest to the
colour of light passing through the suspension and record. See Table
8-7.

136
 Table 8-7 Glass Colour Standard
Gardener colour Organic Plate No.
standard No.
5 1
8 2
11 3 (standard)
14 4
16 5

5. Determination of results:
If the colour of light passing through the suspension above the aggregate
is darker it should be interpreted that the aggregate contains undesirable
content of impurities and further tests should be carried out before using
the aggregate in concrete or mortar.

137
8.5 MTM L8-5 Determination of Flakiness Index of Aggregate
Test Number MTM Determination of flakiness index of aggregate
L8-5
Description: 1. Apparatus:
a. Sample divider/riffle box
This test method
b. Oven – controlled by thermostat to a temperature of 110 ±5 °C
covers the standard
c. Balance – preferably electronic and accurate enough to be able to
procedure for the
measure 1.0 g
determination
d. Thermometer – preferably digital and accurate to 0.5 °C
Flakiness Index of
e. Mechanical sieve shaker
aggregate.
f. Sieves – The sieves are given in Table 8-5 meeting AASHTO M145 and
Flakiness is used for M147 shall be used
classification of g. Containers for holding the aggregate while testing
aggregate. h. Metal thickness Gauge
Aggregates are i. Sieves sizes: 75 mm, 50 mm, 25 mm 19 mm, 13.2 mm, 9.5 mm, and
flaky if their 4.75 mm
thickness is less
than 60% of their
2. Preparation of Samples
mean sieve size.
a. Determine the sample size using Table 8-8.
Flaky particles tend b. Wash and dry aggregate in the oven at 110 ±5 °C until constant weight
to break under load is achieved.
causing weakness c. Weigh the sample to the nearest 1 g.
of pavement of
surfacing layer Table 8-8 Minimum size of sample
Nominal size of Minimum size of
Reference Test
material (mm) sample (kg)
Standard is BS 812
Section 105.1 50 35
37.5 15
25 5
19 2
13.2 1
10 0.5

3. Test Procedure:
a. Carry out sieve analysis and discard all material retained on 50 mm
sieve and all material passing 9.5 mm sieve.
b. Weigh all material passing 50 mm sieve and retained in subsequent
sieves and place in separate metal trays.
c. Add the masses of materials obtained in 3(b).
d. Determine the percentage retained in each sieve of the mass
calculated in 3(c), m1. Discard any fraction retained in the individual
sieves which is ≤ 5% of m1 to get mass m2
e. Gauge each fraction using the thickness gauge by gauging each particle
by hand through gauges corresponding to the size fraction.
f. Place all particles passing through the gauges together and weigh, m3

138
4. Calculations:

𝑚3
𝐹𝑙𝑎𝑘𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑠𝑠 𝐼𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑥, 𝐹𝐼 = 𝑥 100
𝑚2

Where:
m2 = Total mass of factions > 5% of total mass
m3 = Mass of all elongated particles

5. Report
a. Sample identification reference
b. Date of test
c. Flakiness index, to the nearest 1%

139
8.6 MTM L8-6 Determination of Average Least Dimension of
Aggregate
Test Number MTM Determination of average least dimension of aggregate
L8-6
Description: 1. Apparatus:
a. Sample divider/riffle box
This test method
b. Pair of calipers
covers the standard
procedure for the
determination of 2. Preparation of Samples
Average Least a. Use a riffling box to reduce the size of sample.
Dimension (ALD) of b. Select 200 pieces of aggregate, which are representative of the sample.
aggregate.
ALD is used for the 3. Test Procedure:
design of surfacing a. Determination by direct measurement:
to determine the i. Select the least dimension of each particle i.e. the most stable
application rates of position that the particle would sit when placed on a flat surface.
aggregate and ii. Measure this dimension using calipers and record the value in
binder in surface mm.
dressings.
b. Estimation of ALD from average size of particles from sieve analysis and
This test involves flakiness:
the measurement c. Determine flakiness using MTM L8-5
of the smallest d. Carry out sieve analysis using MTM L8-3
dimension of each
particle for a
representative 4. Calculations:
sample of 200 a. Using measured dimensions – calculate the average of the 200
particles or an measurements
estimation from the b. Using the estimation method read out and record the value obtained
average particle from Figure 8-1
size and flakiness.
Reference Test
Standard is BS 812

140
 Figure 8-1 Nomogram for the Determination of ALD

5. Report
a. Test reference
b. Average least dimension, ALD to the nearest 1 mm

141
8.7 MTM L8-7 Determination of Elongation Index of Aggregate
Test Number MTM Determination of Elongation index of aggregate
L8-7
Description: 1. Apparatus:
a. Sample divider/riffle box
This test method
b. Oven – controlled by thermostat to a temperature of 110 ±5 °C
covers the standard
c. Balance – preferably electronic and accurate enough to be able to
procedure for the
measure 1.0 g
determination
d. Thermometer – preferably digital and accurate to 0.5 °C
Flakiness Index of
e. Mechanical sieve shaker
aggregate.
f. Sieves – The sieves given Table 8-5 meeting AASHTO M145 and M147
Elongation Index is shall be used
used for g. Containers for holding the aggregate while testing
classification of h. Metal length gauge
aggregate. i. Sieves sizes: 50 mm, 37.5 mm, 25 mm 19 mm, 13.2 mm, 9.5 mm, and
Aggregates are 4.75 mm
elongated and flat if
their length ≥ 1.8
2. Preparation of Samples
their average
a. Determine the sample size using Table 8-9.
dimension (sieve
b. Wash and dry aggregate in the oven at 110±5°C until constant weight
size).
is achieved.
Elongated particles c. Weigh the sample to the nearest 1 g.
tend to break under
load causing Table 8-9 Minimum size of sample
weakness of Nominal size of Minimum size of
pavements and material (mm) sample (kg)
surfacing layer 50 35
Reference Test 37.5 15
Standard is BS 812
Section 105.2 25 5
19 2
13.2 1
10 0.5

3. Test Procedure
a. Carry out sieve analysis and discard all material retained on 50 mm
sieve and all material passing 9.5 mm sieve.
b. Weigh all material passing 50 mm sieve and retained in subsequent
sieves and place in separate metal trays.
c. Add the masses of materials obtained in 3(b).
d. Determine the percentage retained in each sieve of the mass
calculated in 3(c), m1. Discard any fraction retained in the individual
sieves which is ≤ 5% of m1 to get mass m2
e. Gauge each fraction using the thickness gauge by gauging each particle
by hand through gauges corresponding to the size fraction.
f. Place all particles passing through the gauges together and weigh, m3

142
4. Calculations:

𝑚3
𝐸𝑙𝑜𝑛𝑔𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝐼𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑥, 𝐸𝐼 = 𝑚2
𝑥 100

Where:
m2 = Total mass of factions > 5% of total mass
m3 = Mass of all elongated particles

5. Report
a. Test reference
b. Elongation index to the nearest 1%

143
8.8 MTM L8-8 Determination of Aggregate Crushing Value (ACV)
Test Number MTM Determination of aggregate crushing value (ACV)
L8-8
Description: 1. Apparatus:
a. Sample divider/riffle box
This test method
b. Metal cylinder – 150 mm internal diameter complete with plunger and
covers the standard
base plate
procedure for the
c. Oven – controlled by thermostat to a temperature of 110 ±5 °C
determination the
d. Balance – preferably electronic and accurate enough to be able to
aggregate crushing
measure 1.0 g
value (ACV)
e. Thermometer – preferably digital and accurate to 0.5 °C
ACV is a strength f. Tamping rod – 16 mm diameter, 600 mm length with hemispherical
test used for ends
classification of g. Mechanical sieve shaker
aggregate based on h. Compression testing machine, 500 kN (Figure 8-2)
their resistance to i. Sieves – The sieves 13.2 mm and 9.5 mm square holes and 2.36 mm
crushing under a woven wire given Table 8-5 meeting AASHTO M145 and M147 shall be
400kN load. used
The test is carried j. Metal tray
out on aggregate k. Rubber mallet
passing 13.2 mm l. Hard brush
sieve and retained
on 9.5mm sieve
For soft materials
with ACV>30
determine strength
using 10% Fact
Reference Test
Standard is BS 812
Part 110

Figure 8-2 Apparatus for Aggregate Crushing Value Test

2. Preparation of Samples
a. Determine the sample size using Table 8-10.
b. Sieve the whole portion on the 13.2 mm and 9.5 mm sieves and discard
the oversize and under size material
c. Divide the sample into 3 portions, each sufficient to reach 100 mm
after light tamping.
d. Dry aggregate in the oven at 110±5°C until constant weight is achieved.
e. Weigh the sample to the nearest 1 g.

144
 Table 8-10 Minimum size of sample
Nominal size of Minimum size of
material (mm) sample (kg)
37.5 max size 60
19 max size 45
Graded aggregate 40
37.5 – 4.75
Graded aggregate 25
19-4.75
Graded aggregate 15
13.2-4.75

3. Test Procedure:
a. Fix the metal cylinder to the base plate.
b. Place aggregate in the cylinder to a depth of 100 mm in 3 layers
applying 25 blows evenly on each layer, dropping 50mm form the
surface of the aggregate.
c. Place the cylinder and specimen on the compression testing machine.
d. Apply load at a rate such that 400kN is reached in 10 min ± 30 s.
e. Measure the mass of the metal tray.
f. Remove the material from the cylinder to the metal tray by tipping
gently.
g. Remove any clinging materials from the walls of the cylinder and base
plate into the tray using a hard brush
h. Weigh the tray and aggregate to obtain mass of aggregate, m1 to the
nearest 1.0 g.
i. Sieve the material through 2.36 mm sieve.
j. Weigh the material passing (m2) and retained (m3). m2 + m3 = m1 ± 10
g else discard the test and start again.
k. Repeat procedure 3(b) to 3(j) for the other 2 specimens.

4. Calculations:

𝑚2
𝐴𝑔𝑔𝑟𝑒𝑔𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑐𝑟𝑢𝑠ℎ𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒 , 𝐴𝐶𝑉 = 𝑚1
𝑥 100

Where:
m1 = Total mass of test specimen, g
m2 = Mass of material passing 2.36 mm, g
Calculate the mean of the 3 results and report it as the ACV.
If any of the results differ from the mean by more than 7 % repeat the
test.

5. Report
a. Test reference
b. Aggregate crushing value (ACV), to the nearest 1%

145
8.9 MTM L8-9 Determination of Ten Percent Fines Value, TFV
(10%FACT)
Test Number MTM Determination of ten percent fines value, TFV (10% FACT)
L8-9
Description: 1. Apparatus:
a. Sample divider/riffle box
This test method
b. Metal cylinder – 150 mm internal diameter complete with plunger and
covers the standard
base plate
procedure for the
c. Oven – controlled by thermostat at a constant temperature of 110±5°C
determination of
d. Balance – preferably electronic and accurate enough to be able to
Ten Percent Fines
measure 1.0 g
Value, TFV, also
e. Thermometer – preferably digital and accurate to 0.5 °C
referred to as 10%
f. Tamping rod – 16 mm diameter, 600 mm length with hemispherical
FACT (10% Fines
ends
Aggregate Crushing
g. Mechanical sieve shaker
Test)
h. Compression testing machine, 500 kN
TFV is a strength i. Sieves – The sieves 13.2 mm and 9.5 mm square holes and 2.36 mm
test used for woven wire given Table 6-2 meeting AASHTO M145 and M147 shall be
classification of used
aggregate based on j. Metal tray
their resistance to k. Rubber mallet
crushing under a l. Hard brush
400kN load. m. Drying cloths
The test is carried n. 3 wire mesh baskets
out on aggregate o. Watertight containers
passing 13.2 mm
sieve and retained 2. Preparation of Samples
on 9.5mm sieve a. Determine the sample size using Table 8-11.
b. For preparation of test sample for dry test:
Reference Test
i. Sieve the whole potion on the 13.2 mm and 9.5 mm sieves and
Standard is BS 812
discard the oversize and under size material
Part 111
ii. Divide the sample into 3 portions, each sufficient to reach 100
mm after light tamping.
iii. Dry aggregate in the oven at 110±5°C until constant weight is
achieved.
iv. Weigh the sample to the nearest 1 g.

Table 8-11 Minimum size of sample

Nominal size of Minimum size of
material (mm) sample (kg)
37.5 max size 60
19 max size 45
Graded aggregate 40
37.5 – 4.75
Graded aggregate 25
19-4.75
Graded aggregate 15
13.2-4.75

146
 c. For preparation of sample for soaked test:
i. Place each specimen in a wire basket and immerse in water,
allowing 50 mm submergence to the top of the baskets.
ii. Remove air bubbles by lifting the baskets and allowing them to
drop 25 mm to the base of the container and repeat this process
25 times.
iii. Soak the sample for 24 ± 2hrs.
iv. After soaking remove the samples from the water and dry them
using a piece of cloth.
v. Carry out the TFV test immediately

3. Test Procedure:
a. Fix the metal cylinder to the base plate.
b. For dry test:
i. Place aggregate in the cylinder to a depth of 100 mm in 3 layers
applying 25 blows evenly on each layer, dropping 50mm from
the surface of the aggregate.
ii. Place the cylinder and specimen on the compression-testing
machine.
iii. Apply load at a rate to achieve total penetration in 10 min ± 30 s
as follows:
15 mm for rounded or partially rounded aggregates
20 mm for normal crushed aggregates
24 mm for honeycombed aggregate e.g. cinders and slags.
iv. Determine and record the maximum force required to achieve
the specified penetrations (f, kN)
v. Measure the mass of the metal tray.
vi. Remove the material from the cylinder to the metal tray by
tipping gently.
vii. Remove any clinging materials from the walls of the cylinder and
base plate into the tray using a hard brush
viii. Weigh the tray and aggregate to obtain the mass of aggregate,
m1 to the nearest 1.0 g.
ix. Sieve the material through 2.36 mm sieve.
x. Weigh the material passing (m2) and retained (m3). m2 + m3 = m1
± 10 g else discard the test and start again.
xi. Repeat procedure 3(b) to 3(j) for the other 2 specimens.
c. For wet test:
i. Follow procedure 3b(i) to 3b(vi).
ii. Dry the aggregate in the oven at 110 ±5°C until constant mass is
achieved (approx. 12 hrs.)
iii. Weigh the mass of the specimen to the nearest 1.0 g.
iv. Follow procedure 3b(ix) to 3b(xi).
d. Conditionality: 7.5% ≤ P2.36 ≤ 12%, if not, redo the test having adjusted
the loading accordingly.

4. Calculations:
Calculate the force in F (kN) required to produce 10% fines for each specimen
14𝑓
𝐹= 𝑚+4

147
 Where:
f = maximum force (in kN)
m = is the percentage of the material passing the 2.36 mm sieve at the
maximum force
Calculate the mean of the 3 results (Favg) and report it as the TFV
If any of the results differ from the mean by more than 10kN or 10 %
repeat the test.
5. Alternatively:
Carry out ACV and TFV at the same time as follows:
a. Prepare 4 test specimens following procedure 2(a) to 2(c) as necessary.
b. Apply 50kN to one specimen and follow procedure 3(a) to 3(c)
c. Repeat 5(a) on the other specimens applying 100kN, 150kN and 400kN.
d. Plot a graph of percentage passing 2.36 mm (P2.36) against load (F)
e. From the graph determine F for P2.36 = 10% and report this as the TFV
(10% FACT)

6. Report
a. Test reference
b. Ten percent fines value (TFV) or 10% FACT, to the nearest 1%

148
8.10 MTM L8-10 Determination of Aggregate Impact Value, AIV
Test Number MTM Determination of aggregate impact value, AIV
L8-10
Description: 1. Apparatus:
a. Sample divider/riffle box
This test procedure
b. Metal cylinder – 75 mm internal diameter and 50 mm internal depth
covers the
c. Oven – controlled by thermostat to a temperature of 110 ±5 °C
determination of
d. Balance – preferably electronic and accurate enough to be able to
Aggregate Impact
measure 0.1 g
Value, AIV.
e. Thermometer – preferably digital and accurate to 0.5 °C
AIV is a strength f. Tamping rod – 16 mm diameter, 600 mm length with hemispherical
test used for ends
classification of g. Mechanical sieve shaker
aggregate based on h. Rubber mallet
their resistance to i. Aggregate Impact and Crushing Machine (Figure 8-3)
crushing due to j. Sieves – The sieves 13.2 mm and 9.5 mm square holes and 2.36 mm
sudden impact woven wire given in Table 6-2 meeting AASHTO M145 and M147 shall
under traffic. be used
The test is carried k. Metal tray
out on aggregate l. Rubber mallet
passing 13.2 mm m. Hard brush
sieve and retained n. Drying cloths
on 9.5mm sieve o. 3 wire mesh baskets
p. Watertight containers
Reference Test
Standard is BS 812
Part 112

Figure 8-3 Aggregate Impact and Crushing Machine

2. Preparation of samples
a. Determine the sample size using Table 8-12.
b. For preparation of test sample for dry test:
i. Sieve the whole potion on the 13.2 mm and 9.5 mm sieves and
discard the oversize and under size material

149
 ii. Divide the sample into 3 portions, each sufficient to reach 50 mm
after light tamping.
iii. Dry aggregate in the oven at 110±5°C until constant weight is
achieved.
iv. Weigh the sample to the nearest 1 g.

Table 8-12 Minimum size of sample

Nominal size of Minimum size of
material (mm) sample (kg)
0-37.5 max size 20
0-19 max size 15
Graded aggregate 12
37.5 – 4.75
Graded aggregate 8
19-4.75
Graded aggregate 5
13.2-4.75

c. For preparation of sample for soaked test:

i. Place each specimen in a wire basket and immerse in water,
allowing 50 mm submergence to the top of the baskets.
ii. Remove air bubbles by lifting the baskets and allowing them to
drop 25 mm to the base of the container and repeat this process
25 times.
iii. Soak the sample for 24 ± 2hrs.
iv. After soaking remove the samples from the water and dry them
using the pieces of cloth.
v. Carry out the AIV test immediately

3. Test Procedure:
a. Fix the metal cylinder to the base plate.
b. For dry test:
i. Place the impact machine on hard flow or platform and fix the
cup
ii. Place aggregate to form a heap on top of cylinder applying 25
blows evenly, dropping freely from a height of 50 mm from the
surface of the aggregate.
iii. Remove extra aggregate by rolling the tamping rod to make the
aggregate flash with the top of the metal cylinder and filling any
spaces by hand.
iv. Adjust the hammer to a height of 380±5 mm above the top of
the cup.
v. Apply blows of the hammer falling freely on the aggregate 15
times in not less than 1 s.
vi. Tip over the crushed material into a try of known weight while
hammering with a rubber hammer.
vii. Use a hard brush to remove any particles clinging to the walls
and base plate
viii. Weigh the tray and aggregate to obtain mass of aggregate, m1 to
the nearest 1.0 g.
ix. Sieve the material through 2.36 mm sieve.

150
 x. Weigh the material passing (m2) and retained (m3). Check that
m2 + m3 = m1 ± 10 g, else discard the test and start again.
xi. Repeat procedure 3b(i) to 3b(x) for the other 2 specimens.
c. For wet test:
i. Follow procedure 3b(i) to 3b(vii) but the number of blows to be
applied shall be the number of blows that give 5%-20% fines. 15
blows may be applicable in the soaked condition.
ii. Dry the aggregate in the oven at 110 ±5°C until constant mass is
achieved (approx. 12 hrs.)
iii. Weigh the mass of the specimen to the nearest 1.0 g.
iv. Follow procedure 3b(ix) to 3b(xi).
d. Conditionality: 7.5% ≤ P2.36 ≤ 12%, if not,

4. Calculations:
For dry test calculate AIV:
𝑚2
𝐴𝑔𝑔𝑟𝑒𝑔𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝐼𝑚𝑝𝑎𝑐𝑡 𝑉𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒, 𝐴𝐼𝑉 = 𝑥 100
𝑚1

Where:
m1 = mass of test specimen, g
m2 = is the mass of the material passing the 2.36 mm sieve, g

For soaked test:

Calculate the percentage passing 2.36 mm, P2.36
𝑚2
𝑃2.36 = 𝑥 100
𝑚1
Where:
m1 = mass of test specimen, g
m2 = is the mass of the material passing the 2.36 mm sieve, g

Calculate AIV:
15𝑃2.36
𝐴𝑔𝑔𝑟𝑒𝑔𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝐼𝑚𝑝𝑎𝑐𝑡 𝑉𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒, 𝐴𝐼𝑉 = 𝑥 100
𝑛

Where:
n = number blows of the hammer on the specimen
Report the average of the values as the AIV of the material
If any of the results differ from the mean by more than 15 % repeat the
test.
If AIV is greater than 30 repeat the test.

5. Report
a. Test reference
b. Aggregate impact value (AIV), to the nearest 1%

151
8.11 MTM L8-11 Bulk Density and Voids in Aggregate
Test Number MTM Determination of Bulk Density and Percentage Voids in Aggregate
L8-11
Description: 1. Apparatus:
a. Balance – with sufficient capacity and accuracy of 0.1 % of the mass of
This test method
sample
describes the
b. Tamping rod – a 600 mm long and 16 mm diameter steel rod with a
standard procedure
rounded end.
for the
c. Volumetric measure – a rigid graduated watertight metal cylinder with
determination of
even top and bottom, and height should not be less than 80% or more
bulk density of
than 150 % of the diameter (preferably height should be equal to the
aggregate in loose
diameter. See Table 8-13 for appropriate sizes of volumetric measures.
or compacted
d. Shovel – for filling the measure with aggregate
condition and
e. Calibration Equipment – plate glass 6 mm thick and at least 25 mm
determination of
larger in diameter than the measure to be calibrated. Chassis grease to
voids between
apply on the rim to prevent leakage of water.
particles in fine,
coarse or mixed
Table 8-13 Capacity of the Measure
aggregate. The test
Nominal Maximum Capacity of Measure
applies for nominal
size of Aggregate (L)
maximum
aggregate size no (mm)
greater than 125 12.5 2.8
mm.
25 9.3
The test results are
37.5 14
used in asphalt mix
design and bulking 75 28
for such aggregate 112 70
in relation to
volumetric changes 150 100
from uncompacted
to compacted
2. Sample Preparation
condition
a. Follow method MTM L8-1
Reference Test: b. Sample size should be 125 to 200 % the volume of the of the measure
AASHTO T19 c. Avoid segregation of aggregate
d. Dry the aggregate in the oven at 110 ± 5°C

3. Calibration of the Measure

a. Fill the measure with water and apply plate glass on top avoiding
trapped air bubbles.
b. Measure the mass of the water in the measure
c. Measure the temperature of the water in order to determine the
density of the water at that temperature. Use values in Table 8-14 and
interpolate where required.

152
 Table 8-14 Density of Water at Different Temperatures
Temperature Density of Water
(°C) (kg/m3)
15.6 999.01
18.3 998.54
21.1 997.97
23 997.54
23.9 997.32
26.7 996.59
29.4 995.83

Calculate the volume of the measure by dividing the mass of the water
required to fill the measure by the density of the water.
4. Procedure
a. For loose bulk density use the shoveling procedure to fill the measure.
i. Fill the measure with a shovel to overflowing dropping the
aggregate from a height of 50 mm.
ii. Level the surface flash with the rim of the measure with
fingers or straightedge. Any protrusions of the aggregate
should be balanced out with the larger voids immediately
below the top rim of the measure.
iii. Determine the mass of the measure + aggregate and the mass
of the measure alone to the nearest 0.05kg
b. For aggregate with nominal maximum size of 37.5 or less use rodding
procedure
i. Fill the measure with aggregate to 1/3 full and level the
aggregate with fingers.
ii. Rod the layer evenly with 25 strokes across the surface
iii. Avoid hitting the bottom plate vigorously when rodding.
iv. Apply another layer to fill the measure to 2/3 full and level with
fingers
v. Rod the layer evenly with 25 strokes across the surface
vi. Avoid rodding the already compacted 1st layer of aggregate.
vii. Apply the final layer of aggregate to overflow.
viii. Rod the layer evenly with 25 strokes across the surface. Level the
surface flash with the rim of the measure with fingers or
straightedge. Any protrusions of the aggregate should be
balanced out with the larger voids immediately below the top
rim of the measure.
ix. Determine the mass of the measure + aggregate and the mass of
the measure alone to the nearest 0.05kg
c. For aggregate with nominal maximum aggregate size greater than 37.5
and less than 125 mm use the jigging
i. Fill the measure in 3 layers as in 4(b) above.
ii. Compact each layer by lifting the measure 50 mm above a hard
surface (e.g. concrete) and dropping it slightly slanted in order
that it hits with a hard slap.

153
 iii. Apply 50 drops altogether, 25 drops either side.
iv. After compacting the last layer level with fingers or straightedge.
v. Any protrusions of the aggregate should be balanced out with
the larger voids immediately below the top rim of the measure.
vi. Determine the mass of the measure + aggregate and the mass of
the measure alone to the nearest 0.05kg

5. Calculations
a. Calculate the bulk density, Bd
(𝑀1 − 𝑀2 )
𝐵𝑑 =
𝑉
Where:
Bd = bulk density of aggregate, kg/ m3
M1 = mass of measure + aggregate, kg
M2 = mass of measure, kg
V = volume of measure, m3
If the bulk density is required in terms of the saturated surface dry (SSD)
use the specific method (see similar procedure MTM L8-12 and MTM L8-
13)
b. Calculate SSD bulk density, Bssd

𝐴
𝐵𝑠𝑠𝑑 = 𝐵𝑏 [1 + ( )]
100
Where:
Bssd = saturated surface dry bulk density, kg/ m3
Bd = bulk density determined from 5(a)
A = absorption percentage determined using a method similar to MTM
L8-12 and MTM L8-13

c. Calculate voids content or voids in mineral aggregate (VMA)

[(𝐺𝑏 − 𝜌𝑤 ) − 𝐵𝑑 ]
𝑉𝑀𝐴 = 100
𝐺𝑏 𝑥 𝜌𝑤
Where:
VMA = voids in mineral aggregate, %
Gb = bulk specific gravity, kg/ m3
Bd = Bulk density, kg/ m3

6. Report:
a. Bulk density to the nearest 10kg:
i. Bulk density by rodding or
ii. Bulk density by jigging or
iii. Loose bulk density

154
 b. Air voids in aggregate (to the nearest 1%):
i. Voids in aggregate compacted by rodding, %
ii. Voids in aggregate compacted by jigging, %
iii. Voids in loose aggregate, %

7. Precision:
a. Bulk density for coarse aggregate
i. Single operator – results should be repeatable within 40kg/m3
difference
ii. Multi-laboratory precision – results should be repeatable within
85kg/m3 difference
b. Bulk density for fine aggregate
i. Single operator – results should be repeatable within 40kg/m3
difference
ii. Multi-laboratory precision – results should be repeatable within
125 kg/m3 difference

155
8.12 MTM L8-12 Specific Gravity and Absorption of Fine Aggregate
Test Number MTM Determination of Specific Gravity and Absorption of Fine Aggregate
L8-12
Description: 1. Apparatus:
a. Balance – with sufficient capacity and accuracy of 0.1 % of the mass
This test method
of sample
describes the
b. Pycnometer – A flask or other container which should be calibrated
standard procedure
before use (MTM L11-3, Figure 11-1) and the volume can be
for the
reproduced within 100 mm3. The volume of the pycnometer should
determination of
be at least 50% greater that the volume of the sample. A 500 ml flask
specific gravity and
fitted with a pycnometer would suffice for a 500 g sample of fine
absorption of fine
aggregate.
aggregate.
c. Mould – A conical mould with a top inside diameter of 40 ± 3 mm and
The test results are bottom inside diameter of 90 ± 3 mm and a height if 75 ± 3 mm and
used in determining minimum thickness of 0.8 mm.
the volume d. Tamper – A metal tamper with a mass of 340 ± 15 g and a flat
occupied by fine tampering face of 25 ± 3 mm diameter.
aggregate in
cement and asphalt
2. Sample Preparation
concrete where
a. Follow method MTM L8-1 for sampling.
absolute values of
b. Collect 1 kg of fine aggregate
volumes are
c. Dry the sample to a constant mass at 110 ± 5°C
required in the mix.
d. Allow to cool to warm temperature
Reference Test: e. Immerse in water or add 6% moisture to the sample and allow to
AASHTO T84 stand for 15 to 19 hrs.
f. Initial drying is not necessary when specific gravity and absorption are
required for concrete works where aggregate is used in their naturally
moist conditions.
g. Soaking for 15 hrs. may not be necessary if initial drying is not
required as described in 2(f).
h. Remove excess water by decanting without losing fines
i. Spread the sample on a non-absorbent surface and blow warm air to
dry while stirring. Mechanical tumble drying may also be used for this.
j. Break any balls or lumps after significant drying has occurred.
k. Continue the process until the material has started to flow freely
l. Carry out a cone test for surface moisture:
i. Hold the mould firmly on a non-absorbent surface with the large
diameter down
ii. Place the fine aggregate in the mould until overflow occurs
iii. Heap additional materials by holding it with cupped fingers on
top of the mould.
iv. Rod the material with 25 drops of the tamper from a height of 5
mm. above the surface of the material distributed evenly
throughout the surface
v. Remove loos sand from the bottom.
vi. Lift the mould vertically
vii. Material has reached surface dry condition if it slumps slightly
viii. Continue the drying and repeat the test if the material does not
slump

156
 ix. Material with angular particles may not slump even after
reaching surface dry condition. In this case consider that the
material has reached surface dry condition if it slumps on one
side after removing the mould.
x. Where slump does not occur as in 2l(ix) above, do the Provisional
Cone Test by repeating the test and varying the compaction as
follows: apply 10 drops, add more material on top, apply
additional ten drops, add more material, apply 3 drops, apply
more material and the final 2 drops, then lift the mould and
check for slump.
xi. If the material does not slump and some particles become
airborne when dropped from a height of 100-150 mm then use
the Provisional Surface Test by adding more moisture to the
sand, repeat the drying until free flow starts. Take a sample of
100 g of material, place it on a flat, dry, dark and non-absorbent
surface. Pat the material with a hand and remove the material
after 1-2 seconds. Repeat the process until no moisture is
noticeable on the surface 1-2 seconds after removing the
material.

3. Procedure
a. Weigh and record readings to the nearest 0.1 g
b. Partially fill the pycnometer with water
c. Add 500 ± 10 g of saturated surface dry sample into the pycnometer
prepared following procedure (2) above
d. Add water to about 90% full
e. Agitate the pycnometer to remove all air bubbles
f. Remove any foam which may form by dipping a paper towel in the
pycnometer or add isopropyl alcohol to disperse the foam
g. Adjust and equilibrate its temperature to 23 ± 1.7 °C immersing in
running water
h. Bring the water level in pycnometer to the calibrated level
i. Determine the total mass of the pycnometer, sample and water
j. Alternatively, measure the volume of water added to the pycnometer
using a burette accurate to 0.15 ml
k. Remove the sample from the pycnometer and dry to constant mass at
110 ± 5 °C and record the mass
l. Cool at room temperature for 1 hour ± 30 mins
m. Alternatively, a portion of the sample of the same material obtained at
the same time and of the same mass to within ± 0.2 g as the portion
placed in the pycnometer can be dried to constant mass as in 3(k)
above and the value used in the calculations instead.
n. Fill the pycnometer with water at 23 ± 1.7 °C and determine the mass
of pycnometer filled with water.

4. Calculations
a. Calculate mass of pycnometer with sample and water, M1

𝑀1 = 0.9975𝑉1 + 𝑀2 + 𝑀3

157
 Where:
M1 = mass of pycnometer + sample + water, g
M2 = mass of saturated surface dry sample, g
M3 = mass of pycnometer, ml
V1 = volume of water added to pycnometer, ml

b. Calculate mass of pycnometer filled with water, M4

𝑀4 = 0.9975𝑉2 + 𝑀3
Where:
M4 = mass of pycnometer filled with water, g
V2 = volume of water used to fill pycnometer at 23 ± 1.7 °C, ml
M3 = mass of pycnometer, g

c. Calculate bulk specific gravity, Gb

𝑀5
𝐺𝑏 =
(𝑀4 + 𝑀2 − 𝑀1 )
Where:
Gb = Specific gravity of fine aggregate
M1 = mass of pycnometer +sample +water, g
M2 = mass of saturated dry surface fine aggregate, g
M3 = mass of pycnometer, g
M4 = mass of pycnometer filled with water at 23 ± 1.7 °C
M5 = mass of sample dried at 110 ± 5 °C, g

d. Calculate bulk specific gravity (saturated surface dry basis), Gbs

𝑀3
𝐺𝑏𝑠 =
(𝑀4 + 𝑀2 − 𝑀1 )
Where:
Gbs = Specific gravity of fine aggregate (saturated surface dry basis)
M1 = mass of pycnometer +sample +water, g
M2 = mass of saturated dry surface fine aggregate, g
M3 = mass of pycnometer, g
M4 = mass of pycnometer filled with water at 23 ± 1.7 °C

e. Calculate Apparent Specific Gravity, Ga

𝑀5
𝐺𝑎 =
(𝑀5 + 𝑀4 − 𝑀1 )
Where:

158
 Ga = Apparent Specific Gravity of fine aggregate
M1 = mass of pycnometer +sample +water, g
M4 = mass of pycnometer filled with water at 23 ± 1.7 °C
M5 = mass of sample dried at 110 ± 5 °C, g

f. Calculate absorption, %

(𝑀3 − 𝑀2 )
𝐴=
𝑀5
Where:
A = Absorption
M2 = mass of saturated dry surface fine aggregate, g
M3 = mass of pycnometer, g
M5 = mass of sample dried at 110 ± 5 °C, g

5. Report:
a. Specific gravity (oven dry) to the nearest 0.01
b. Specific gravity (saturated surface dry) to the nearest 0.01
c. Apparent specific gravity to the nearest 0.01
d. Report absorption to the nearest 0.1%
e. Report source of sample
f. Report procedure used if sample is not dried and soaked for 15hrs.

6. Precision:
Follow the guidance given in Table 8-15.

Table 8-15 Check on Precision of Results for Specific Gravity and Absorption
of Fine Aggregate Tests
Tests Rerults Standard Acceptable
deviation range of 2
results
Single operator precision:
Bulk specific gravity (dry) 0.011 0.032
Bulk specific gravity (SSD) 0.0095 0.027
Apparent specific gravity 0.0095 0.027
Percentage absorption 0.11 0.31
Multi-laboratory precision:
Bulk specific gravity (dry) 0.023 0.066
Bulk specific gravity (SSD) 0.020 0.056
Apparent specific gravity 0.020 0.056
Percentage absorption 0.23 0.66

159
8.13 MTM L8-13 Specific Gravity and Absorption of Coarse Aggregate
Test Number MTM Determination of Specific Gravity and Absorption of Coarse Aggregate
L8-13
Description: 1. Apparatus:
a. Balance – with sufficient capacity and accuracy of 0.1 % of the mass of
This test method
sample. The balance should be fitted with an apparatus for suspending
describes the
the sample underneath it while weighing in water.
standard procedure
b. Sample container – a basket of wire mesh of 3.35 mm of finer or bucket
for the
of equal width and height and 4 to 7 L capacity for 37.5 mm nominal
determination of
maximum size aggregate. Use a small capacity for finer aggregate or
specific gravity and
larger for coarser aggregate.
absorption of
c. Suspension apparatus to hang the basket and sample while weighing
coarse aggregate.
in water with a suspension wire which is as thin as possible to avoid
The test results are significant variations due to difference in the depth of immersion.
used in determining d. Water tank – with an overflow outlet to maintain constant height of
the volume water and with adequate capacity to completely immerse the sample
occupied by fine and capable of maintaining a constant temperature.
aggregate in e. Sieves – a 4.75 mm sieve, a 2.36 mm sieve and any other sieves as
cement and asphalt required.
concrete where
absolute values of
2. Sample Preparation
volumes are
a. Follow method MTM L8-1 for sampling.
required in the mix.
b. Screen and discard material finer than 4.75 mm by dry sieving.
Reference Test: c. Wash to remove fines and dust coating the aggregate
AASHTO T85 d. Screen using 2.36 mm sieve instead of 4.75 mm sieve and follow
procedure 2(b) to 2(c) if the proportion of material fine than 4.75 mm
ASTM C127
is substantial
e. Alternatively, if material finer than 4.75 mm is substantial screen on
the 4.75 mm sieve and follow standard test MTM L8-12 to determ-
ine bulk specific gravity and absorption for fine aggregate.
f. If there is more than 15% retained on 37.5 mm sieve, consider testing
the coarser aggregate in 1 or more size fractions. The minimum mass
of the sample for each fraction shall be the difference between the
mass specified for the maximum and minimum sizes of the fraction,
see Table 8-16.

160
 Table 8-16 Determination of Mass of Samples for Coarse Aggregate Tests
Nominal maximum Minimum mass of
aggregate size (mm) test sample (kg)
12.5 2
19.0 3
25.0 4
37.5 5
50 8
63 12
75 18
90 25
100 40
112 50
125 75
150 125

g. Carry out sieve analysis of the fractions including the sieves used to
separate the fractions and ignoring the material finer than 4.75 mm or
2.36 mm.

3. Procedure
a. Dry samples to a constant mass at 110 ± 5°C and allow to cool at room
temperature for 1-3hrs. for sample of nominal maximum size
aggregate of 37.5 mm or shorter for finer aggregate and longer for
coarser aggregate (to approx. 50 °C)
b. Immerse in water for 15 to 19 hrs.
c. If aggregate is to be used in its natural condition drying may not be
necessary.
d. If aggregate has been in wet condition continuously then immersion in
water for 15hrs. may not be necessary.
e. Remove the test sample from the water and roll it on a larger
absorbent. Surface drying may be aided with a breeze of warm air over
the aggregate while rolling, taking care not to evaporate the absorbed
moisture
f. Weight the sample in a saturate surface dry condition.
g. Record the mass to the nearest 1.0 g or 0.1 % of sample mass.
h. Immediately after weighing, place the sample in the wire basket and
weigh in water at 23 ± 1.7°C
i. Remove any trapped air by shaking the sample while immersed in
water and before taking the mass reading.
j. Remove the sample from the water and dry it to a constant mass at
110 ± 5°C.
k. Allow the sample to cool at room temperature for 1-3 hrs until
approximately 50 °C.

161
 l. Weigh the dry sample and record the mass.

4. Calculations
a. Calculate bulk specific gravity, Gb

𝑀1
𝐺𝑏 =
(𝑀2 − 𝑀3 )
Where:
Gb = Specific gravity of fine aggregate
M1 = mass of dry sample, g
M2 = mass of saturated surface dry sample, g
M3 = mass of saturated surface dry sample in water, g

b. Calculate bulk specific gravity (saturated surface dry basis), Gbs

𝑀2
𝐺𝑏𝑠 =
(𝑀2 − 𝑀3 )
Where:
Gbs = Specific gravity of fine aggregate
M2 = mass of saturated surface dry sample, g
M3 = mass of saturated surface dry sample in water, g

c. Calculate Average Specific Gravity or Apparent Specific Gravity, Gav

1
𝐺𝑎𝑣 =
𝑃1 𝑃2 𝑃𝑛
100𝐺1 + 100𝐺2 + ⋯ 100𝐺𝑛
Where:
Gav = Average or Apparent Specific Gravity of coarse aggregate (this can
be any form of specific gravity)
P1, P2, …, Pn = mass percentages of each size fraction, %
G1+, G2 …, Gn = appropriate specific gravity for each fraction

d. Calculate absorption, A, %

(𝑀2 − 𝑀1 )
𝐴= 𝑥100
𝑀1
Where:
A = Absorption

162
 M1 = mass of dry sample, g
M2 = mass of saturated surface dry sample, g

e. Calculate average absorption, %

(𝑃1 𝐴1 ) 𝑃2 𝐴2 𝑃𝑛 𝐴𝑛
𝐴𝑎𝑣 = + + ⋯+
100 100 100

Where
Aav = Average absorption, %
P1, P2, …, Pn = mass percentages of each size fraction, %
A1, A2 …, An = appropriate specific gravity for each fraction

5. Report:
a. Test reference
b. Bulk specific gravity to the nearest 0.01
c. Average or apparent specific gravity to the nearest 0.01
d. Absorption to the nearest 0.1%
e. Average absorption to the nearest 0.1%
f. Source of sample
g. Procedure used if sample is not dried and soaked for 15hrs.

6. Precision:
Follow the guidance given in Table 8-17.

Table 8-17 Check on Precision of Results for Specific Gravity and Absorption
of Fine Aggregate Tests
Tests Results Standard Acceptable range
deviation of 2 results
Single operator precision:
Bulk specific gravity (dry) 0.009 0.025
Bulk specific gravity (SSD) 0.007 0.020
Apparent specific gravity 0.007 0.020
Percentage absorption 0.088 0.25
Multi-laboratory precision:
Bulk specific gravity (dry) 0.013 0.038
Bulk specific gravity (SSD) 0.011 0.032
Apparent specific gravity 0.011 0.032
Percentage absorption 0.145 0.41

163
8.14 MTM L8-14 Determination of Durability of Aggregate Using the
Mill Test
Test Number MTM Determination of Durability of Aggregate Using the Mill Test
L8-14
Description: 1. Apparatus: (Figure 8-4)
a. Durability mill – shall consist of:
This test method
i. A watertight steel cylinder – closed at one end, with internal
describes the
dimensions of 250 mm diameter and 264 mm length. The
standard procedure
cylinder is fitted with a removable cover and watertight gasket
for the
and is mounted on a rigid support in such a way that it may be
determination of
rotated about a central axis in a horizontal position.
the ability of an
ii. A steel baffle – projecting 80 mm into the cylinder and 264 mm
aggregate to
in length is welded along one element of the interior surface of
withstand
the cylinder. The baffle shall be of such thickness and so
degradation both
mounted as to be rigid.
during construction
iii. Motor – the machine should be driven by a motor capable of
and under various
maintaining a uniform speed of 60 rpm
service conditions.
b. Steel spheres –6 abrasive steel spheres approximately 46 mm diameter
It also furnishes
and with a mass of 410-455 g. The total abrasive charge will be 2600 g
additional data
± 50 g
pertaining to the
c. Balances – with sufficient capacity and accuracy:
quality of the
i. For sample preparation - capacity of up to 20 kg and accuracy of
material and the
5g
possible change in
ii. For sieve analysis – capacity of up to 5 kg and accuracy of 1g
index properties
iii. For Atterberg limits – capacity of 100 g and accuracy of 0.01g
likely to occur in the
d. Sieves – as specified in MTM L8-3
road and be
e. Oven - with a temperature range of 40°C to 110°C ± 5°C
detrimental to its
f. Equipment for Atterberg limits MTM L6-5 and MTM L6-6
performance.
g. Drying pans capable of holding up to 10 ℓ of liquid.
h. A riffler.
The Durability Mill i. A wash bottle with distilled water.
values are taken as j. Brushes
the mass of dry i. A hard-bristle brush
material passing ii. A soft-bristle paint brush, 50 mm wide.
the 0.425 mm sieve
after treatment,
expressed as a
percentage of the
original dry mass of
the sample. The
Durability Mill
Index (DMI) value is
taken as the
product of the
highest Durability
Mill Value for any
treatment and the
highest Plasticity
index for any
treatment.

164
The test results are
used in determining
the volume
occupied by fine
aggregate in
cement and asphalt
concrete where
absolute values of
volumes are
required in the mix.
Reference Test:
AASHTO T210
ASTM 3744

(a)

(b)

Figure 8-4 Durability Mill Apparatus (a) and (b)

2. Sample preparation
a. Obtain a representative sample of not less than 20 kg. The bulk
sample should normally be material less than 37.5 mm.
i. Dry at a temperature not exceeding 50°C.

165
 ii. If oversized aggregate is present, it should be crushed to pass
37.5 mm and added back to the sample after drying.
iii. Noted any crushing of oversized aggregate when reporting the
results.
b. Reducing the bulk sample
i. Reduced sample to 15 kg ± 1.0 kg by riffling.
ii. Further riffled to provide four representative sub-samples each
weighing 3.750 kg ± 250 g,
iii. Recombined the sub-samples and re-riffle, if these weight limits
are exceeded
iv. Clearly label the sub-samples A, B, C and D.
c. The sub-sample obtained should then be clearly marked to avoid
confusion during further testing (i.e. A, B, C and D).
d. Precautions:
i. The mass of the steel spheres should be checked periodically
for loss due to wear.
ii. If it is necessary to check the passing 0.425 mm fraction for
accuracy before treatment of the sub-samples, then a dry
sieving technique should be used. Variance of less than 3%
between the sub-samples should be achieved.
iii. It is important that the same operator performs all grading and
Atterberg limit tests for each sub-sample.
iv. The coarse fraction should be dried overnight to constant mass
and removed from the oven for grading to SANS 3001-GR1
requirements. Any additional material passing 0.425 mm
should be added to the dried fines. A drying time of 48 hours
for the fines may be required.

3. Procedure
a. Use sub-sample A for grading (MTM L6-4) and Atterberg limits (MTM
L6-5 and MTM L6-6)
b. Use sub-sample B for Wet Ball Mill
i. Place the sample in a pan of suitable size and measure out 2.5
□ of water. Use enough of the water to cover the sample and
allow to soak for one hour. The remainder of the water should
be retained for washing the sample into the Durability Mill
prior to testing.
ii. After soaking decant off the excess water and combine with the
remainder of the 25 □ for washing purposes.
iii. Wash the soaked sample into the Durability Mill using all the
remaining water from the first step and ensure that the whole
sample is transferred without loss of fines.
iv. Add the six steel spheres to the sample and water in the
Durability Mill and secure the watertight cover.
v. Operate the Durability Mill for 10 minutes (i.e. 600 revolutions
at 60 rpm).

166
 vi. On completion of the rotations the apparatus is tilted to the
upright position and the cover is released. The steel spheres are
rinsed clean in the water of the mill and removed.
vii. A drying container capable of holding up to 10 ℓ of sample and
washing water is placed under the mill cylinder.
viii. A 0.425 mm sieve protected by 2.0 mm sieve is placed in the
drying container.
ix. Tilt the mill cylinder so that the water passes through the sieves
and into the container. Using the minimum amount of excess
water possible, wash the remaining sample through the sieves.
This operation should be carried out incrementally so as not to
damage the 0.425 mm sieve.
x. The washed material retained on the 0.425 mm sieve shall be
transferred to a separate drying container.
xi. When all the sample has been washed from the Durability Mill
through the 0.425 mm sieve, the course, and fine fractions plus
the washings, shall be placed in the oven and dried at 105°C -
110°C to constant mass.
xii. The dried fines should be prepared as in MTM L6-5 and MTM
L6-6 for Atterberg limit tests.
xiii. The total mass of prepared fines is recorded and is then riffled
to obtain a representative sample of approximately 100 g for
testing. The actual mass of fines tested is recorded, and the
fraction passing 0.075 mm (Muf) is obtained by wet analysis (i.e.
MTM L6-4. The mass of fines passing 0.075 mm is then
corrected back to the actual mass using the factor X:

𝑀𝑇𝑓
𝑋=
𝑀𝑢𝑓

𝑀𝑢𝑓
𝑃0.075 =
𝑀𝑠

Where
MTf = total mass of fines, g
Muf = mass of used fines, g
Ms = mass of sample
P0.075 = percentage passing 0.075 mm sieve.

xiv. The remaining fines are used for Atterberg limit tests to
Methods MTM L6-5 and MTM L6-6
xv. The grading of the coarse and fine fraction should be recorded
together.
c. Sub-sample C for Dry Ball Mill
i. Place the dry sample in the dry Durability Mill taking care to
brush all the dust and fines into the mill.
ii. Add the six steel spheres, secure the cover and rotate for 10
minutes (NB do not add water to this sub-sample).
iii. After testing is complete, the mill is left in an upright position
for five minutes to allow the dust to settle and the cover is
removed.

167
 iv. Remove and brush the steel spheres.
v. Carefully brush the dry sample from the cylinder and retain for
a dry grading of the fraction retained on the 0.425 mm sieve. A
dry grading is recommended especially for moisture sensitive
materials such as mudrocks and some pedocretes.
vi. The passing 0.425 mm fraction shall then be treated as for the
previous sample to determine the Atterberg limits.
d. Sub-Sample D for Wet Mill
i. Follow procedure 2(b) above
ii. Carry out the test without the balls

4. Calculations
a. Calculate Durability Mill Value, DMV

𝑃0.425
𝐷𝑀𝑉 =
𝑀𝑠𝑠

Where
P0.425 = percentage passing 0.425 mm sieve
Mss = mass of sub-sample (A, B, C or D)

b. Calculate the Durability Mill Index, DMI

𝐷𝑀𝐼 = 𝐷𝑀𝐼𝑚𝑎𝑥 𝑥 𝑃𝐼

Where
DMImax = highest DMV for any of the treatments (B, C and D)
PI = plasticity index

5. Report
a. General details
i. Project
ii. Type of aggregate
iii. Purpose aggregate is intended.
b. Sample characteristics
i. Grading including percentage passing 0.425 mm and 0.075 mm
sieves
ii. Plasticity index if applicable
c. Sub-sample characteristics
i. Grading and record percentages passing 0.425 mm and 0.075
mm sieves after test for samples A, B, C and D
d. Durability Mill Values
e. Durability Mill Index

168
8.15 MTM L8-15 Determination of Apparent Density of Crushed Stone
Materials
Test Number MTM Determination of Apparent Density of Crushed Stone Materials
L8-15
Description: 1. Apparatus:
a. A balance – with capacity to weigh 5 kg accurately to within 0.5 g.
This test method
b. A pycnometer – e.g. a preservative jar with a smooth flat rim.
describes the
c. Water bath - thermostatically controlled bath capable of maintaining a
standard procedure
temperature of 25°C ± 1°C
for the
d. Drying oven - capable of maintaining the temperature between 105°C
determination of
and 110°C.
the apparent
e. Towels
density of crushed
stone materials.
2. Reagents
The test results are
Teepol (10%) solution
used for the control
of placement and
3. Sample preparation
compaction of
a. Excavate a density test hole in the compacted layer to be tested.
crushed stone
b. Collect all material from the hole. The quantity of crushed stone
bases on roads as
should be 3000 g to 4000 g.
well as other
c. If it is too much for one pycnometer, used more than one pycnometer
applications.
for the test
Reference Test: d. Dry the material in the oven at 105°C - 110°C to a constant mass.
AASHTO T19 e. Clean and dry the pycnometer is and determine its mass together
with that of a marked sheet of glass

4. Precautions
a. No chemicals other than the Teepol solution may be added to the
water.
b. No suction may be applied to the water to remove air.
c. The temperature of the water shall be 25°C ± 1°C and no other
temperature may be used.
d. Where two pycnometers are used, the apparent density shall be
calculated from the weighted average of the two results.
e. The soaking period will be determined by the Engineer for aggregate,
the water absorption of which exceeds 1.0%.
f. Determining the durability of aggregate

5. Procedure
a. Place the dried sample into the pycnometer and determine the mass
of the pycnometer, glass sheet and sample together. (The sample
should not take up more than half of the pycnometer's volume.)
b. Add clean water at 25°C to the pycnometer until it is approximately
three quarters full.
c. Add three drops of the 10% Teepol solution to the water, close the
pycnometer and shake it thoroughly for one or two minutes.
d. Fill the pycnometer to near the brim with water at 25°C and place it in
a thermostatically controlled bath at 25°C.

169
 e. Leave it for 30 minutes without disturbing or as specified
f. Remove the pycnometer without shaking or jarring and place it on a
spread-out towel.
g. Fill it with water at 25°C and carefully slide the glass sheet over the
brim from one side. Make sure that no air bubbles are trapped
beneath the glass sheet.
h. Dry the entire pycnometer and glass sheet carefully
i. Determine the mass of the filled pycnometer plus the glass sheet.
j. Remove the contents of the pycnometer, clean and fill it in the same
manner with water at 25°C.
k. Dry and determine the mass of the pycnometer filled with water
together with the glass sheet.

6. Calculations
a. Use the following formula to calculate apparent density of the
crushed stone, ρa
(𝑏 − 𝑎)
𝜌𝑎 = 1000 [ ]
(𝑑 − 𝑎) − (𝑐 − 𝑏)

Where
a = mass of pycnometer, g
b = mass of pycnometer + glass sheet + material, g
(b-a) = mass of material only, g
c = mass of pycnometer + material + water + glass sheet, g
d = mass of pycnometer + water + glass sheet, g

Report
a. General details
i. Project
ii. Density test location
iii. Purpose for the test.
b. Sample characteristics
i. Density test hole description
ii. Type of aggregate
iii. Grading, nominal max aggregate size
iv. Sample quantity and condition
v. Sample characteristics
c. Apparent Density Values

170
8.16 MTM L8-16 Determination of Resistance to Degradation of Small
Size Coarse Aggregate by Impact and Abrasion in Los Angeles
Machine
Test Number: Determination of Resistance to Degradation of Small Size Coarse Aggregate
by Impact and Abrasion in a Los Angeles Machine
MTM L8-16
Description: 1. Apparatus:
a. Los Angeles Machine -
This test method
i. Hollow steel cylinder with inside diameter of 711 ±5 mm
describes the
ii. Closed on both ends
standard procedure
iii. With a rotational axis that has a tolerance of not more than
for the
1:100, i.e. without a through shaft but only stubs attached to
determination of
both ends of the cylinder on the outside.
the degradation of
iv. With an opening on the cylindrical part for placing the sample
aggregates of
inside the cylinder. The inside surface of the cover shall be flash
standard grading
with the inside surface of the cylinder. It should not be located
caused by abrasion
in the zone when the content will fall and impact during rotation
or attrition, impact
v. With a removable shelf mounted inside the cylinder extending
and grinding in a
the full length of the cylinder and with a projecting width of 89
rotating steel drum
± 2 mm
with a specified
vi. Always check that the shelf is not bent before carrying out the
number of steel
test.
balls/spheres. The
vii. If slipping occurs in the driving mechanism the results may not
number of balls
be replicable.
that are used
viii. Charge – steel spheres/balls of 46.8 mm diameter, weighing 390
depend on sample.
to 445 g. The number spheres shall be selected based on Table
The drum has a
8-18.
shelf inside. As the
drum rotates the
shelf picks up the Table 8-18 Selection criteria for determining the number of spheres
aggregate and the to use for the Los Angeles Test
balls When the Grading Number of Mass of charge
shelf raises to the spheres
top during the
rotation, the ball A 12 5000 ±25
and the aggregate B 11 4584±25
drop to the bottom
C 8 3330±20
side of the drum
causing the impact D 6 2500±15
effect. As the drum
continues to rotate
the balls will have a a. A balance – accurate to 0.1% of the mass of the sample to be
grinding and measured.
abrasive effect on b. Sieves – for carrying out sieve analysis of the aggregate, MTM L8-3
the aggregate as
they both roll on
the inside surface
of the drum. This
continues until the
shelf scoops the
aggregate and the
ball for the next

171
revolution. This
Table 8-19 Gradings of samples for the Los Angeles test
process is repeated
Sieve sizes Mass of indicated sizes, g
for a specified
number of Passing Retained A B C D
revolutions. 0n

Once completed a 37.5 mm 25 mm 1250±25

sieve analysis is 25 mm 19.0 mm 1250±25
carried out. The
19 mm 12.5 mm 1250±10 2500±10
degradation is
considered as the 12.5 mm 9.5 mm 1250±10 2500±10
percentage loss i.e. 9.5 mm 6.3 mm 2500±10
Material that has
been crushed into 6.3 mm 4.75 mm 2500±10
fines. 4.75 mm 2.36 mm 5000±10
The test results are Total 5000±10 5000±10 5000±10 5000±10
used the control of
the quality of
aggregate for 2. Sample preparation
surfacing in relation a. Wash the sample.
the specifications. b. Dry the sample in the oven at 110 ±5°C to a constant mass.
It is also used to c. Carry out the sieve analysis and recombine the aggregate to the
compare sources of masses of each size range indicated in Table 8-19
aggregate of similar d. Record the mass (M1) to the nearest 1%
mineralogy
regarding the 3. Procedure
competence of the a. Place the sample and spheres in the Los Angeles machine
aggregate. b. Rorate the cylinder at 30 to 33 revolutions per minute for 500
Reference Test: revolutions or as specified
ASTM C 131, c. Remove the materials from the cylinder and sieve it on 1.70 mm to
AASHTO T96 make 2 portions of the sample as an initial separation.
d. Sieve the finer portion using on a 1.70 mm sieve (MTM L8-3). Any
material retained on the sieve shall be added to the coarse fraction
e. Wash the coarser materials (particularly, if it is coated in dust) and dry
in the oven at 110 ±5°C until constant mass is obtained. Washing is
always required if test is used as the control among a series of similar
tests.
f. Washing may be needed if the loss after 100 revolutions to the loss
after 500 revolutions exceeds 0.2%.
g. Measure the mass of the dried sample
h. Determine the percentage value given in (f) by rolling for 100
revolutions followed by procedure (3c). Return all the material into
the cylinder and apply additional 400 revolutions. Remove the
materials from the cylinder and follow procedure 3(c) to 3(d). Assess
whether washing is required using criterion (f).
i. If washing is necessary, proceed with procedure 3(e) and determine
the final mass (M2) to the nearest 1%.

172
4. Calculations
a. Calculate materials loss, L (%)

𝑀1 − 𝑀2
𝐿= 𝑥100
𝑀1

Where
L = loss, %
M1 = original mass, g
M2 = final mass, g

5. Report
a. Type, source and nominal maximum size of aggregate
b. Grading category of the aggregate, Table 8-19.
c. Loss of aggregate material by Los Angeles abrasion and impact to
the nearest 1%.

6. Precision:
a. Multilaboratory – for sample of nominal maximum size of 19 mm
the results from 2 different laboratories should not deviate from
their average by more than 12.7%
b. Single operator – for sample of nominal maximum size of 19 mm the
results from 2 tests carried out by the same operator should not
deviate from their average by more than 5.7%

173
8.17 MTM L8-17 Determination of Soundness of Aggregates by use of
Sodium Sulphate
Test Number: Determination of Soundness of Aggregates by use of Sodium Sulphate
MTM L8-17
Description: 1. Apparatus:
a. Standards sieves – given in Table 8-20.
This test method
b. Drying oven – capable of maintaining temperature at 110±5°C
describes the
c. Balance – accurate to 0.1g for fine aggregate and 1 g for coarse
standard procedure
aggregate
for the
d. Specific gravity measuring device – suitable pycnometers (MTM L11-3
determination of
for calibration of pycnometers and MTM L8-12 for specific gravity
soundness of
measurement) and capable of measuring specific gravity to ±0.001
aggregates when
subjected to
weathering
Table 8-20 Standard sieves
The test is carried Standards Sieves
out by immersing Sieve Size (mm) Other designation
the aggregate 1 75 3 in.
completely in 2 50 2 in.
sodium sulphate 3 37.5 1 ½ in.
and oven drying it 4 25 1 in.
in a cyclic manner. 5 19 ¾ in.
The drying
6 13.2 ½ in.
dehydrates the salt
7 9.5 3/8 in.
that is precipitated
8 4.75 No. 4
in the pores of the
9 2.36 No. 8
aggregate. On re
10 1.18 No. 16
soaking
rehydration of the 11 0.60 No. 30
salt occurs which 12 0.425 No. 10
leads to simulating 13 0.30 No. 50
the expansion of 14 0.15 No. 100
water when it 15 0.075 No. 200
freezes in the
pores. This test 2. Reagent
provides vital a. Obtain sodium sulphate for the immersion of the test samples.
information on the b. Dissolve the salt i.e. anhydrous sodium sulphate (Na2SO4) or crystalline
resilience of the decahydrate sodium sulphate (Na2SO4.10H2O) in water at 25 to30°C to
aggregate to saturation with visible undissolved crystals present.
weathering c. Stir thoroughly and frequently until its use.
conditions. d. Always prevent contamination and keep the reagent covered
e. Allow the saturated solution to cool down to 21±1°C.
The test results are
f. Stir and keep the solution at this temperature for 48hrs before use.
used to evaluate
g. Before use, break up any salt cake in the container and stir thoroughly
the resilience of
and determine the specific gravity (G). G should be within the following
aggregate used in
range:
concrete and road
1.151 ≤ G ≤ 1.174
pavements to
weathering actions

174
Reference Test:
ASTM C 88, 3. Sample preparation
a. Fine aggregate
i. Sieve the aggregate through a 9.5 mm sieve to obtain the fine
aggregate. The size of sample should be adequate to ensure
100 g of material in each of the fractions given in Table 8-21.
ii. The fractions shall be available in amount ≥ 5% each.

Table 8-21 Required Fine Aggregate Fractions for Sodium

Sulphate Test
Passing sieve Retained in sieve
600 mm 0.300 mm
1.18 mm 0.600 mm
2,36 mm 1.18 mm
4.75 mm 2.36 mm
9.5 mm 4.75 mm

b. Coarse aggregate
i. Sieve the aggregate through a 4.75 mm sieve to obtain the
coarse aggregate retained on the sieve. The size of sample
should be adequate to ensure quantities of material in each of
the fractions given in Table 8-22.
ii. The fractions shall be available in amount ≥ 5% each.

Table 8-22 Required Coarse Aggregate Fractions for Sodium

Sulphate Test
Passing sieve Retained in sieve Mass (g)
9.5 mm 4.75 mm 300±5
19.0 mm 9.5 mm 1000±10

13.2 mm 9.5 mm 330±5

19.0 mm 12.5 mm 670±10
37.5 mm 19.0 mm 1500±50

25.0mm 19.0 mm 500±30

37.5 mm 25.0 mm 1000±50
63.0 mm 37.5 mm 5000±300

50 mm 37.5 mm 2000±200
63 mm 50 mm 3000±300

175
 c. If the coarse aggregate contains > 10% of materials fine that 4.75 mm
or the fine aggregate contains > 10% of material coarser than 9.5 mm
then separate the sample on the 4.75 mm sieve. Test and report
separately for the 2 fractions separately. Give the percentages of the
initial coarse and fine fractions.
d. For fine aggregate:
i. Wash the sample on the 0.300 mm sieve thoroughly.
ii. Place in the oven and dry to constant mass at 110±5°C
iii. Use guidance in Table 8-21 to separate into the different
fractions and place them in separate containers.
iv. For each fraction make a sample of 100± 1g after sieving to
refusal.
e. For Coarse aggregate
i. Wash the sample thoroughly.
ii. Place in the oven and dry to constant mass at 110±5°C
iii. Use guidance in Table 8-22 to separate into the different
fractions and put them in separate containers.
iv. For each fraction make a sample of sizes given in Table 8-22
after sieving to refusal.
v. Where the test samples consist of 2 fractions, combine them
and record the masses of the different fractions as well as the
total mass after mixing.

4. Procedure
a. Immerse the samples in sodium sulphate solution and ensure a cover
of 15mm of the solution above the aggregate.
b. Allow to stand for 16-18 hrs.
c. Control the temperature at 21±1°C
d. Remove the sample from the solution and allow to drain for 15±5 min
e. Place in the oven to dry to constant mass at 110±5°C
f. Remove the samples from the oven and allow them to cool to room
temperature
g. Repeat the cycle 4(a) to 4(f) for the specified number of cycles.
h. Once completed, wash the samples clean of the sodium sulphate.
Wash by circulation water through the sample at 43±6°C or placing
the samples in a tank where hot water can be introduced at the
bottom and allowed to flow out at the top.
i. Check if all sodium sulphate has been washed off by adding barium
chloride and look for any reaction.
j. Dry each fraction in the oven to a constant mass at 110±5°C.
k. Remove the samples from the oven and allow to cool to room
temperature.
l. Sieve the samples on the sieve on which they were previously
retained, and for the same amount of time and effort as when the
sample was prepared.
m. Weigh the mass of the material retained on the sieves and calculate
the difference.
n. Express the loss as a percentage of the original sample before the
application of sodium solution.
o. For samples coarser than 19 mm:

176
 i. Separate particles into groups showing similar characteristics of
degradation due to the effect of immersing in sodium sulphate.
ii. Record the number showing each type of distress. Distress may
include splitting, crumbling, cracking, flaking, etc.
iii. For each sample express the number particles in each category
of destress as a percentage of the total number of particles in
each sample before immersing in sodium sulphate.

Report
a. Type of material and sample number
b. Test reference
c. Mass of each sample before the test
d. Mass of the fine of coarse fraction as a percentage of the original
sample before separation.
e. Weighted average of the loss from the loss each sample based on its
proportion of the total sample to the nearest whole number.
f. For fine aggregate:
i. Material finer than 0.300 mm is assumed to have 0% loss.
ii. Material coarser than 9.5 mm is assumed to have the same loss
as the largest size fraction tested
g. For coarse aggregate:
iii. Assume that the material finer than 4.75 mm has similar
percentage loss as the smallest size fraction tested.
h. For a sample that is separated into fine and coarse fractions on the
4.75 mm sieve as in 3(c) consider the fine fraction as 100% and coarse
fraction as 100% and report them separately.
i. If a sample does not meet the minimum 5% criterion given in 3(a) and
3(b), the average loss of the next finer and the next coarser fractions
shall be considered.
j. For particles coarser than 19 mm:
i. The categories of particle deterioration observed
ii. The percentage by number of particles affect in each category
of deterioration (disintegration, splitting, crumbling, cracking,
flaking, etc.) as a proportion of the number of particles in each
sample to the nearest whole number.

177
9 Tests on Cement Concrete
This section covers key tests on concrete for control of quality and compliance with
specifications.

178
9.1 MTM L9-1 Sampling of Freshly Mixed Concrete
Test Number MTM Sampling of freshly mixed concrete
L9-1
Description: 1. Apparatus
a. Collectors and containers – to place the concrete
This standard
b. Means of transportation – wheelbarrows, buckets, etc.
covers the method
c. Sieves – adequate to separate the oversize aggregate.
of sampling freshly
d. Wet sieving apparatus
mixed concrete to
e. The support for the sieves – which allow adequate horizontal shaking
ensure that the
f. Hand tools – shovels, trowels, straight edge, etc.
sample is
representative of
2. Sampling
the concrete batch.
a. Collect 28 litres of concrete for strength tests. For other test determine
The samples are the size based on aggregate size.
used to determine b. Collect the first to the final potions of the sample in 15 min or less.
compliance with set c. Transport the samples to the place where test will be carried out
specifications for d. Remix the potions of fresh concrete into a composite sample with a
the works. It is shovel ensuring that the minimum amounts of concrete required for
therefore a quality the test are met
control measure. e. Observe the time limits in handling the samples as follows:
The samples are i. Start slump test within 5 min of obtaining the first portion of the
obtained from sample and complete the tests as quickly as possible.
stationary, paving ii. Start moulding specimens for concrete strength tests within 15
plant, mobile min after mixing the different portions of sample
concrete mixers, iii. Protect the sample from wind, sun and rain or any form of
etc. randomly. contamination or vibration.

Reference Test f. Sampling from stationary mixers

Standard is AASHTO i. Collect the sample when the mixing is completed and discharge
T141 is mid-way, i.e. avoid collecting the sample at the beginning or
end of the discharge.
ii. Pass the collector through the whole discharge stream or divert
the whole discharge stream to the collector to avoid sampling
only a part of the stream.
g. Sampling from Paving Mixers
i. Sample after the concrete has been discharged
ii. Sample from 5 different positions of the pile avoiding
contamination with underlying layers.
iii. Mix the different portions to make a composite sample.
h. Sampling from revolving drum truck mixers or agitators
i. Sample 2 or 3 portions at regularly spaced intervals from the
middle discharge of the batch avoiding the start and end
discharges.
ii. Pass the collector through the whole discharge stream or divert
the whole discharge stream to the collector to avoid sampling
only a part of the stream.
iii. Mix the portions into a composite sample.
i. Sampling from Open-Top truck mixers, agitators and other open top
containers
i. Use procedure 1(e) or 1(f) or 1(g).
ii. Mix to form a composite sample.

179
3. Sampling concrete with oversize aggregate
Concrete may contain oversize aggregate, which make the sample
inappropriate for testing. Remove the oversize aggregate through wet
sieving following the procedure below.
a. Sample the different potions of the concrete sample.
b. Pass the concrete through the designated sieve to remove the oversize
aggregate before remixing to form the composite sample.
c. Place the concrete passing the sieve into a moistened container.
d. Scrape the mortar adhering to the sieves into the concrete batch.
e. Discard the oversize aggregate together with the adhering mortar.
f. Remix the portions of concrete passing the sieve into a composite
sample.

180
9.2 MTM L9-2 Determination of Consistency of Concrete through
Slump Test
Test Number MTM Slump Test
L9-2
Description: 1. Apparatus: (Figure 9-1)
a. Mould – The open-ended cone shaped mould shall have a base
This test method
diameter of 203 mm, top diameter of 102 mm, and a height of 305 mm,
covers the standard
thickness of metal ≥ 1.5 mm. The cone shall have handles to aid pulling
procedure for the
up of cone during testing. Use of mould made out of alternative
determination of
materials is permissible as long as their results are comparable within
slump of cement
15 mm difference in concrete slump.
concrete in the field
b. Base plate or any rigid smooth surface – typically a rigid square smooth
and in the
metallic plate
laboratory.
It is a measure of
the workability of
concrete and is use
for controlling
cement/water ratio
and general quality
control during the
production of
concrete and the
execution of
concrete works.
The test involves
the compacting Figure 9-1 Slump Test and Measurement
concrete in an
open-ended cone
shaped mould. The 2. Preparation of samples
cone is then pulled a. Sample in accordance with standard procedure MTM L9-1
up and the concrete b. Inspect the sample to ensure that it is homogeneous.
allowed to freely c. The sample shall be representative of the concrete batch being tested.
subside. The drop-
in height of the 3. Test Procedure:
concrete specimen a. Dampen the mould.
is the Slump of the b. Place the mould on the base plate or smooth hard surface. Hold the
concrete. mould firmly on the surface by standing on the side flaps attached to
Reference Test bottom of the mould.
AASHTO T119 c. Place concrete in 3 layers. Each layer should be 1/3 of the height of the
mould.
d. Compact each layer with the tamping rod applying 25 strokes per layer
distributed evenly.
e. The top layer should be heaped above the top of the mould while
compacting.
f. Skim off excess materials at the top of the mould by screeding and
rolling the tamping rod.
g. Gently pull up the mould vertically and completely remove the mould
in 5± 2 sec.
h. Complete the entire test in 2.5 min.

181
 i. Place the mould upside down and place a straight edge on top of the
mould extending above the slumped concrete. Measure the drop
between the straight edge and the top of the slumped concrete.
j. Disregard the test if the concrete has slumped to one side or slumped
partially, or sheared
k. Record the slump to the nearest 5 mm.

4. Report
a. Test reference
b. Slump to the nearest 5 mm.

5. Precision
The results carried out by different operators should not differ by more
than 21 mm.

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9.3 MTM L9-3 Preparation of Concrete Cubes
Test Number MTM Preparation of concrete cubes
L9-3
Description: 1. Apparatus:
a. Moulds – the cube moulds are in 2 sizes. Use 100±0.15 mm for 20mm
This test method
maximum size of aggregate and 150± 0.15mm for 40mm maximum size
covers the standard
aggregate.
procedure for the
b. Base plate – detachable base plate
preparation of
c. Tamping rod – 1.8 kg, 380 mm long and 25 mm2 cross-sectional area or
concrete cubes for
vibrating table
strength tests.
d. Steel float
It is a design e. Shovel
procedure and a f. Sampling Tray
quality control g. Trowel/scoop
measure in the
production of
2. Preparation of Samples
concrete.
a. Mixing concrete
The preparation i. Dry the aggregate in air and bring them to approx. 25°C
involves the ii. Mix the cement and bring it to approx. 25°C.
sampling and iii. Measure the portions of the constituents (cement, coarse
placement of aggregate and fine aggregate) by mass to the nearest 0.5% of
concrete in cube their mass and water in litres.
moulds, curing and iv. Mix the concrete in a mixing machine. When loading start with
handling. coarse aggregate, followed by fine aggregate, followed by
cement and then add water slowly.
The concrete cubes
v. Continue mixing until the concrete is homogenous, and all
may be made on
aggregate is coated with cement mortar. The minimum time of
site or in the
mixing should be between 60 and 90 sec.
laboratory.
b. Mixing by hand:
Reference Test BS i. Follow procedure 2a(i) to 2a(iii).
1881 Part 108 ii. Place fine aggregate in a heap on a clean impervious platform
iii. Place coarse aggregate on top of the fine aggregate
iv. Place cement on top of the coarse aggregate.
v. Mix gently using a shovel to avoid any loss of material.
vi. Add water slowly while mixing until the mix is homogeneous
c. Sample in accordance with standard procedure MTM L9-1
d. Re-inspect the sample to ensure that it is homogeneous.

3. Procedure for moulding concrete cubes specimens for testing:

a. Place the moulds on a flat and hard surface.
b. Place concrete in 50 mm layers.
c. Compact each layer with the tamping rod applying 35 blows per layer
for a 150 mm and 25 blows per layer for a 100 mm mould, distributing
the blows evenly across the whole cross-section.
d. When using a vibrating table continue the vibration until there are no
air bubbles popping up and the top is smooth and looking glassy.
e. On the top layer heap the concrete above the top of the mould while
compacting.
f. Skim off excess materials at the top of the mould by screeding and
rolling the tamping rod.

183
 g. Use the steel float to smoothen the top face of the cube while applying
considerable pressure to ensure adequate compaction at the top face
of the concrete cube.

4. Procedure for curing of concrete cubes

a. Place the cubes in a place that is free of vibrations
b. Cover with an impervious sheet in a room with minimum relative
humidity of 90% and temperature of 25°C approx.
c. Allow the cubes to cure for 24 hours.
d. Remove the cubes carefully, mark them and place them in a curing tank
of water to cure at 25°C approx.
e. Cure some cubes for 7 days and others for 28 days before testing.

184
9.4 MTM L9-4 Concrete Cube Strength Tests
Test Number MTM Determination of concrete cube strength
L9-4
Description: 1. Apparatus:
a. Compression testing machine/ concrete press – hydraulic press
The test method
capable of applying the load at a constant rate.
describes the
b. Auxiliary platens – if required
standard procedure
c. Weighing balance – capable of weighing up to 10 kg to an accuracy of
for the
1g
determination of
the compressive
strength of
concrete through
compressive tests
on concrete cube
specimens.
The compressive
strength of
concrete cube
specimens is taken
as the maximum
load reached per
unit area (MPa).
Reference Test: BS Figure 9-2 Testing of Cube Strength
1881 Part 116

2. Test procedure
a. Remove the concrete cube specimen from the water and proceed to
test immediately.
b. If the cured cubes need to be transported from the curing place to the
testing place over a long distance say from site to a distant laboratory
handle as follows:
i. Follow stage 2(a).
ii. Place a large plastic or metal container in a vehicle.
iii. Place sand in the container to a depth of 50 – 70 mm.
iv. Place the first layer of cubes leaving 50mm spacing among them.
v. Place more sand filling up the spaces. Allow a cover of sand of
thickness 50-70 mm above the first layer of cubes.
vi. Repeat procedure 2(b) until a maximum of 4 layers of cubes.
vii. Pour water to dampen the sand and transport the cubes to the
testing place. The sand should not be allowed to dry up.
c. Remove the concrete cubes from the container.
d. Weigh the concrete cubes and record their weight to the nearest 1 g.
e. Measure the dimensions of each concrete cube.
f. Calculate the density of each specimen by dividing the mass by the
volume.
g. Place the specimen in a curing tank for a minimum of 5 min.
h. Remove and immediately place the cubes in the compression-testing
machine.

185
 i. Place the specimen centrally on the bottom plate. Load should not be
applied directly on the top face of the cube but the formed and smooth
side faces.
j. Adjust the upper plate to touch the top of the specimen
k. Apply the load at a constant rate of 12 MPa/min or 24MPa/min until
the load stops increasing or drops signifying failure of the cube.
l. Record the maximum load applied to the concrete cubes.
m. Report the failure mode. Failure should show uniformly across the
cube to indicate that the load was applied centrally.

3. Calculations:
a. Calculate the compressive strength of the cubes:

𝐹
𝐶𝑢𝑏𝑒 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ, 𝐶 =
𝐴
Where:
F = Maximum load applied, kN
A = area of face of the cube where the force is applied, m2
C = cube strength, MPa

b. Calculate the average strength of 2 or more cubes from the same

sample and report as the strength of concrete in MPa.
c. Record the curing period (7 days or 28 days)
d. No value of cube strength should be below the specified minimum
strength at 7 days or 28 days

Report
a. Cube mark
b. Cube size (Length, Width, Depth), mm
c. Mass of cube, g
d. Density of cube, g/cm3
e. Maximum load at failure, kN
f. Date made
g. Date tested
h. Age of cube (days)
i. Compressive strength, MPa
j. Type of failure

186
9.5 MTM L9-5 Determination of Flexural Strength of Concrete
Test Number MTM Determination of Flexural Strength of Concrete Using Simple Beam with 3rd
L9-5 Point Loading
Description:
1. Apparatus: (Figure 9-3).
The test method a. Compression testing machine/ concrete press
describes the i. hydraulic press capable of applying the load at a constant rate
standard procedure without shock.
for the ii. A third pint method may be used to ensure that the load is
determination of perpendicular to the faces of concrete beam without
the compressive eccentricity
strength of iii. The spacing between load and reaction points should not vary
concrete through by more than 1.3 mm.
compressive tests iv. The reaction forces should be parallel to the applied load.
on concrete cube v. The ratio of the distances between the load and nearest
specimens. reaction to the depth of the beam should not be less than 1.
The compressive
strength of
concrete cube
specimens is taken
as the maximum
load reached per
unit area (MPa).
Reference Test:
AASHTO 97/ ASTM
C 78

187
 Figure 9-3 Testing of Flexural Strength of Concrete

3. Sample
a. The sampling of concrete shall conform to procedure MTM L9-1
b. The preparation of the concrete shall be similar to preparation of
concrete cubes, procedure MTM L9-3
c. The length of the beam shall be within 2% of (3 x depth)
d. The sides shall eb perpendicular to the top and bottom.
e. All surfaced in contact with the loading and support shall be smooth.

4. Test procedure
a. Place the beam on the loading machine on its side such that the top
part while in the mould is on the side. This ensures that the loading is
applied on the smooth sides both top and bottom.
b. Center the load system
c. Put the loading blocks in contact with the surfaces of the concrete
beam
d. If there is or there are gaps > 25 mm long gaps > 0.1 mm between the
surface of the beam and the supports or load applying block at zero
loading grind or apply leather shims/strips to even the seating.
e. Grinding the beam laterally is not recommended because it me change
the characteristics of the beam.
f. When the gaps are not more than 0.38 mm use leather shims only.
The leather shims should have a uniform thickness of 0.4 mm and
width of 25 to 50 mm enough length to extent the full width of the
beam.
g. Increase the load rapidly up to 50% of the load at failure then increase
the load at 861 kPa or 1.207 kPa/min until rapture.

5. Measurement of test beam after test

a. Take 3 measurements of each dimension (i.e. edge-centre-edge) for
the width, depth and length of the beam to the nearest 1.3 mm.
b. Determine the average value of the width, depth and length
c. Determine the average location of the fracture line.

188
6. Calculation
a. When the line of fracture is in the middle 3rd of the length of the beam
and initiated from the side where tension occurred during loading use
the following formula to calculate the Modulus of Rapture, R

𝑃𝑙
𝑅=
𝑏𝑑2

Where
R = modulus of rapture, kPa
P = maximum load applied as indicated by the machine, N
l = span length, mm
b = average width of concrete beam, mm
d = depth of the beam, mm

b. When fracture line occurs in the outside the middle 3rd of the span but
by not more than 5 % of the span and initiates in the surface under
tension during loading use the following formula to calculate modulus
of rapture

3𝑃𝑎
𝑅=
𝑏𝑑2
Where
R = modulus of rapture, kPa
P = maximum load applied as indicated by the machine, N
l = span length, mm
b = average width of concrete beam, mm
d = depth of the beam, mm
a = the average distance from the line of fracture to the nearest
support on the tension side.

7. Reporting
a. Test and sample identification number
b. Average depth to the nearest 1mm
c. Average width to the nearest 1 mm
d. Span length, mm
e. Maximum applied load, N
f. Modulus of rapture to the nearest 0.05 Mpa
g. Moisture condition at the time of test
h. Record of in the curing that was carried
i. Record of any additional modifications of the sample e.g. grinding,
capping or use of leather shims/strips

8. Precision
Not Applicable

189
10 Tests on Bituminous Materials
This section covers all tests on bituminous materials excluding asphalt, which is provided
separately in Chapter 11. Tar, which may be covered in other older reference documents
has been excluded from this manual because it has been banned for being carcinogenic
and therefore hazardous to health.

190
10.1 MTM L10-1 Sampling of Bituminous Materials
Test Number MTM Sampling of bituminous materials
L10-1
Description: 1. Apparatus
a. Wide mouthed containers – with screw caps or triple seal friction top
This standard
caps for liquid bituminous materials
procedure covers
b. Wide mouthed plastic jars or bottles and plastic lined cans – with
the method of
plastic lined screw caps or plastic triple seal friction tops for bitumen
sampling
emulsion
bituminous
c. Plastic bags or triple mouthed cans – for bituminous powders
materials to ensure
d. Thief sampler – a sampling device capable of sampling liquid materials
that the sample is
at different depths, including a sampling tube or a sampling container
representative of
with a lid, which can be opened by pulling an attached chain or wire
the batch of
when the sampler is lowered to the required depth in the bulk
bituminous
container.
materials being
tested.
2. Sampling
The samples are
a. Minimum size of sample shall be as follows:
used to determine
i. 1 L for routine lab tests.
compliance with set
ii. 4 L for emulsions
specifications for
iii. 4 L for samples from bulk storage
the works. It is
iv. 1.5 kg for solid bituminous materials from barrels, drums and
therefore a quality
bags
control measure.
b. Correct preservation of samples
The samples should i. Use new containers always.
be obtained at the ii. Avoid contamination
point of delivery for iii. Containers shall be closed tight immediately after placing the
approval in order to sample.
test the batch iv. Containers should not be wiped or immersed in solvents
supplied for v. Emulsion samples should be agitated/shaken once every 2
purposes of quality weeks and should not be heated or frozen.
control. However, vi. Samples shall be marked appropriately before transfer or
samples could also storage
be taken at the c. Sampling at place of manufacture:
point of i. Sample from the middle of the upper 3rd, middle of the middle 3rd
manufacture to and middle of the lower 3rd and no lower than 1.1. metre from
approve the source the bottom of the tank.
and at the point of ii. If the tank is fitted with sampling values, collect samples through
storage to ensure these valves.
that the quality is iii. Discard the first 5 L, which comes out of the valve.
not altered by iv. If the tank does not have values use the thief sampler in the
conditions of manner described in 2c(i).
storage. v. Preserve the 3 samples separately because it is recommended to
tested them separately to check for consistency/variability.
Reference Test
vi. Transport the samples to the place where test will be carried out.
Standard is AASHTO
d. Sampling from binder distributers, bitumen tanks and storage which
T40 and ASTM
circulate the liquid binders:
D140
i. Sample from the sampling valves if provided
ii. Discard the first 5 L with come out of the valve.

191
 iii. Use the thief sampler if sampling valves are not provided and
follow procedure 2(c).
e. Sampling from tankers and barges:
i. For liquid materials sample following procedure 2(c)
ii. For bituminous material made liquid by heating only sample
from the middle of the top 3rd using a thief sampler.
f. Sampling from Pipeline during loading and offloading:
i. Put a sampling pipe in the discharge pipe with opening facing
against direction of flow of binder. The diameter of the sampling
pipe ≤ 1/8 the diameter of the discharge pipe
ii. Discard the first 5 L. collect 3 samples of 4 L each at equal
intervals avoiding the beginning and end of the discharge.
iii. Collect the sample when the mixing is completed and discharge
is mid-way, i.e. avoid collecting the sample at the beginning and
the end of the loading or offloading discharge.
iv. Combine the 3 samples and mix thoroughly
v. After mixing collect 4 L of material for testing
g. Sampling from drums and barrels
i. Where the drums and barrels are from the same batch, open
one and collect the required sample
ii. Where it is not obvious that they are from the same bath open
several drums or barrels and collect a sample from each using
the guidance in Table 10-1.

Table 10-1 Sample Size for Material Supplied in Drums and Barrels
No. of packages No. of packages
supplied to be selected
for testing
2–8 2
9 – 27 3
28 – 64 4
65 – 125 5
126 – 216 6
217 – 343 7
344 – 512 8
513 – 729 9
730 – 1000 10
1001 – 1331 11

h. Sampling from crushed or powdered materials in bulk storage

i. Sample from the middle of each package using guidance in Table
10-1
ii. Collect bulk sample of 25 kg.
iii. From the bulk sample collect 1.5 kg for testing.
i. Sampling from crushed or powdered materials in bulk storage
i. Follow procedure 2(g).

192
 ii. Collect bulk sample of 22.7 kg
iii. From the bulk sample collect 1.5 kg for testing
j. Sampling from point of delivery; on site or at storage place or plant
i. Collect sample using procedure 2(f) or
ii. Collect sample from the middle 3rd of bulk supply.
iii. Collect 2 sets of samples and preserve 1 set for confirmation test
in case the first tests results are inconclusive.

193
10.2 MTM L10-2 Determination of Flash and Fire Point by Cleveland
Open Cup
Test Number MTM Determination of flash and fire point by Cleveland open cup
L10-2
Description: 1. Apparatus:
a. Cleveland open cup apparatus (manual or automatic), Figure 10-1 and
The test method
Figure 10-2
describes the
b. Device for applying the flame – with a tip of 1.6 to 5.0 mm diameter
standard procedure
and opening of 0.8 mm. The centre of the opening shall swing at 2.5
for the
mm above the cup. The diameter of the flame shall be 3.8-5.4 mm.
determination of
c. Filling level gauge used for adjusting the sample height 9-10 mm below
the flash and fire
the top edge of the cup.
point of bitumen by
d. Thermometer – capable of measuring temperatures up to 400°C
Cleveland open
e. Square shield – 460mm x 610 mm with open front
cup.
f. Barometer - for pressure measurement
The test is used to
determine the
flammability of
bituminous
materials. When
bituminous
materials catch fire,
explosions are
likely.
Material is put in
the cup and heated
and a flame is
passed through and
the temperature at
which the fumes
ignite is the flash
point of the
bitumen,
79°C<flashpoint Figure 10-1 Open Cup Apparatus
<400°C at a
barometric
pressure of 103
kPa.
The fire point is the
temperature at
which the liquid
bitumen will
support
combustion for 5
sec without
external heat
source and at a
barometric
Figure 10-2 Cleveland Open Cup
pressure of 103 kPa

194
Reference Test: 2. Sample preparation
a. Prepare the sample following MTM L10-1
AASHTO T48
b. Do not heat the specimen unnecessarily
ASTM D92 c. For samples that are solid at room temperature apply heat adequate
to make them fluid.
d. Do not heat specimen above a temperature that is 56°C below the flash
point.
e. Where it may be necessary to heat the specimen above the maximum
temperature specified in 2(d) above, allow specimen to cool down to a
temperature which is 56°C below the flash point before commencing
the test.

3. Test procedure
a. Place 70 ml of bituminous material test specimen in the test cup.
b. Fix the thermometer such that the bottom of the bulb is inside the cup
at 6.4 mm height above the bottom of the cup.
c. Increase the temperature rapidly at first and then slowly at 5°C -6°C
when it is close to the flash point
d. Pass the flame regularly across the cup
e. Record the temperature at which the flame causes the vapour above
the cup to ignite for a minimum of 5 sec.

4. Calculations
The value obtained in 3(e) may require correction if the barometer reading is
different from 101.3 kPa.
𝐶𝑜𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑓𝑙𝑎𝑠ℎ 𝑝𝑜𝑖𝑛𝑡, 𝐶𝑐 = 𝐶 + 0.25(101.3 − 𝐾)
Where:
C = observed flash point, °C
K = Atmospheric pressure, kPa
Cc = corrected flash point

5. Report:
a. Test reference
b. Type of binder
c. Corrected flash point or fire point value

6. Precision:
a. In repeated tests under the similar conditions by the same operator
and for identical sample material tested using the same apparatus, the
difference in results may exceed the following limits in not in more
than 1 in 20 cases
i. Flash point - 8°C
ii. Fire point - 8°C
b. Between 2 results carried out by different operators in different
laboratories on identical samples tested using different apparatus may
exceed the following limits in not more than 1 in 20 cases
i. Flash point - 8°C
ii. Fire point - 8°C

195
10.3 MTM L10-3 Determination of Penetration of Bituminous Materials
Test Number MTM Determination of penetration of bituminous materials
L10-3
Description: 1. Apparatus:
a. Standard penetrometer
This test method
b. Standard penetration tin:
describes the
c. 55 mm diameter and 35 mm depth for penetration < 200
standard procedure
d. 60-70 mm diameter and 45-60 mm depth for penetration of 200-500
for the
e. Standard needles – 2.5 g, with needle holder (47.5 g) or weight (50 g)
determination of
f. Stopwatch accurate to 0.1 sec.
penetration of
g. Water bath (10 L) – filled with de-ionized water
bituminous
h. Thermometer – to control temperature in the water bath
material.
i. Perforated plate – supported 50 mm above the bottom of the bath and
The test is used to 100 mm below the water surface.
determine the j. Transfer container – 350 ml minimum with depth enough to cover
consistency of penetration tins.
bituminous k. Light source.
materials and is
measured in tenths
2. Sample preparation
of millimetres of
a. Prepare sample using MTM L10-1
vertical penetration
b. Do not heat the specimen unnecessarily
of a standard
c. For samples that are solid at room temperature apply heat adequate
needle at a
to make them fluid.
specified
d. Do not overheat specimen.
temperature,
loading and loading
time. 3. Test procedure
a. Place heated bituminous material test specimen in 2 penetration tins
The test is filled to at least 10 mm above the expected penetration depth.
applicable to b. Preserve one penetration tin for confirmation tests or further analysis
penetration values if necessary
of between 2-500. c. Cover the tins to protect the specimen from contamination
Reference Test: d. Allow the samples to cool off at room temperature for 1-1.5 hrs for
ASTM D5, small tins or 1.5-2 hrs. for larger tins
e. Transfer 1 tin to the water bath
AASHTO T49
f. Allow temperature equilibration for 1-1.5 hrs. for small tins or 1.5 -2
hrs. for larger tins
g. Clean the needle with solvent such as toluene and dry with cotton cloth
or paper
h. Lower the needle so that it barely touches the surface of the specimen.
Use the light source to eliminate glare from the surface of the water.
i. Put the dial to zero mark.
j. Release the needle with a load of 100 g for 5 sec with specimen at a
temperature of 25°C.
k. Record the penetration off the dial gauge.
l. Repeat the penetration 3 times with penetration points spaced 10 mm
apart.
m. Complete the penetration tests within 2 minutes.
n. Use 3 different needle with the same standard in the 3 penetrations.
o. If the specimen has to be removed from the water bath allow 10 min
reconditioning before the next penetration.

196
 p. Determine acceptance of the test results using Table 10-2

Table 10-2 Maximum Allowable Difference in Penetration

Penetration (1/10 Max. allowable
mm) difference in
penetration between
the highest and lowest
penetrations
0-49 2
50-149 4
150-249 6
>249 8

4. Calculations
Calculate the average penetration value from the 3 penetration tests if they
meet the requirements of Table 10-2

5. Reporting
a. Test reference
b. The average value of the 3-penetration test which satisfy the
conditions given in Table 10-2

6. Precision
a. Single operator:
i. For asphalt at 25°C at < 50 penetration units – Standard
deviation ≤ 0.35% and acceptable range ≤ 1
ii. For asphalt at 25°C at ≥ 50 penetration units, percentage of their
average – Standard deviation ≤ 1.1 and acceptable range ≤ 3
iii. For asphalt at > 60°C and penetration < 50 units – coefficient of
variation ≤ 1.4% and standard deviation ≤ 0.35%. Any 2 values
should not differ by more than 4% of their average
b. Multilaboratory:
i. For asphalt at 25°C at < 50 penetration units – Standard
deviation ≤ 1.4 and acceptable range ≤ 4
ii. For asphalt at 25°C at ≥ 50 penetration units, percentage of their
average – Standard deviation ≤ 2.87 and acceptable range ≤ 8
iii. For asphalt at > 60°C and penetration < 50 units – coefficient of
variation ≤ 3.8% and standard deviation ≤ 1.4. Any 2 values
should not differ by more than 11% of their average.

197
10.4 MTM L10-4 Determination of Softening Point of Bituminous
Materials
Test Number MTM Determination of softening point of bituminous materials
L10-4
Description: 1. Apparatus: (Figure 10-3)
a. Steel ball – 3.5 g
The test method
b. 2 rings
describes the
c. Ring holder – for 2 rings
standard procedure
d. Metal plate – with smooth surface
for the
e. Stopwatch – accurate to 0.1 sec.
determination of
f. Glass container for water /glycerin bath (600 ml) – filled with de-
the softening point
ionized water or glycerin (99% pure) suitable to contain the ring holder
of bituminous
g. Talcum powder
material.
h. Forceps
The test, usually i. Thermometer – to control temperature in the water/glycerin bath
referred to as Ring having a range of -2°C to 80°C or 30°C to 300°C
and Ball, is used to j. Heating apparatus capable of producing the required heating rate
determine the
temperatures at
which the
bituminous
materials begin to
flow, and it is
therefore a means
of classification of
different binders.
The significance of
the test is that the
softening of binders
in surfacings affects
the strength of
surfacings and Figure 10-3 Softening Point Test for Bitumen
asphalt concrete
leading to
deformation, 2. Sample preparation
bleeding and flow. a. Prepare sample using MTM L10-1
b. Do not heat the specimen unnecessarily
The test involves c. For samples that are solid at room temperature apply heat adequate
placement of a to make them fluid.
steel ball on d. Do not overheat specimen.
bitumen specimen a. Heat the sample for not more than 2 hrs. to a temperature that does
which is immersed not exceed the expected softening point by more than 90°C.
in a water or b. Heat the rings to the same temperature as the specimen.
glycerin bath and c. Place the preheated rings on the metal plate (not preheated)
determining the d. Pour the specimen into the 2 rings
temperature at e. Cool the specimen at room temperature for 30 min.
which the specimen f. Skim off any excess binder with hot spatula
deforms when the
temperature is
increased at a rate 3. Test procedure
of 5°C/min. The a. For specimen with softening point ≤ 80°C:

198
temperature is i. Fill glass container containing the rings with distilled or de-
recorded at the ionised water at 5±1°C to a depth of 101.6 to 108 mm
time the steel and ii. Put the steel balls in another container containing distilled or de-
the bitumen touch ionised water at 5±1°C and leave to condition for 15 min.
the base plate 25 iii. Place the balls on the specimens using forceps
mm below the ring. iv. Apply heat at a rate of 5±0.5°C and record the temperature
every min to ensure that the rate of rise of the temperature is
Reference Test:
5±0.5°C every minute.
ASTM D36
v. Record the temperature at which the ring and the ball touch the
AASHTO T53 bottom plate.
vi. Retest if the temperature for the 2 rings and balls differ by more
than 2°C
b. For specimen with softening point > 80°C:
c. Follow procedure 3(a)
d. Use thermometer with a range of 30°C to 300°C
e. The glycerin shall have a starting temperature of 32°C

4. Calculations:
Calculate the average softening point value from the 2 tests.

5. Report
a. Test reference
b. The average temperature the nearest, 0.5 °C
c. The type of bath liquid used during testing (usually water).

6. Precision
a. The values obtained by the same operator using identical samples
and the same equipment as well as conditions should not differ by
more than 2 °C
b. 2 values obtained by different laboratories using identical samples
and different equipment as well as similar conditions should not
differ by more than 2 °C

199
10.5 MTM L10-5 Determination of Ductility of Bituminous Materials
Test Number MTM Determination of ductility of bituminous materials
L10.5
Description: 1. Apparatus:
a. Water bath (10 L) – with thermostat to control temperature within ±
The test method
0.1°C variance from the specified test temperature
describes the
b. Thermometer – to control temperature in the water/glycerin bath
standard procedure
having a range of -8°C to 32°C accurate to 0.1°C
for the
c. Moulds – made of brass with end clips
determination of
d. Testing machine for pulling the bitumen specimen
ductility of
e. Knife or spatula
bituminous
f. Mixture of glycerin and talcum powder
material.
g. Brass plate
The test is used to
test the
homogeneity of the
binders and their
ability to flow and
the results can be
compared with
specifications for
quality control
purposes. Ductility
is directly related to
performance of
surfacings in that
ductile binders are
able to stretch
without breaking
which reduces the
potential for the
development and
progression of Figure 10-4 Ductility Test of Bitumen
cracking in the
surfacings. 2. Sample preparation
The test involves a. Coat the brass plate and the interior of the side of the mould with
placing a dumbbell mixture of glycerin and talcum to prevent bitumen from sticking to the
shaped specimen in surfaces.
a water bath to b. Heat the specimen until it is sufficiently fluid and pour through a
equilibrate at 25°C heated 0.300 mm sieve
and then stretch it c. Stir gently avoiding creation of air bubbles
at 50mm/min until d. Pour the bitumen in a thin stream moving from end to end until the
it breaks. The mould is level full.
length it reaches e. Cool at room temperature for 30-40 min while covered.
when it breaks is f. Place the plate and the mould with specimen in the water bath for 30
the ductility of the min to equilibrate
bitumen. g. Remove specimen from water bath and remove excess binder with a
heated spatula or knife to make the surface of the specimen flash with
the top of the mould.

200
Reference Test: 3. Test procedure
ASTM D113, a. Place the plate with the moulds back in the water bath for 90±5 min
AASHTO T51 b. Remove the brass plate and the side pieces and place the sample into
the testing machine.
c. Stop the stirrer and pull the specimens apart while it is covered with
2.5 cm of water with temperature controlled to fluctuate within ±5°C
of testing temperature, preferably 25 °C
d. Record the elongations at which each of the 3 specimens breaks
e. If the stretched specimen thread touches the bottom of the water bath
add methyl alcohol or sodium chloride and repeat the test.

4. Calculations
Calculate the average of the elongations when the stretched specimens
break.

5. Report
a. Test reference
b. The average 3 normal tests i.e. the elongations, mm. Normal test refers
to a situation where the bitumen threads thin out to an insignificant
cross-sectional area where they break.
c. Ductility as unobtainable if normal tests cannot be achieved.

201
10.6 MTM L10-6 Determination of Effect of Heat and Air on a Moving
Film of Asphalt (Rolling Thin Film Oven Test – RTFOT)
Test Number MTM Determination of effect of heat and air on a moving film of asphalt (rolling
L10-6 thin film oven test) – RTFOT
Description: 1. Apparatus:
a. Sample containers – RTFOT pans;140 mm diameter and 9.5 mm height.
The test method
b. Standard oven (Figure 10-5)
describes the
c. Thermometer – capable of 155-170 °C
standard procedure
d. Glass container – 0.25 L
for the
e. Balance - capable of 0.01 g accuracy or 0.001 g for more precise results
determination of
the effect of heat
and air on a moving
film of semi-solid
asphalt materials.
The effect is
determined
through
measurements of
asphalt properties
before and after
RTFOT.
The test involves
heating a thin film
of bituminous
material at 163°C
for 5 hrs. and
measuring the
properties of the
asphalt before
and after the
RTFOT.
The test is used to
Figure 10-5 Rolling Thin Film Oven Test
approximate
changes, which
occur during hot 2. Sample preparation
mixing of asphalt a. Follow procedure MTM10-1 to collect and prepare bulk sample.
for hot-rolled b. Heat the sample to a fluid condition while stirring gently with a
asphalt mixes thermometer. Avoid overheating. Maximum temperature should be
(HMA) or heating 10°C below the testing temperature
which is applied to c. Weigh the material to the nearest 0.01 g.
binders before d. Place 50±0.5 g bitumen in 2 or more RTFOT pans.
spraying hence it e. Place another portion of the same sample into the required containers
gives an indication for testing bitumen properties following standard procedures given in
of the condition of MTM 10-2, MTM L10-3, MTM L10-4 and MTM L10-5.
the binder in newly f. Allow the sample to cool to room temperature.
laid surfacings and g. Weigh the samples to the nearest 0.01g for subsequent determination
(HMA) of weight loss.
The weight loss as a
result of RTFOT is

202
an indication of loss 3. Test procedure
of volatiles and a. Tilt the rotating shelf to not more than 3 degrees and set the speed of
conversely a rotation to 5.5± 1 rpm
measure of ageing b. Place the thermometer in the oven 6mm above the rotating shelf
of the bituminous c. At 163±1°C place the containers in the oven onto the rotating shelf,
material. Tests quickly close the door of the oven and start the rotation
results of recovered d. Allow the process to continue for 5hrs but not more than 5 ¼ hrs.
bitumen are e. Remove the containers and cool at room temperature.
compared with f. Weigh to the nearest 0.01 g and place back in the oven at 163±1°C for
similar fresh a further 15 min
bituminous g. Remove the RTFOT pans from the oven and pour the bitumen into a
materials. glass or metal and scrap any adhering bitumen into the bottle.
h. Apply heat gently to the glass to keep the bitumen fluid
Reference Test:
i. If required carry out carryout tests to determine the properties of the
ASTM D2872,
bitumen after the RTFOT test within 72 hrs.
AASHTO T240
j. If procedure 3(i) is not required close the bottle or metal container to
preserve the bitumen.

4. Calculations
Where change in mass is required calculate the change in mass as a
percentage of the original mass and report loss of mass as negative and
increase of mass as positive to the nearest 0.01%

203
10.7 MTM L10-7 Determination of Saybolt Viscosity of Bituminous
Materials
Test Number MTM Determination of Saybolt viscosity of bituminous materials
L10-7
Description: 1. Apparatus:
a. Saybolt viscometer, Figure 10-6, Figure 10-7 and Figure 10-8.
The test method
b. Water bath – complete with Saybolt thermometer to control the
describes the
temperature of the water
standard procedure
c. Withdrawal tube
for the
d. Saybolt thermometer – for the apparatus complete with support
determination
e. Filter funnel – with 0.150 mm and 0.075 mm wire cloth sieves.
Saybolt Universal or
f. Receiving flask – with a graduated level to be used when filling with
Saybolt Furol
bitumen
viscosity of
g. Timer – accurate to 0.1% when tested over 60 min
bituminous
material.
The test is used to
test the
homogeneity of the
binders and their
ability to flow and
the results can be
compared with
specifications for
quality control;
purposes. Viscosity
is directly related to
performance of
surfacings in that
binders that are
more viscous are
able to withstand
higher traffic
loading and high
operating
temperatures.
However, when
viscosity is too high
then surfacing and
asphalt layers
become brittle
resulting in cracking Figure 10-6 Saybolt Viscometer (to be redrawn)
and spalling.
On the other hand,
less viscous binders
last longer but tend
to flow under heavy
traffic loading.
The test involves
placing bitumen

204
into the viscometer
at a specified
temperature. The
viscometer is then
opened and
bitumen is allowed
to flow through an
orifice into a
receiving container.
The time it takes to
fill up to the
receiving container
to the graduated
mark is recorded in
seconds and is
called the efflux
time which gives a
measure of the
viscosity of the Figure 10-7 Thermometer holder
bitumen.
Reference Test:
ASTM D88
AASHTO T72

Figure 10-8 Saybolt Withdrawal Tube which is Used with the

Viscometer

205
2. Sample preparation
a. Collect bitumen sample using standard procedure, MTM L10-1
b. Preheat sample before application to not more than 1.5°C above the
specified testing temperature. Ensure that the temperature never goes
above 28 °C of its flash point (MTM L10-2) due to potential loss of
volatiles which may change the properties of the sample before it is
tested.

3. Test procedure
a. Assemble the the Saybolt viscometer
i. Use the Universal orifice form material with efflux of more than
32 sec
ii. Use the Furol orifice for material, which have efflux of more than
25 sec.
b. Place the viscometer and the bath in a controlled room
c. Place the receiving flask beneath the viscometer such that the tip of the
tube is 100-130 mm above the mark on the flask. Arrange such that the
dripping bitumen will just touch the tip of the neck of the receiving flask
d. Fill the bath with water or specified oil to the overflow level as shown
in Figure 10-6
e. Control the temperature of the bath to not vary by more than ±0.03°C.
Also keep room temperature between 20-30 °C
f. Check that the viscometer is calibrated. If not, it should be calibrated at
37.8 °C with water in the bath using a fluid of known efflux or 50°C with
oil in the bath.
g. Use the following calibration equation

𝑉
𝐶𝑎𝑙𝑖𝑏𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟, 𝐹 =
𝑡
Where:
V = certified viscosity of standard fluid at calibration temperature
T = measure efflux time at 37.8 °C, sec
h. Control the temperature of the bath:
i. For Universal Saybolt viscosities use standard test temperature;
21.1°C, 37.8 °C, 54.4 °C and 98.9 °C for the water bath
ii. For Furol Saybolt viscosities use standard temperatures; 25 °C,
37.8°C, 50 °C and 98.9 °C
iii. Standard test temperatures of 60 °C and 82.2 °C can also be used.
i. Stir the sample and pour it into the filter funnel with a 0.150 mm wire
cloth and into the viscometer
j. Fill the viscometer above the overflow rim as indicated in Figure 10-6
k. Stir with Saybolt thermometer until temperature is constant at testing
temperature ±0.03°C
l. Using the withdrawal tube apply suction until to bitumen is removed
till the level is below the overflow rim
m. Snap the cock to allow the bitumen to drip down into the receiving
flask. At the same time start the timer.
n. Stop the timer when the receiving flask fills up to the graduated mark
i.e. the bottom of the meniscus reaches the mark.

206
 o. Record the efflux time to the nearest 0.1 sec
p. Apply the correction factor if necessary.

4. Report
a. Test reference
b. The efflux time or corrected efflux time as the Sybolt Universal or Sybolt
Furol viscosity at the temperature at which the test was carried out.
c. Result below 200 SUS or SFS to the nearest 0.1 s.
d. Results above 200 SUS or SFS to the nearest 1 s.

5. Precision
a. Results should not differ by more than 1% for single operator using the
same apparatus and identical samples
b. Results should not differ by more than 2% for different operators and
different apparatus.

207
10.8 MTM L10-8 Determination of Viscosity of Bituminous Materials
using the Brookfield Thermosel Apparatus
Test Number MTM Determination of viscosity of bituminous materials using the Brookfield
L10-8 thermosel apparatus
Description: 1. Apparatus: (Figure 10-9)
a. Brookfield thermosel high temperature viscosity apparatus
This test method
b. Thermosel system – thermo-container, samples chamber, extractor
describes the
tool, temperature control
standard procedure
c. Spindles – for viscometer
for the
d. Balance – accurate to 0.01 g
determination of
e. Heating oven – capable of reaching 300 °C
viscosity of
bituminous
materials in a
temperature range
of 38 °C - 260 °C
using the Brookfield
Thermosel
Apparatus.
The procedure is
used to test the
homogeneity of the
binders and their
ability to flow and
the results can be
compared with
specifications for
quality control;
purposes. Viscosity
of binders is
directly related to
performance of
surfacings or
asphalt in that
more viscous
binders are able to
withstand higher
traffic loading and Figure 10-9 Brookfield Thermosel Bitumen Viscosity Test Apparatus
high operating
temperatures.
2. Sample preparation
However, when
a. Sample the bitumen using procedure MTM L10-2
viscosity is too high
b. Preheat the bitumen to allow pouring into the specimen container
then surfacing and
c. If necessary, filter the binder using a 300μm wire cloth
asphalt layers
become brittle
resulting in cracking 3. Test procedure
and spalling. a. Set up the Brookfield thermosel apparatus.
b. Turn it on and using the temperature control set it to the specified
On the other hand temperature for the test
less viscous binders c. Select the appropriate spindle for the expected viscosity range of the
last longer but tend test specimen. Follow guidance in Table 10-3 and Table 10-4

208
to flow under heavy
traffic loading. Table 10-3 Typical viscosity of bitumen at 60 °C, 90 °C and 135 °C in
centiPoise (mPa x s)
The test involves
placing a sample of Temperature
filtered bitumen in Bitumen 60 °C 90 °C 135 °C
a specified
container at a Pen 40 700,000 13,500 500
specified Pen 60 290,000 9,000 370
temperature. A
spindle in placed in Pen 85 170,000 6,000 270,160
the specimen and Pen 180 37,000 2,200 150
made to rotate at a
given speed. The Pen 250 35,000 2,100 135
resistance to the Pen 370 30,000 1,800
rotational force
gives a measure of
the viscosity of the
Table 10-4 Viscosity Ranges in centiPoise for Different Spindle
bitumen and is
Type/Spindle Speed Combination
reported in
centistokes. Spindle No.

Reference Test: Speed (rpm) 21 27 28 29

ASTM D4402 0.5 20,000- 100,000- 200,000- 400,000-
200,000 1,000,000 2,000,000 4,000,000
1.0 10,000- 50,000- 100,000- 200,000-
100,000 500,000 1,000,000 2,000,000
2.5 4,000- 20,000- 40,000- 80,000-
40,000 200,000 400,000 800,000
5.0 2,000- 10,000- 20,000- 40,000-
20,000 100,000 200,000 400,000
10 1,000- 5,000-50,000 10,000- 20,000-
10,000 100,000 200,000
20 500-5,000 2,500-25,000 5,000-50,000 10,000-
100,000
50 200-2,000 1,000-10,000 2,000-20,000 4,000-40,000
100 100-1,000 500-5,000 1,000-10,000 2,000-20,000

d. Place the sample container into the temperature chamber, place the
spindle and lower it into the sample container.
e. Allow 1.5 hrs for the temperature to equilibrate.
f. Place the sample container holder on the balance
g. Raise the viscometer and using the extractor remove the sample
container, place it into the sample holder and weigh.
h. Pour the right amount of bitumen by volume into the sample container
having calculated the mass using the density of the bitumen. Use Table
10-5 for guidance. Generally, 8-10 ml of bitumen is required.

209
 Table 10-5 Amounts of bitumen required based on typical density data
Temperature
Spindle No. 60 °C 90 °C 135 °C
21 7.95 7.80 7.58
27 10.44 10.24 9.55
28 11.43 11.21 10.90
29 12.92 12.68 12.32

i. Using the extraction tool remove the sample contained from the
sample holder and place it back into the temperature chamber
j. Lower the spindle into the sample taking care that the spindle does
not touch the sample container walls
k. Allow 15 min for temperature equilibration
l. Start the test
m. If there is no error message repeat the test with 60 sec intervals
n. If an error message occurs slightly increase or lower the
temperature and repeat the test.
o. If there is no error message, then repeat the test 2 times more with
60 sec intervals.
p. If an error message occurs again repeat procedure 3(n) and also
consider changing the spindle.
q. Record the viscosity in centiPoise after 1 min, 2 min and 3 min.

4. Calculations
Calculate the viscosity in centiPoise and converts to kinematic viscosity in
centiStokes (mm2/s) using the following formula:
𝑣𝑑
𝐾𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑚𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑐 𝑣𝑖𝑠𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦, 𝑣𝑘 =
𝜌
Where:
vk = kinematic viscosity, mm2/s
vd = dynamic viscosity, mPa x s

5. Report
a. Test date
b. Test temperature, °C
c. Spindle number
d. Spindle speed (rpm)
e. Average viscosity, centiPoise
f. Description of any deviation from the standard procedure

210
11 Tests on Asphalt Concrete
This section covers tests, which are carried out on asphalt concrete. They are essential for
the design of asphalt concrete including preparation of mix design of asphalt. The tests
are also useful for quality control of asphalt works and for rehabilitation.

211
11.1 MTM L11-1 Mixing of Test Specimen of Hot Bituminous Mixes
Test Number MTM Mixing of test specimen of hot bituminous mixes
L11-1
Description: 1. Apparatus:
a. Balance – to weigh aggregate accurate to 1 g.
This method
b. Balance – for weighing binder additives accurate to 0.01 g
describes the
c. Oven capable of reaching 200°C
standard procedure
d. Containers to place aggregate for heating
to prepare hot
e. Equipment - for mixing
bituminous mixes
in the laboratory. It
is set out to 2. Sample preparation
replicate condition a. Preparation of the binder:
of mass production i. Heat the binder gently in a container to pouring temperature
of hot asphalt in a and sustain the temperature for not more than 2 hours with the
mixing plant such binder covered.
that the hot mix ii. Follow guidance in Table xxx on temperature ranges for mixing
from the plant is of and compaction. The viscosity of the binder should be 170 ±20
similar mm2/s and the viscosity at compaction should be 280 ±30
characteristics with mm2/s. The temperature given in Table xxx correspond to these
the hot mix asphalt viscosities.
prepared in the iii. If necessary, add binder additives not more than 30 min before
laboratory. mixing with aggregate in the specified proportions by mass.
Weigh the additives using the balance with an accuracy of 0.01g.
This is essential in
that the quality of
the asphalt
Table 11-1 Mixing and Compaction Temperature Ranges
prepared in the
Binder Mixing Compaction
laboratory should
temperature (°C) temperature (°C)
be replicated at the
plant and during Pen 40 145-155 135-145
site work.
Pen 60 142-152 132-142
Test reference
Pen 85 138-148 129-139
EN12594
Pen 180 130-140 122-132
Pen 250 126-136 117-127
Pen 370 121-131 112-122

b. Preparation of aggregate:
i. Combine different fractions of aggregate in the correct
proportions to produce the specified grading for the hot mix
asphalt (HMA)
ii. Heat the aggregate to 10 °C above the specified mixing
temperature (Table 11-1) for a minimum of 2 hrs.
iii. If specified place additives into the aggregate before hitting
unless the additives are affected by heating.

212
3. Mixing procedure
a. Heat the container used to mix the binder and the aggregate to mixing
temperature.
b. Place the aggregate (and additives) into the mixing container.
c. Add the specified amount of binder into the mixing container
d. Mix until all the aggregate is fully coated with binder.
e. Remove the hot mix asphalt and perform any further processing or
tests as specified.
f. If the temperature of the mix drops below compaction temperature,
place the mix back into the mixing container and into the oven and
apply heat gently.

213
11.2 MTM L11-2 Sampling of Bituminous Asphalt Materials
Test Number MTM Sampling of bituminous asphalt materials
L11-2
Description: 1. Apparatus
a. Wide mouthed containers
This standard
b. Tools for scooping the asphalt
procedure covers
c. Mechanical lifting equipment
the method of
sampling
bituminous mixes 2. Sampling
or asphalt to ensure a. Minimum size of sample shall be as follows:
that the sample is 2 kg for asphalt of nominal maximum aggregate of 2.36 mm
representative of 2 kg for asphalt of nominal maximum aggregate of 4.75 mm
the batch of
bituminous 4 kg for asphalt of nominal maximum aggregate of 12.5 mm
mixes/asphalt 7 kg for asphalt of nominal maximum aggregate of 19.0 mm
being tested.
9 kg for asphalt of nominal maximum aggregate of 25.0 mm
The samples are
used to determine 11 kg for asphalt of nominal maximum aggregate of 37.5 mm
compliance with set 16 kg for asphalt of nominal maximum aggregate of 50 mm
specifications for
b. Sampling from a conveyor belt
the works. It is
i. Stop the conveyor belt
therefore a quality
control measure. ii. Select 3 random areas for sampling
iii. Insert templates and sample from the whole cross-section of the
The samples should material on the belt, collecting equal amounts from each area.
be obtained at the iv. The amount of material should be equals or more than the
point of delivery for specified amounts stated above.
approval in order to c. Sampling from a truck transporter
test the batch i. Randomly select the units or trucks to sample from
supplied for ii. Collect the sample in 3 increments avoiding asphalt which is at
purposes. the topmost of the load.
However, samples iii. Combine the increments into 1 sample
could also be taken d. Sampling from the road before compaction
at the point of i. Sample 3 increments of material from randomly selected places
manufacture to from the selected unit
approve the source ii. Collect sample increments from the full depth of material
and at the point of iii. Avoid contamination with underlying layers
storage to ensure iv. Combine to form 1 sample with sufficient quantity doe
that the quality is subsequent tests
not altered by e. Sampling from a skip conveyor delivering to the bin storage
storage conditions. i. Randomly select units to be sampled
Reference Test ii. Stop the conveyor
Standard: iii. Dig furrows 150 mm deep
iv. Collect 3 increments of approx. equal size.
AASHTO T168 f. Sampling from funnel feeding a conveyor
ASTM D979 i. Randomly select the units to be sampled
ii. Collect 3 equal increments by passing a bucket or pan across the
funnel such that full cross-section material falling through the
funnel is collected at once
iii. Combine the increments into 1 sample.

214
g. Sampling from the road after compaction
i. Select 3 equal samples from randomly selected area.
ii. Each sample should be made up of 3 increments
iii. Test the samples separately and take an average of the results

215
11.3 MTM L11-3 Calibration of Pycnometers
Test Number MTM Calibration of Pycnometers
L11-3
Description: 1. Apparatus: Figure 11-1
a. A balance – accurate to 3 decimal places and with capacity to weighing
The method
sample in suspension below the balance held by a thin wire.
describes the
b. Vacuum pump – capable of vacuuming to 4kPa
standard procedure
c. A filter flask to prevent vapour from entering the filter pump
for the calibration
d. Residual pressure manometer – measures the pressure in the vacuum
of pycnometers
apparatus and connected to the vacuum vessel
Pycnometers are e. Manometer/pressure gauge – connected to the pump
used for the f. Vacuum container for weighing in air and water
determination of i. Type A – 2 L container
specific gravity of ii. Type B – thick walled 2 L vacuum desiccator
asphalt materials, iii. Type C – 2 L measuring flask.
aggregates, g. Vacuum containers for measuring in air only
binders, etc. i. Type C – 2 L measuring flask
The test involves ii. Type D – 4 L heavy walled glass pycnometer
the determination iii. Type E – 4.5 L metal vacuum pycnometer with clear methyl
of the effect of methcrylate lid
change of water iv. Type F – a 10 L plastic pycnometer
density and volume h. Thermometer – to control temperature in the water bath having a
of the pycnometer range of -8°C to 32°C accurate to 0.5°C
with change in i. Water bath – capable of maintaining constant temperature between
temperature. This is 20°C and 30°C (Type A and Type B) allowing immersion for weighing in
because when water procedure
water expands j. Bleeder valve – connected to the vacuum pipe to adjust the pressure
when heated hence in the vacuum vessel
the mass of water k. Protective gloves
held in a
completely filled up
container is
different at
different
temperatures. Also,
the volume of the
container would
increase with
increase in
temperature as it
expands. In order to
determine the mass Figure 11-1 Apparatus for specific gravity tests
accurately these
changes need to be
taken into account. 2. Calibration procedure for flasks,
The procedure a. For the weighing in water method:
provides a i. Calibrate the mass of vacuum containers (Type A and B for
calibration curve temperature correction by determining the mass in water at
for the different temperatures for the range within which it will be used.
pycnometer. ii. Plot graphs of mass vs temperature.

216
Reference Test: b. For weighing in air method:
AASHTO T209 i. Determine the weight of the containers (Types C, D, E and D).
filled with water for the different temperatures of the water,
within the range of temperatures used in service.
ii. Use glass cover to ensure accurate filling of containers with
water.
iii. Plot graphs of mass vs temperature.
iv. Refer to calibration at 25±0.5°C as D.
c. Calibration of large plastic (Type F) pycnometer:
i. Use procedure 2(d) for a range of 20°C to 65°C.
ii. Plot a graph of mass vs temperature.
d. Calibration of Type F pycnometer with latched lid:
i. Latch the lid.
ii. Fill the pycnometer with water to 50 mm below the top.
iii. Remove the air bubbles by tilting the pycnometer side-to-side
which dropping 10mm on the table. Alternatively, use a vacuum
to remove the air bubbles.
iv. Add more water until the till the level is halfway up the neck
v. Remove air bubbles.
vi. If inlet valve is fitted with valve closed apply the vacuum to 30
kPa and open the valve and release water in slowly till the level
is 25 mm below the top.
vii. Release more air bubbles, close the valve and apply the vacuum.
viii. Open the valve and allow more water into the vessel until it
overflows.
ix. Disconnect the pycnometer and wipe water on the surface.
x. Weigh and record the weight and the temperature of the water.
e. Make adjustments for the expansion of water with temperature and
expansion of the pycnometer also with temperature because both
these factors affect the results
i. Calculate difference due to expansion of water:

𝐷𝑖𝑓𝑓𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑑𝑢𝑒 𝑡𝑜 𝑒𝑥𝑝𝑎𝑛𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑜𝑓 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 = 𝑉25 (0.9970 − 𝑑𝑤 )

𝑊25
𝑉25 =
0.9970
Hence:
𝑑𝑤
𝐷𝑖𝑓𝑓𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑑𝑢𝑒 𝑡𝑜 𝑒𝑥𝑝𝑎𝑛𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑜𝑓 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 = 𝑊25 (1 − )
0.9970
Where:
V25 = volume of water required to fill container at 25°C, cm3
W25 = mass of water required to fill container at 25°C, kg
Dw = density of water at calibration temperature, kg/m3
i. Use the graph below for the relationship of volume and mass
changes of the water and pycnometer with changes in
temperatures.
ii. Draw the curves through point 0 (gain in mass) at 25 °C in
temperature, Figure 11-2.

217
 iii. Determine the mass of water at higher temperature by weighing
the mass of the pycnometer and water 5 times and calculate the
average.
iv. Adjust the average value by adding loss due water expansion
and add subtract the mass at 25°C (W25) to get the gain due to
the expansion of the container

Figure 11-2 Effect of change in Density of Water and Volume of

Pycnometer (Type F) with change in temperature

v. Determine the loss due to expansion of water from the equation

above.
vi. From the value obtained in 2g(iii) above add the value obtained
in 2g(v) of loss due to water expansion to get the mass of water
which would be in the expanded container had the water not
expanded.
vii. Subtract the actual mass obtained at a temperature of 25°C to
get the gain due to the expansion of the container.
viii. Plot this value on the graph.
ix. Draw a straight line from this point through the point (0 g, 25°C)
to form the pycnometer line
x. Using both the pycnometer line and water expansion line plot
the calibration curve by summing up the gain due pycnometer
expansion and the loss due to water expansion loss.
xi. The calibration of pycnometers Type D and E shall follow the
same procedure.
xii. Calibration shall be checked occasionally.

218
11.4 MTM L11-4 Determination of Maximum Theoretical Specific
Gravity and Density of Bituminous Materials
Test Number MTM Determination of maximum theoretical specific gravity and density of
L11-4 bituminous materials
Description: 1. Apparatus: Figure 11-3a and Figure 11-3b
a. A balance – accurate to 3 decimal places and with capacity to weight
The test method
sample in suspension below the balance held by a thin wire.
describes the
b. Vacuum pump – capable of vacuuming to 4kPa
standard procedure
c. A filter flask to prevent vapour from entering the filter pump
for the
d. Residual pressure manometer – measures the pressure in the vacuum
determination of
apparatus and connected to the vacuum vessel
maximum
e. Manometer/pressure gauge – connected to the pump
theoretical specific
f. Vacuum container for weighing in air and water
gravity and density
i. Type A – a 2 L container
of uncompacted
ii. Type B – Thick walled 2 L vacuum dessicator
bituminous
iii. Type C – a 2 L measuring flask.
materials.
g. Vacuum containers for measuring in air only
The test is used to i. Type C – a 2 L measuring flask
determine ii. Type D – a 4 L heavy walled glass pycnometer
appropriate iii. Type E – a 4.5 L metal vacuum pycnometer with clear methyl
compositions of methcrylate lid.
mixtures of iv. Type F – a 10 L plastic pycnometer
amounts of h. Thermometer – to control temperature in the water bath having
aggregate and a range of -8°C to 32°C accurate to 0.5°C
bituminous i. Water bath – capable of maintaining constant temperature
materials, between 20°C and 30°C (Type A and Type B) allowing immersion
appropriate air for weighing in water procedure
voids and lower j. Bleeder valve – connected to the vacuum pipe to adjust the
limit specifications pressure in the vacuum vessel
for compaction of k. Protective gloves
compacted
bituminous/asphalt
mixes. The results
are also used to
calculate the
amount of bitumen
absorbed into
aggregates in
asphalt mixes
The test involves
placing a weighed
uncompacted oven
(a)
dried asphalt
mixture in a tared
vacuum vessel and
submerging the
sample in water at
25 ±4 °C. Vacuum
is then applied to
3.7 ±0.3 kPa for 15

219
±2 min. The volume
of the sample is
measured by
immersing the
vacuum container
with the sample
into a water bath
and weighing.
Alternatively, the
vacuum container
with sample can be
filled with water
and weighed in air.
The mass of the
sample is divided by
it’s volume to
determine the
specific gravity or
density of the
bituminous/asphalt
mix at 25 °C. If the (b)
test is carried out at
a different Figure 11-3 Apparatus for specific gravity tests
temperature a
correction factor
2. Sample preparation
must be applied.
a. Prepare the bituminous mix following MTM L11-1 or collect a sample
Reference Test: using following MTM L11-2 (AASHTO T168).
AASHTO T209 b. Use guidance in Table 11-2 to determine the size of sample required
ASTM D2041/ for the test.

ASTM D4469
Table 11-2 Determination of Minimum Size of Sample
Maximum particle Minimum
size in mix (mm) Sample Size (kg)
50 6
37.5 4
25 2.5
19 2
12.5 1.5
9.5 1
4.75 0.5

c. For the weighing in water method:

Calibrate the mass of vacuum containers (Type A and B for
temperature correction by determining the mass in water at different
temperatures for the range within which it will be used, MTM L11-3.
d. For weighing in air method:

220
 Calibrate the mass of the containers (Types C, D, E and D) filled with
water for the different temperatures of the water, within the range
of temperatures used in service, 15°C -80°C, using MTM L11-3
e. Separate the particles in the asphalt mix by hand. The maximum size
of aggregate in the fine fraction should not be more than 6.3 mm
f. If the asphalt is hard and it is difficult to separate the particles, place
the materials in the oven apply sufficient heating to be able to separate
the particles. Avoid overheating.
g. Cure and dry samples prepared in the laboratory for 2 hrs. at 135±5°C
until constant mass is achieved i.e. decrease in mass within 0.1%.
h. For materials prepared in the plant dry to a constant mass at 105±5°C
as curing is not necessary because it would have occurred during plant
mixing.
i. Cool the material to room temperature.
j. Place in a calibrated pycnometer, flask or bowl.
k. Weigh the container and sample then subtract the mass of the
container to get the mass of sample, A.
l. Add water at 25°C to submerge the sample.
m. Remove air by applying the vacuum to 3.7± 0.3 kPa for 15 ± 2 min while
agitating the container and sample to remove air bubbles.
n. Increase the pressure at a rate of 8 kPa/sec.
o. Weigh the container and sample in water:
i. Suspend the sample and container and submerge them in the
water bath at 25±1°C with wire tied under the weighing balance
and allow the temperature to equilibrate for 10±1min
ii. Weigh the container and sample and subtract the mass of
container in water to get the mass of sample in water.
iii. If the temperature of the water bath in not 25±1°C use the
calibration determined in MTM L11-3 to obtain the corrected
mass of sample in water, C
p. Weigh in air:
q. Apply this method to flask Type C and Pycnometers Type D, E or F.
r. Fill the flask of pycnometers with water at 25±1°C completely and
aided by a glass plate.
s. Weigh the mass of container and sample after removing air bubbles.
t. Make the necessary adjustments using the calibration chart developed
in MTM L11-3 if the temperate at which the specific gravity is
measured is not 25±1°C.
3. Calculations
a. Weighing in water
𝐴
𝑇ℎ𝑒𝑜𝑟𝑒𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝑚𝑎𝑥. 𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑐𝑖𝑓𝑖𝑐 𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑣𝑖𝑡𝑦 =
𝐴−𝐶
Where:
A = mass of oven dried sample in air, g
C = mass of water displaced by sample at 25°C, g

b. Weighing in air:
𝐴
𝑇ℎ𝑒𝑜𝑟𝑒𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝑚𝑎𝑥. 𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑐𝑖𝑓𝑖𝑐 𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑣𝑖𝑡𝑦 =
𝐴+𝐷−𝐸

221
 Where:
A = mass of oven dried sample in air, g
D = mass of container filled water at 25°C, g
E = mass of container filled with water and sample at 25°C

c. Using large size pycnometer, Type F

d. Use equation given in 3(b) if the temperature of the water is 22.2°C and
26.7 °C
e. If temperature is outside the range given in 3d(i) use the following
equation:

𝐴 𝑑𝑤
𝑇ℎ𝑒𝑜𝑟𝑒𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝑚𝑎𝑥. 𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑐𝑖𝑓𝑖𝑐 𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑣𝑖𝑡𝑦 = 𝑥
(𝐴 + 𝐹) − (𝐺 + 𝐻) 0.9970
Where:
A = mass of oven dried sample in air, g
F = mass of pycnometer (Type F) filled with water at test temperature.
G = mass of pycnometer (Type F) filled with water and sample at test
temperature, g
H = correction of thermal expansion of bitumen, Figure 11-4
dw = density of water at test temperature, Mg/m3, curve D given in
Figure 11-5
0.9970 = density of water at 25°C
dw/0.9970 is curve R given in Figure 11-5

Figure 11-4 Correction of expansion of bitumen for different

temperatures

222
 Figure 11-5 Curves D and R

4. Supplementary procedure
This is a procedure for bituminous mix with a aggregate with water
absorption of more than 1.5%. if the pores are not sealed by
bitumen, they may become saturated during evacuation. To verify
this:
a. Drain out the water through a cloth placed at the mouth of the
container to avoid loss of material.
b. Break a few large aggregate and check wetness.
c. If the aggregate has absorbed water:
i. Break the lumps or conglomerates
ii. Spread the sample in front of a fan
iii. Measure the weight of the sample every 15 minutes and
iv. The sample is considered to be surface dry when subsequent
loss weight loss is < 0.05%. It may take 2 hours to carry out this
procedure.
d. Calculation – calculate specific gravity by substituting the surface dry
weight for the oven dry mass ‘A’ in (3) above

5. Report
a. Specific gravity and density of the mixture to 3 decimal places and 25°C
b. Size of sample
c. Type of mixture
d. Number if samples
e. Type of container used
f. Procedure followed.

6. Precision
a. Without supplementary procedure (4)

223
 i. Single person – Standard deviation ≤ 0.0040 and range of 2 results
≤ 0.011
ii. Multilaboratory – Standard deviation ≤ 0.0064 and range of 2
results ≤ 0.019
b. With supplementary procedure (4)
iii. Single person – Standard deviation ≤ 0.0064 and range of 2
results ≤ 0.018
iv. Multilaboratory – Standard deviation ≤ 0.0193 and range of 2
results ≤ 0.055

224
11.5 MTM L11-5 Marshall Test of Asphalt
Test Number MTM Marshall test of asphalt
L11-5
Description: 1. Apparatus:
a. Marshall mixing equipment
This test method
b. Marshall compaction equipment
describes the
c. Marshall test machine – with a load and deflection reading devices and
standard procedure
semicircular sample holders
for the
d. Moulds – 101.6 to 101.73 mm diameter and 6.4 mm height
determination of
e. Water bath or air bath – for control of temperature at 25 ± 0.5°C
resistance against
f. Heating oven – room temperature to 200°C and ±3°C accuracy
plastic flow or
g. Slide calipers – for measuring specimen thickness to ± 0.1 mm accuracy
plastic deformation
h. Balance - with capacity of 2000 g an accuracy of 0.1 g of sample size.
of asphalt
i. Spatulas
containing
penetration or
cutback bitumen 2. Sample preparation
and maximum a. Prepare the bituminous mix following MTM L11-1 or collect a sample
aggregate size of using following MTM L11-2 (AASHTO T168).
25.4 mm. b. Prepare 3 test specimens of 1200 g each.
c. The test specimen shall have a height of 63.5 ±1.3 mm compacted and
The test is used to
this takes precedence over the mass of the sample.
determine the
d. The diameter ≥ 4x nominal maximum diameter of aggregate
physical properties
e. Diameter ≥ 50.8 mm
of asphalt mixes
f. Heat the moulds in an oven to a temperature of 93°C - 149°C
and conformity to
g. The viscosity of the binder shall be 280±30mm2/sec and the
specifications for
corresponding temperatures for the different binders are given in Table
manufactured
11-1, MTM L11-7.
asphalt. It is also
h. Place the asphalt mix into the mould and level the surface, Figure 11-6.
used to test
i. Place the mould and sample into the Marshall compaction equipment,
specimens of
applying 75 blows either side or 20.7 MPa for 2 min when using heated
asphalt as part of
plungers to compact the specimen.
the Marshall Mix
j. Adjust the load to suit the specified voids ratio.
Design of asphalt
k. Remove compacted specimens from the moulds using an extruder.
concrete.
The test involves
3. Procedure
preparation of test
a. Cool the samples to room temperature overnight or use fans for rapid
specimens of
cooling.
asphalt concrete by
b. Measure the thickness of the sample to the nearest 0.1 mm.
mixing the different
c. Cure the specimen in an oven at 60°C for 24 hrs.
constituents of
d. Place the specimens in airtight containers to protect them.
asphalt in a
e. Determine the bulk specific gravity of each specimen, MTM L11-11 to
specified
MTM L11-14.
proportion
f. Place the samples into the water or air bath and allow to equilibrate at
following
25 ± 0.5°C for 4 hrs.
procedure MTM
g. Place the specimens in a Marshall compression testing equipment and
L11-1 of MTM L11-2
apply axial compression load to achieve deformation rate 50.8 mm/min
and compacting it
for specimen of 101.6 mm diameter and record the maximum load
in cylindrical
achieve in MPa.
moulds of 101.6
h. Record flow value at the maximum load inn 25 hundredths of a
mm diameter,
millimeter i.e. when the load begins to drop.

225
conditioning and i. After removing the sample from the water or air bath, test should be
testing in a completed in not more than 30 secs.
Marshall test
machine to
4. Report 1:
determine the
a. Type of sample (prepared in the laboratory and pavement core)
plastic flow or
b. Height of cores samples in millimetres
plastic deformation
c. Average maximum load in kN for the 3 samples.
of the asphalt
d. Average flow value of the 3 samples, in 25 hundredths of a millimeter
Reference Test: e. Test Temperature
ASTM D 1559 and
AASHTO T167

(a) Forming Mould Plunger for 101.6 Dia. Samples

(b) Marshall Equipment

Figure 11-6 Marshall Test (a) and (b)

226
5. Report 2:
a. Nominal dimensions of the sample, mm
b. Compressive strength, (load/original area), MPa,

6. Precision
a. Single person – the difference between 2 results should be ≤ 407kPa.
Each result should be an average of the 3 values as required in a
Marshall Test. The difference in the values used to calculation the
average should not exceed 841kPa
b. Multilaboratory - the difference between 2 results on tests carried out
in different laboratories on identical samples by different operators
should be ≤ 1055kPa. Each result should be an average of the 3 values
as required in a Marshall Test.

227
11.6 MTM L11-6 Marshall Mix Design
Test Number MTM Marshall mix design
L11-6
Description: 1. Apparatus:
a. Marshall mixing equipment
This test method
b. Marshall compaction equipment
describes the
c. Marshall test machine – with load and deflection reading devices and
standard procedure
semicircular sample holders
for a Marshall mix
d. Moulds – 101.6 to 101.73 mm diameter and 6.4 mm height
design of asphalt
e. Water bath or air bath – for control of temperature at 25 ± 0.5°C
for the
f. Heating oven – room temperature to 200°C and ±3°C accuracy
determination of
g. Slide calipers – for measuring specimen thickness to ± 0.1 mm accuracy
the appropriate
h. Balance - with capacity of 2000 g and accuracy of 0.1 % of sample size
bitumen content
i. Spatulas
necessary to meet
the specified
resistance against 2. Marshall Mix Design Procedure
plastic flow or a. Blending aggregates using the graphical method, Figure 11-7:
plastic i. Sample the different aggregate fractions following MTM L8-1
deformation, voids ii. Carry out sieve analysis following MTM L8-3
content ratio of iii. Plot a graph of the %age passing on the y-axis and sieve sizes on
asphalt containing the x-axis, without any scale on the x-axis
penetration grade iv. Draw a line from origin (0-0) diagonally to the top right-hand
or cutback bitumen corner of the graph.
and maximum v. From the grading specification for aggregate for the asphalt
aggregate size of draw horizontal lines from percentage passing on the y-axis
25.4 mm. corresponding to the sieve sizes in the specification.
vi. Where the horizontal lines meet the diagonal line draw a vertical
The procedure and
line to the x-axis and label the sieve size (mm) at the intercept.
the strength test
vii. Repeat this for %age passing and corresponding sieve sizes and
results are used to
label the sieve sizes in mm. This creates a scale for the x-axis.
determine the
viii. Plot the grading curves for the different fractions on the graph
specifications for
using values of %age passing and corresponding sieve sizes using
the manufacture of
the scale created on the x-axis.
asphalt, which is
ix. Assume a vertical line moving from right to left and considering
appropriate for the
the first 2 grading curves which are first encountered.
design traffic.
x. Draw a vertical line in a position where the distance from the x-
Verification of
axis (zero % passing) to the grading curve of the coarse fraction
strength against
(lower curve) is equal to the distance from 100 % passing line to
plastic deformation
the finer fraction grading curve (upper curve).
and flow is done by
xi. Draw a horizontal line from the intercept between the vertical
means of the
line and the diagonal line to the right as shown in Figure 11-7.
Marshall Test MTM
xii. Calculate the proportion of the coarse fraction:
L11-5.
Proportion of coarse fraction as 100% – %age passing value at
Reference Test: the horizontal line
ASTM D 1559 and xiii. If there are more than 2 fractions of aggregate move further to
AASHTO T167 the left and repeat the procedure 2a(x) to 2a(xii) for the 2nd and
3rd fractions
xiv. Calculate the proportion of the second aggregate fraction:
Proportion of second fraction = 100% - %age of first aggregate
fraction (obtained in 2a(xii) - %age passing value at 2nd horizontal line.

228
 xv. Repeat this procedure for other fractions.

Figure 11-7 Blending of Aggregates using the Graphical Method

3. Marshall mix design procedure

a. Generally, particle size distribution and binder type are specified for
the mix to be designed.
b. Where the aggregate and binder is not specified, determine:
i. The density of bitumen, ρb
ii. The bulk density of aggregate ρa
iii. The bulk density of blend, ρab

100
𝜌𝑎𝑏 =
𝑃1 𝑃2 𝑃3
𝜌𝑎1 + 𝜌𝑎2 + 𝜌𝑎3 + ⋯ .
Where:
P1, P2, P3, … = percentage of fractions on the aggregate blend
ρa1, ρa2, ρa3, … = bulk density of the aggregate fractions

4. Sample preparation
a. Prepare 3 to 5 series of 3 test specimens or more.
b. Select an approx. binder content for the first series.
c. Vary the binder content for the first series by increments of 0.5% for
the specimens close to the assumed binder content.
d. Repeat for 2 to 4 additional series varying the binder content for each
series and also varying the binder content of specimens in increments
of 0.3% – 0.4 %
e. Prepare test sample as described in MTM L11-5.
f. Prepare test sample for maximum theoretical density according to
MTM L11-4.
g. Measure the thickness of specimen at room temperature with slide
calipers to the nearest 0.1 mm
h. Determine the bulk density in accordance with MTM L11-10.
i. Carry out Marshall tests following procedure MTM L11-5.

229
5. Calculations:
a. Calculate stability and flow as provided in MTM L11-5
b. Calculate voids content, MTM L11-16.
c. Calculate voids in mineral aggregate (VMA), MTM L8-11
d. Calculate voids filled with binder = value from 5(a) minus air voids
(MTM L11-16)
e. Calculate optimum binder content which is the average of:
i. Binder content at max. stability
ii. Binder content at max. bulk density of mix
iii. Binder content at the middle of the range of specified voids of
the mix
f. If the stability and flow are not met, consider:
i. Varying the binder content
ii. Varying aggregate grading
iii. Varying binder stiffness.

6. Report
a. Reference to MTM L11-6
b. Marshall Test:
i. Thickness of test sample to the nearest 0.1 mm
ii. Average corrected Marshall stability number (N) from 3 tests
samples
iii. Average flow value (mm) to the nearest 0.1 mm of at least 3 test
samples
iv. Test temperature, °C.
c. Results from each test series
i. Maximum theoretical density
ii. Average bulk density
iii. Average voids content
iv. Average voids filled with binder.
v. Test dates
vi. Any deviations from the standard procedure.

230
11.7 MTM L11-7 Refusal Density Mix Design
Test Number MTM Refusal density mix design
11-7
Description: 1. Apparatus:
a. Marshall mixing equipment
This test method
b. Marshall compaction equipment
describes the
c. Marshall test machine – with a load and deflection reading devices and
standard procedure
semicircular sample holders
for refusal density
d. Moulds – 101.6 to 101.73 mm diameter and 6.4 mm height
mix design for
e. Water bath or air bath – for control of temperature at 25 ± 0.5°C
asphalt for the
f. Heating oven – room temperature to 200°C and ±3°C accuracy
determination of
g. Slide calipers – for measuring specimen thickness to ± 0.1 mm accuracy
the appropriate
h. Balance - with capacity of 2000 g an accuracy of 0.1 % of sample size
bitumen content
i. Spatulas
necessary to meet
the specified
resistance against 2. Refusal Mix Design Procedure
plastic flow or a. Carry out the Marshall mix design applying 75 blows on each face of
plastic deformation the moulded specimen and the Marshall tests on specimens, MTM L11-
and voids 5 and MTM L11-6.
content/ratio of b. Determine the binder content required to achieve 6% air voids from
asphalt containing the Marshall mix design.
penetration grade c. Prepare specimens with increments of 0.5% of binder such that the
or cutback bitumen specimens have 5.5 %, 6.0% and 6.5% binder content.
and maximum d. Compact the samples using the Marshall compaction equipment to
aggregate size of refusal.
25.4 mm. e. Plot a graph of air voids vs binder content at refusal density, see
example given in Figure 11-8.
The procedure and
f. By interpolation determine the binder content which gives 3% air voids
the strength test
at refusal density
results are used to
g. Check to ensure that the final binder content meets the Marshall mix
determine the
design requirements in 2(a) and has a minimum of 3% air voids at
specifications for
refusal density.
the manufacture of
asphalt, which is
appropriate for the
design traffic.
The refusal density
mix design is aimed
at designing asphalt
mixes, which retain
the specified
minimum air voids
content after
secondary
compaction, by
traffic. This makes
the asphalt more
Figure 11-8 Plot of Air voids Content at Refusal Density vs Binder Content
resilient through
extended Marshall
compaction till no

231
further 3. Report
densification is a. Test reference, MTM L11-7
possible. b. Material types and properties
c. Void content at refusal density
Verification of
d. Estimated binder content at 3% air voids in mix at refusal density
strength against
e. Test date
plastic deformation
f. Deviations from this standard.
and flow is done by
means of the
Marshall Test MTM
L40.
Reference Test:
TRL Overseas Road
Note 31 Appendix D

232
11.8 MTM L11-8 Determination of Indirect Tensile Strength
Test Number MTM Determination of indirect tensile strength
L11-8
Description: 1. Apparatus:
a. Marshall mixing equipment
This test method
b. Marshall compaction equipment
describes the
c. Testing machine – with load and deflection reading devices and upper
standard procedure
and lower plates with loading strips to hold and apply load to the
for the
sample
determination of
d. Moulds – 101.6 to 101.73 mm diameter and 6.4 mm height
Indirect Tensile
e. Water bath or air bath – for control of temperature at 25 ± 0.5°C
Strength (ITS) and
f. Heating oven – room temperature to 200°C and ±3°C accuracy
E-modulus of
g. Slide calipers – for measuring specimen thickness to ± 0.1 mm accuracy
asphalt. The results
h. Balance - with capacity of 2000 g and accuracy of 0.1 % of sample size
are used for design
i. Spatulas
purposes, quality
control during
construction and
strength evaluation
of asphalt on
existing roads.
The test is used to
determine the
physical properties
of asphalt mixes
and conformity of
manufactured
asphalt to
specifications.
The test involves
preparation of test
specimens of
asphalt concrete by
mixing the different
constituents of
asphalt in specified
proportions
following (a)
procedure MTM
L11-1 or MTM L11-
2 for sampling or
preparation of the
asphalt mix
samples. The
samples are then
compacted in
cylindrical moulds
of 101.6 mm
diameter,
conditioned and

233
tested in a Marshall
test type machine
by loading
diametrically
opposite sides of
the specimen at a
rate of 2 mm/ min
at a specified
temperature.
Reference Test:
ASTM D 3967

(b)

Figure 11-9 Testing apparatus for tensile strength

2. Sample preparation
a. Prepare the bituminous mix following MTM L11-1 or collect a sample
using following MTM L11-2 (AASHTO T168).
b. Prepare cylindrical specimens following MTM L11-5 and carry out 3
parallel tests.
c. Do not cut samples made in the laboratory.
d. Obtain 101.6 mm to 101.73 mm core specimens from existing asphalt
concrete and for this carry out 5 parallel tests.
e. Cut the core samples to a height of 40 – 75 mm.
f. Measure the height in 3 places with a sliding caliper.
g. Dry samples at room temperature for 24 hrs
h. Place samples in watertight plastic and place in a water bath to
equilibrate at 29°C for 30-40 min.

3. Testing procedure
a. For dry strength, ITS dry
i. Measure the weight to the nearest 0.01 g
ii. Place specimen in the testing machine
iii. For cores, place thin rubber between the plates and the surface
of the specimen to reduce the effect of the unevenness of the
surface of the cores on the test results.
iv. Apply the load at a rate that results in deformation of 2 mm/min
v. Complete the test within 3 min from taking specimen out of the
water bath.
vi. Record the maximum load in N.
b. For tensile strength of wet samples

234
 i. If wet strength is specified place the samples directly into the
water bath to equilibrate at 29°C for 30-40 min
ii. Place the specimen into the testing machine and follow
procedure 3a(iii) to 3a(vi)
iii. Remove the tested samples from the machine.
iv. Place them in an oven and dry them at 110 ±5°C till constant
mass.
v. Weigh the specimen to the nearest 0.01 g.

4. Calculations
a. Calculate indirect tensile strength using the following equation:

636.62𝐹𝑚𝑎𝑥
𝐼𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑡 𝑇𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑙𝑒 𝑆𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ, 𝑆𝑡 =
ℎ𝐷

Where:
St = indirect tensile strength, kPa
Fmax = maximum load at failure, N
h = height of specimen, mm
D = diameter of specimen, mm

b. Calculate E-modulus using the following equation:

𝐸 − 𝑚𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑙𝑢𝑠, 𝐸𝑚𝑜𝑑 = 6.1𝑆𝑡 + 100

c. Calculate dry bulk density:

𝑀
𝐷𝑟𝑦 𝑏𝑢𝑙𝑘 𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦, 𝜌𝑏𝑑 =
𝐷2
𝜋 4 ℎ
Where:
M = mass of asphalt specimen/core, g
D = diameter of asphalt specimen/core, mm

5. Report
a. Test reference
b. Type of material and sample number
c. Dry bulk density
d. Indirect tensile strength, MPa
e. E-modulus for each test sample, MPa
f. Average dry bulk density, g/cm3
g. Average indirect tensile strength, MPa
h. Average E-modulus, MPa

235
11.9 MTM L11-9 Determination of Bitumen Content and Grading of
Aggregate in Asphalt by Quantitative Extraction
Test Number MTM Determination of bitumen content and aggregate grading in asphalt by
L11-9 quantitative extraction
Description: 1. Apparatus:
a. Extraction apparatus
This test method
b. Centrifuge – 3500 revolutions per minute
describes the
c. Centrifuge cylinders
standard procedure
d. Electric hot plate – thermostatically controlled
for the
e. Water bottle
determination
f. Filter paper
bitumen content in
g. Pan for quartering material
hot asphalt mixes
h. Balance – accurate to 0.1 g
and pavement
i. Oven – for heating materials
samples (e.g.
j. Steel rod – for stirring
asphalt cores and
k. Ignition dish – 125 ml
slabs).
l. Analytic balance
The test is used to m. Gas masks
determine the n. Protective gloves
constituents of o. Brush
asphalt mixes and
conformity to
2. Reagents:
specifications of
a. Ammonium carbonate solution (NH4)2CO3– saturated solution reagent
manufactured or
grade
laid asphalt. It is
b. Methylene chloride
also used in the
c. Normal propyl bromide nPB
evaluation of
d. Trichloroethylene
asphaltic
pavements in
The reagents can be hazardous, and all necessary precautions must be
relation to their
taken.
quality and
performance in
3. Sample preparation
service including
a. Use guidance in Table 11-3 for determination of the minimum size of
rehabilitation
sample required
deign.
The test involves Table 11-3 Minimum Size of Sample for Extraction
preparation of test Nominal Maximum Minimum Mass of Sample
specimens, Aggregate Size (mm) (kg)
extraction using 4.75 0.5
solvents such as
trichloroethylene, 9.5 1
trichloroethane or 12.5 1.5
methylene
19.0 2
chloride. The
bitumen content is 25.0 3
determined by 37.5 4
subtracting from
the total mass of
sample the mass of
extracted

236
aggregate,
moisture, and b. Extraction of bitumen from hot mix asphalt
mineral material. i. Heat the asphalt materials in an oven at temperatures not
The bitumen exceeding the compaction temperature.
content is ii. Allow the material to become plastic and consistent enough to
expressed as a make the quartering possible.
percentage by mass iii. Separate representative samples
of the non- iv. At least 2 parallel extractions should be carried out
bituminous
material in the 4. Bitumen extraction procedure
sample. a. Extraction of bitumen from hot mix asphalt
i. Weigh a wire cloth basket to the nearest 0.1 g.
ii. Place the specimen in a wire cloth basket
Reference Test:
iii. Place specimen in the wire cloth and weigh the wire cloth and
ASTM D2172 specimen to the nearest 0.1 g.
AASHTO T164 iv. Add 500 ml of solvent
v. Place a metal condenser on top
vi. Turn the water circulation through the condenser
vii. Place the unit on a hot plate and turn on the heat to cause the
solvent to boil off slowly and condense on the metal condenser
viii. Allow solvent to flow through wire basket and specimen enough
to complete the extraction
ix. Check that extraction is complete.
• Remove the wire basket and sample from the extractor.
• Allow 1 drop to fall on the filter paper
• If the drop forms a darker central part and a clear outer ring the
extraction is completed
• If the out ring remains brown extraction is not completed,
continue the extraction.
x. If the specimen has higher binder content, stir gently and
continue the extraction process.
xi. Once extraction is completed, remove the wire cloth with
aggregate and place in the oven at 110 ±5°C to dry.
xii. Carry out a sieve analysis, MTM L8-3.
xiii. Place the solvent with filler, which would have washed through
wire cloth into a centrifuge cylinder filling up to 2/3 depth and
place in a centrifuge.
xiv. Operate the centrifuge at minimum of 3500 rpm for 15-20 min.
xv. Pour out the solvent to leave the filler in the cylinder.
xvi. Add more solvent and repeat the centrifuge process several
times unit the solvent remains clean after the process.
xvii. Place the centrifuge cylinders in the oven to dry at 110 ±5°C.
xviii. Weigh the centrifuge cylinders after drying to get the mass of
filler.
xix. Add the mass of dry filler to the mass of dry aggregate
xx. Use the total mass of aggregate for the calculation of bitumen
content, the mass of bitumen as a percentage by mass of the
mass of aggregate.
xxi. Calculate the mass of bitumen by subtracting the total mass of
oven dried clean aggregate from the total mass of sample.
b. Extraction from asphalt mixes with water such as cold mix

237
 xxii. Dry the specimen in an oven at 110 ±5°C
xxiii. Carry out the extraction using procedure 4b(i) to 4b(xxi)
c. Bitumen extraction from asphalt with absorptive aggregate
i. Follow procedure 4a(i) to 4a(xxi)
ii. Crush the clean dried aggregate and repeat procedure 4a(i) to
4a(xxi)
iii. Add the binder obtained through 4a(i) – 4a(xxi) to the binder
obtained through procedure 4c(i) to 4c(ii) to get the total binder
content.

5. Calculations
Calculate the binder content (B), %

(𝑚1 − 𝑚2 ) − (𝑚3 − 𝑚4 )
𝐵 = 𝑥 100 %
𝑚1 − 𝑚2

Where:
B = binder content, %
m1 = mass of test specimen, g
m2 = mass of water in test specimen, g
m3 = mass of aggregate, g
m4 = mass of filler, g
Calculate percentage retained
𝑚𝑅
𝑃𝑒𝑟𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑅𝑒𝑡𝑎𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑑, % = 𝑥 100 %
𝑚3 − 𝑚4

Where:
MR = mass of aggregate retained on sieve, g

6. Report
a. Test reference, MTM L11-9
b. Mass of extracted mineral aggregate, g
c. Mass filler, g
d. Binder content, %
e. Deviation from this standard

238
11.10 MTM L11-10 Determination of Bulk Density of Asphalt Samples
using Calipers
Test Number MTM Determination of bulk density of asphalt samples using calipers
L11-10
Description: 1. Apparatus:
a. Caliper
This test method
b. Asphalt saw cutter
describes the
c. Brush
standard procedure
d. Balance – capable of weighing a minimum 1200 g with accuracy of
for the
0.01g
determination bulk
density of samples
such as asphalt 2. Sample preparation
cores where the a. Cut asphalt samples from the field using a saw cutter:
volume is b. For blocks cut 100 mm x 100 mm ensuring that all faces are cut using
determined using the saw cutter.
sliding calipers. c. For cylindrical specimens (cores) use the brush and water to clean the
part at the interface between the asphalt and base course to remove
The test is used to
impurities or cut it off with the saw cutter to get a clean face.
determine bulk
d. If the asphalt has 2 layers cut off that part close to the interface to get
densities of
a clean face.
compacted asphalt
e. Cut off the part closest to the surface on the wearing course which may
mixes partly to
have been contaminated as a result of blinding or penetration of fine
check conformity
with percolating water/runoff.
with specifications
f. Cut off any indented or deformed surface of the specimen.
asphalt mixes
produced in the
laboratory or as laid 3. Test procedure
asphalt on the road. a. Carry out measurements on 2 separate test samples
It is also used in the b. Dry to constant mass in air or in an oven at low temperature (approx.
evaluation of 60°C)
asphaltic c. Measure sample height in 4 places and diameter/width in 3 places.
pavements in
relation to their 4. Calculations
quality and Calculate the bulk density of asphalt using the following equations:
performance in
service including 𝑚1
𝐵𝑢𝑙𝑘 𝐷𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦, 𝜌𝑏𝑑 = 𝑥 100 %
rehabilitation 𝐷 2
deign. 𝜋 (2 ) ℎ

The test involves Where:

preparation of test
specimens of m1 = mass of dried test specimen, to the nearest 0.1 g
compacted asphalt D = diameter of test specimen, to the nearest 0.1 mm
h = height of test specimen, to the nearest 0.1 mm

5. Report
a. Test reference
b. Sample identification reference
c. Bulk density, g/cm3

239
11.11 MTM L11-11 Determination of Bulk Specific Gravity of Compacted
Asphalt Samples using Paraffin-Coated Specimens – Method A
Test Number MTM Determination of bulk specific gravity of compacted asphalt samples using
L11-11 paraffin coated specimens – Method A
Description: 1. Apparatus: Method A
a. Balance – with accuracy of 0.1% of the mass of samples to be weighed
This test method
with a suspension apparatus
describes the
b. Suspension apparatus – for suspending the sample while weighing in
standard procedure
water. The wire for suspending the sample should be as thin as possible
for the
to prevent the effect of variable immersion length
determination of
c. Water bath – A thermostatically controlled water container with an
bulk specific gravity
overflow outlet to immerse the sample while weighing. The overflow
of compacted
helps to maintain a constant height of water in the bath.
asphalt using
d. Oven – with capability to maintain temperature at 55 ± 3˚C for drying
paraffin coated
asphalt samples
samples.
e. Thermometer – with a range of 17 ˚C to 29 ˚C and accuracy of 0.1 ˚C.
The test involves
the preparation of
2. Material
samples or
Paraffin is required to coat the sample if it is porous with interconnected
collection of
cavities and with water absorption of more than 2% by volume in relation to
asphalt cores from
MTM L11-14 or (AASHTO T166 (B).
existing asphalt
layers, drying them, 3. Sample preparation - Method A
weighing, coating a. Collect the sample moulded in the laboratory or cored from the asphalt
with paraffin and layers on the road (binder or wearing course); avoid contamination
finally weighing with tack coat.
them in water to b. Remove any tack or seal coat or parts of other pavement layers or
determine the paper or soil.
specific gravity of c. The height of the sample must not be less than 4 times the size of
the asphalt. This largest aggregate and the thickness of diameter must not be less than
method uses a 2 times the size of the largest aggregate.
suspension d. Place the samples into the oven at 55˚Cover night then weigh. Place
apparatus to back in the oven and re-weigh after 2 hrs. Repeat weighing and drying
suspend the sample process until constant mass is achieved i.e. change in weight between
in water. successive weighing is less than 0.05%.
e. Weigh the dried sample and record the mass, M1.
The test is used in
f. Coat the sample with melted paraffin and allow to cool to room
the determination
temperature for 30 mins.
of the air voids in
the compacted
asphalt mix which 4. Procedure – Method A
are essential in the a. Weigh the paraffin coated sample in air, M2
design or b. Fill the water bath with water and maintain the temperature of the
assessment of water to 25 ± 1˚C.
compacted asphalt c. Suspend the sample into the water bath using the suspension
mixes. apparatus so that the sample is completely immersed in the water and
is not in contact with the walls or bottom of the water bath. The
Reference Test: suspension wire should be connected directly to the bottom of the
AASHTO T275 balance.
d. Record the mass of the sample in water, M3.
e. Determine the specific gravity of the paraffin if not provided, Gp

240
5. Calculation – Method A
Calculate of Bulk Specific Gravity, Gb
𝑀1
𝐺𝑏 =
𝑀 − 𝑀1
𝑀2 − 𝑀3 − ( 2 )
𝐺𝑝
Where:
M1 = mass of dry sample in air, g
M2 = mass of dry sample with paraffin coating in air, g
M3 = mass of dry sample with paraffin coating in water, g
Gp = specific gravity of paraffin, g

6. Report:
a. Test reference
b. Method used
c. Bulk Specific Gravity to the nearest thousandth

7. Precision:
Duplicate specific gravity results should not differ by 0.02.

241
11.12 MTM L11-12 Determination of Bulk Specific Gravity of Compacted
Asphalt Samples using Paraffin-Coated Specimens – Method B
Test Number MTM Determination of bulk specific gravity of compacted asphalt samples using
L11-12 paraffin coated specimens – Method B
Description: 1. Apparatus: Method B
a. Balance – with accuracy of 0.1% of the mass of samples to be weighed
This test method
b. Water bath – A thermostatically controlled water container with an
describes the
overflow outlet to immerse the sample while weighing. The overflow
standard procedure
helps to maintain a constant height of water in the bath.
for the
c. Thermometer – with a range of 17 ˚C to 29 ˚C and accuracy of 0.1 ˚C.
determination of
d. Oven – with capability to maintain temperature at 55 ± 3˚C for drying
bulk specific gravity
asphalt samples
of compacted
e. Suspension apparatus – the wire for suspending the sample should be
asphalt using
as thin as possible to prevent the effect of variable immersion length.
paraffin coated
f. Volumeter calibrated to 1200 ml – for volumetric measurements for
samples.
specific gravity determination.
The test involves
the preparation of
2. Material
samples or
Paraffin is required to coat the sample if it is porous with interconnected
collection of
cavities and with water absorption of more than 2% by volume in relation to
asphalt cores from
MTM L1-14 or (AASHTO T166 (B).
existing asphalt
layers, drying them, 3. Sample preparation – Method B
weighing, coating a. Collect the sample moulded in the laboratory or cored from the asphalt
with paraffin and layers on the road (binder or wearing course)
finally weighing b. Remove any tack or seal coat or parts of other pavement layers or
them in water to paper or soil.
determine the c. The height of the sample must not be less than 4 times the size of
specific gravity of largest aggregate and the thickness of diameter must not be less than
the asphalt. This 2 times the size of the largest aggregate.
method uses the d. Place the samples into the oven at 55˚Cover night then weigh. Place
volumeter. back in the oven and re-weigh after 2 hrs. Repeat weighing and drying
process until constant mass is achieved i.e. change in weight between
The test is used in
successive weighing is less than 0.05%.
the determination
e. Weigh the mass of the dry sample in air, M1
of the air voids in
f. Coat the sample with melted paraffin ensuring adequate thickness to
the compacted
cover all cavities and allow to cool to room temperature for 30 mins.
asphalt mix which
g. Weigh the paraffin coated sample in air, M2
are essential in the
design or
assessment of 4. Procedure – Method B
compacted asphalt a. Fill the calibrated volumeter with distilled water and maintain the
mixes. temperature at 25± 1˚C
b. Measure the mass of volumeter filled with water at 25˚C, M3
Reference Test: c. Place the paraffin coated sample into the volumeter and cover, ensure
AASHTO T275 that some water spills through the tapered capillary lid.
d. Wipe spilled water with a dry cloth or absorbent.
e. Weigh the volumeter together with the water and sample, M4.
f. Determine the specific gravity of the paraffin if not provided, Gp

242
5. Calculation – Method B
Calculate of Bulk Specific Gravity, Gb
𝑀1
𝐺𝑏 =
𝑀 + 𝑀1
𝑀3 − [𝑀4 − 𝑀2 + ( 2 )]
𝐺𝑝
Where:
M1 = mass of dry sample in air, g
M2 = mass of dry sample with paraffin coating in air, g
M3 = mass of volumeter filled with water at 25˚C, g
M4 = mass of volumeter with paraffin coating sample and water at
25˚C, g
Gp = specific gravity of paraffin, g

6. Report:
a. Test reference
b. Method used
c. Bulk Specific Gravity to the nearest thousandth

7. Precision:
Duplicate specific gravity results should not differ by 0.02.

243
11.13 MTM L11-13 Determination of Bulk Specific Gravity of Compacted
Asphalt Samples using Saturated Surface-Dry Specimen –
Method A
Test Number MTM Determination of bulk specific gravity of compacted asphalt samples using
L411-13 paraffin coated specimens – Method A
Description: 1. Apparatus: Method A
a. Balance – with accuracy of 0.1% of the mass of samples to be
This test method
weighed with a suspension apparatus
describes the
b. Suspension apparatus – for suspending the sample while weighing in
standard procedure
water. The wire for suspending the sample should be as thin as
for the
possible to prevent the effect of variable immersion length
determination of
c. Water bath – A thermostatically controlled water container with an
bulk specific gravity
overflow outlet to immerse the sample while weighing. The overflow
of compacted
helps to maintain a constant height of water in the bath.
asphalt using
d. Oven – with capability to maintain temperature at 55 ± 3˚C for drying
saturated surface-
asphalt samples
dry samples.
e. Thermometer – with a range of 17 ˚C to 29 ˚C and accuracy of 0.1 ˚C.
The test involves
the preparation of
2. Material
samples or
Paraffin is required to coat the sample if it is porous with interconnected
collection of
cavities and with water absorption of less than 2% by volume in relation to
asphalt cores from
MTM L11-14 or (AASHTO T166 (B).
existing asphalt
layers, drying them, Distilled water is required to fill the water bath.
weighing, 3. Sample preparation - Method A
immersing and a. Collect the sample moulded in the laboratory or cored from the
weighing in water. asphalt layers on the road (binder or wearing course); avoid
The sample is then contamination with tack coat.
damp-dried with a b. Remove any tack or seal coat or parts of other pavement layers or
damp towel and paper or soil.
weighed again. The c. The height of the sample must not be less than 4 times the size of
bulk specific gravity largest aggregate and the thickness of diameter must not be less than
is then determined 2 times the size of the largest aggregate.
from the results. d. Place the samples into the oven at 55˚C over night then weigh. Place
The test is used in back in the oven and re-weigh after 2 hrs. Repeat weighing and drying
the determination process until constant mass is achieved i.e. change in weight between
of the air voids in successive weighing is less than 0.05%.
the compacted
asphalt mix which 4. Procedure – Method A
are essential in the a. Weigh the dried sample and record the mass, M1
design or b. Fill the water bath with water and maintain the temperature of the
assessment of water to 25 ± 1˚C.
compacted asphalt c. Suspend the sample into the water bath using the suspension
mixes. apparatus so that the sample is completely immersed for 4±1 min in
Reference Test: water and is not in contact with the walls or bottom of the water
AASHTO T166 bath. The suspension wire should be connected directly to the
bottom of the balance.
d. Record the mass of the sample in water, M2.

244
 e. Remove the sample from the water bath and quickly dry it with a
damp towel and weigh the surface dry mass, M3. Any water that
seeps out the sample shall be part of M3.

Alternative: In order to speed up the process it is possible to change

the order of testing – immerse sample in the water bath and measure
the weight in water (M2) then take the samples out and quickly dry
it using a damp towel and weigh (M3), and then dry the sample in
the oven and measure the weight (M1).

5. Calculations – Method A
Calculate of Bulk Specific Gravity, Gb
𝑀1
𝐺𝑏 =
𝑀3 − 𝑀2
Where:
M1 = mass of dry sample in air, g
M2 = mass of sample in water, g
M3 = mass of surface dry sample in air, g
Gp = specific gravity of paraffin, g

6. Report:
a. Test reference
b. Method used
c. Bulk Specific Gravity to the nearest thousandth
d. Absorption reported to the nearest hundredth

7. Precision:
Duplicate specific gravity results should not differ by 0.02.

245
11.14 MTM L11-14 Determination of Bulk Specific Gravity of Compacted
Asphalt Samples using Saturated Surface-Dry Specimen –
Method B
Test Number MTM Determination of bulk specific gravity of compacted asphalt samples using
L11-14 Saturated Surface-Dry Specimen – Method B
Description: 1. Apparatus: Method B
a. Balance – with accuracy of 0.1% of the mass of samples to be weighed
This test method
b. Water bath – A thermostatically controlled water container with an
describes the
overflow outlet to immerse the sample while weighing. The overflow
standard procedure
helps to maintain a constant height of water in the bath.
for the
c. Thermometer – with a range of 17 ˚C to 29 ˚C and accuracy of 0.1 ˚C.
determination of
d. Oven – with capability to maintain temperature at 55 ± 3˚C for drying
bulk specific gravity
asphalt samples
of compacted
e. Suspension apparatus – the wire for suspending the sample should be
asphalt using
as thin as possible to prevent the effect of variable immersion length.
saturated surface-
f. Volumeter calibrated to 1200 ml – for volumetric measurements for
dry samples.
specific gravity determination.
The test involves
the preparation of
2. Material
samples or
Paraffin is required to coat the sample if it is porous with interconnected
collection of
cavities and with water absorption of more than 2% by volume in relation to
asphalt cores from
MTM L11-14 or (AASHTO T166 (B).
existing asphalt
layers, drying them, Distilled water is needed to fill the water bath.
weighing,
3. Sample preparation – Method B
immersing in water,
a. Collect the sample moulded in the laboratory or cored from the asphalt
placing in a
layers on the road (binder or wearing course)
volumeter and
b. Remove any tack or seal coat or parts of other pavement layers or
weighing. The
paper or soil.
results are then
c. The height of the sample must not be less than 4 times the size of
used to determine
largest aggregate and the thickness of diameter must not be less than
the specific gravity
2 times the size of the largest aggregate.
of the asphalt
d. Place the samples into the oven at 55˚C over night then weigh. Place
samples.
back in the oven and re-weigh after 2 hrs. Repeat weighing and drying
The test is used in process until constant mass is achieved i.e. change in weight between
the determination successive weighing is less than 0.05%.
of the air voids in
the compacted
4. Procedure – Method B
asphalt mix which
a. Weigh the mass of the dry sample in air, M1
are essential in the
b. Immerse the sample in water for 10 mins to saturate in the water bath.
design or
c. Fill the calibrated volumeter with distilled water and maintain the
assessment of
temperature at 25± 1˚C
compacted asphalt
d. Remove the saturated sample from the water bath and quickly dry it
mixes.
with a damp towel and weigh it, M2.
Reference Test: e. Measure the mass of volumeter filled with water at 25˚C, M3
AASHTO T166 f. Place the saturated sample into the volumeter and allow to stand for
60 seconds and allow the temperature to equilibrate at 25 ± 1˚C.
g. Cover the volumeter and ensure that some water spills through the
tapered capillary lid.
h. Wipe spilled water with a dry cloth or absorbent.

246
 i. Weigh the volumeter together with the water and sample, M4.

5. Calculation – Method B
Calculate of Bulk Specific Gravity, Gb
𝑀1
𝐺𝑏 =
𝑀2 + 𝑀3 − 𝑀4

Calculate the water absorbed by the sample, wA

𝑀2 − 𝑀1
𝑤𝐴 = 𝑥 100
𝑀2 + 𝑀3 − 𝑀4
Where:
M1 = mass of dry sample in air, g
M2 = mass of surface-dry sample in air, g
M3 = mass of volumeter filled with water at 25˚C, g
M4 = mass of volumeter with sample and water at 25˚C, g
Gp = specific gravity of paraffin, g
wA = Percentage water absorbed by volume, ml

6. Report:
a. Test reference
b. Method used
c. Bulk Specific Gravity to the nearest thousandth
d. Absorption reported to the nearest hundredth

7. Precision:
Duplicate specific gravity results should not differ by 0.02.

247
11.15 MTM L11-15 Determination of Bulk Specific Gravity of Compacted
Asphalt Samples using Saturated Surface-Dry Specimen –
Method C (rapid test)
Test Number MTM Determination of bulk specific gravity of compacted asphalt samples using
L11-15 Saturated Surface-Dry Specimen – Method C
Description: 1. Apparatus: Method C
a. Balance – with accuracy of 0.1% of the mass of samples to be weighed
This test method
b. Water bath – A thermostatically controlled water container with an
describes the
overflow outlet to immerse the sample while weighing. The overflow
standard procedure
helps to maintain a constant height of water in the bath.
for the
c. Thermometer – with a range of 17 ˚C to 29 ˚C and accuracy of 0.1 ˚C.
determination of
d. Oven – with capability to maintain temperature at 55 ± 3˚C for drying
bulk specific gravity
asphalt samples
of compacted
e. Suspension apparatus – the wire for suspending the sample should be
asphalt using
as thin as possible to prevent the effect of variable immersion length.
paraffin coated
f. Volumeter calibrated to 1200 ml – for volumetric measurements for
samples.
specific gravity determination.
The test follows
method MTM L11-
2. Material
13 procedure 4(b)
Paraffin is required to coat the sample if it is porous with interconnected
to 4(e) to obtain
cavities and with water absorption of more than 2% by volume in relation to
M2, M3 and M4 or
MTM L11-14 or (AASHTO T166 (B).
MTM L11-14
procedure 4(b) to Distilled water is needed to fill the water bath.
4(i) to obtain M2,
3. Sample preparation – Method C
M3 and M4.
a. Collect the sample moulded in the laboratory or cored from the asphalt
Methods MTM L11-
layers on the road (binder or wearing course)
13 and MTM L11-14
b. Remove any tack or seal coat or parts of other pavement layers or
are slow because
paper or soil.
the samples need
c. The height of the sample must not be less than 4 times the size of
to be dried
largest aggregate and the thickness of diameter must not be less than
overnight. The
2 times the size of the largest aggregate.
process can be
speeded up by
carrying out rapid 4. Procedure – Method C
drying of samples Follow method MTM L11-13 procedure 4(b) to 4(e) to obtain M2, M3 and M4
to obtain the dry or
mass at high Method MTM L11-14 procedure 4(b) to 4(i) to obtain M2, M3 and M4
temperature 110
˚C for a short Determine M1 rapidly as follows:
period of time. a. Place the sample on a large flat-bottomed pan and put it into the oven
The bulk specific
to dry at 110 ± 5˚C until is it can be separated to obtain portions of the
gravity is then
determined from fine aggregate-bitumen not larger than 6.4 mm. Place back the
the results. separated sample into the oven to dry and re-weigh after 2 hrs. Repeat
weighing and drying process in 2-hour intervals until constant mass is
The test is used in achieved i.e. change in weight between successive weighing is less than
the determination 0.05%.
of the air voids in b. Record the final mass obtained, M1.
the compacted
asphalt mix which 5. Calculation – Method C
are essential in the

248
design or
assessment of
Where method MTM L11-13 procedure 4(b) to 4(e) are used to obtain M2 and
compacted asphalt
M3 calculate of Bulk Specific Gravity, Gb as follows:
mixes.
𝑀1
Reference Test: 𝐺𝑏 =
𝑀3 − 𝑀2
AASHTO T166
Where:
M1 = mass of dry sample in air, g
M2 = mass of sample in water, g
M3 = mass of surface dry sample in air, g
Gp = specific gravity of paraffin, g

Where Method MTM L11-14 procedure 4(b) to 4(i) are used to obtain M2, M3
and M4 calculate of Bulk Specific Gravity, Gb as follows:
𝑀1
𝐺𝑏 =
𝑀2 + 𝑀3 − 𝑀4

Calculate the water absorbed by the sample, wA

𝑀2 − 𝑀1
𝑤𝐴 = 𝑥 100
𝑀2 + 𝑀3 − 𝑀4
Where:
M1 = mass of dry sample in air, g
M2 = mass of surface-dry sample in air, g
M3 = mass of volumeter filled with water at 25˚C, g
M4 = mass of volumeter with sample and water at 25˚C, g
Gp = specific gravity of paraffin, g
wA = Percentage water absorbed by volume, ml

Report:
1. Test reference
2. Method used
3. Bulk Specific Gravity to the nearest thousandth
4. Absorption reported to the nearest hundredth

Precision:
Duplicate specific gravity results should not differ by 0.02.

249
11.16 MTM L11-16 Determination of Percentage Air Voids in Compacted
Dense or Open Asphalt
Test Number MTM Determination of Percentage Air Voids in Compacted Dense or Open Asphalt
L11-16
Description: 1. Carry out the following tests:
a. For dense bituminous mixes carry out the following test
This test method
i. Standard tests MTM L11-4 (AASHTO T209) to determine
describes the
theoretical maximum specific gravity.
standard procedure
ii. Standard tests MTM L11-11 or MTM L11-12 (AASHTO T275 A or
for the
B) or MTM L11-13, MTM L11-14 or MTM L11-15 (AASHTO T166
determination of
A or B or C) for the determination of bulk specific gravity of
bulk specific gravity
asphalt samples.
of compacted
b. For open bituminous mixes carry out the following tests
asphalt using
i. Standard tests MTM L11-4 (AASHTO T209) to determine
paraffin coated
theoretical maximum specific gravity. MTM L11-10 (ASTM
samples.
D2172)
The test follows ii. Standard test MTM L11-10 (ASTM D2172) to determine the bulk
method MTM L11- density of the sample.
13 procedure 4(b) iii. Divide the values obtained in 1b(ii) by 0.99707g/cm3 or
to 4(e) to obtain 997kg/m3 to convert to bulk specific gravity.
M2, M3 and M4 or
MTM L11-14
2. Calculations
procedure 4(b) to
Calculate percentage air voids, Va
4(i) to obtain M2,
M3 and M4. 𝐺𝑏
𝑉𝑎 = 100 (1 − )
Methods L48 and 𝐺𝑇
L49 are slow
Where:
because the
samples need to be Gb = Bulk specific gravity
dried overnight. GT = Theoretical maximum specific gravity
The process can be
speeded up by 3. Precision:
carrying out rapid The precision is checked on the standard deviation and range of data. Use the
drying of samples precision from the tests for bulk specific gravity and theoretical maximum
to obtain the dry specific gravity.
mass at high
temperature 110 Use the following formula to determine the overall standard deviation.
˚C for a short
period of time.
The bulk specific 𝑦̅ 2 𝜎𝑥 2 + 𝑥̅ 2 𝜎𝑦 2
gravity is then 𝜎𝑥/𝑦 = √
determined from 𝑦̅ 4
the results.
Where:
The test is used in
the determination σx/y = standard deviation for determining precision of test results bulk specific
of the air voids in gravity and theoretical maximum specific gravity
the compacted x = average value for the Gb tests
asphalt mix which
y = average value of the GT tests
are essential in the
design or σx = standard deviation from the precision for the Gb tests
assessment of

250
compacted asphalt σy = standard deviation from the precision for the GT tests
mixes.
Reference Test:
4. Report
AASHTO T269
a. Test reference
b. Percentage air voids to 1 decimal place

Acceptance criteria:
Acceptance criteria for test 1(a):
Tests Standard Range
Deviation
Single operator 0.32 0.91
Multi-laboratory - -

Acceptance criteria for test 1(b):

Tests Standard Range
Deviation
Single operator 0.51 1.44
Multi-laboratory 1.09 3.08

251
11.17 MTM L11-17 Determination of Moisture and Volatile Distillates in
Bituminous Paving Mixtures (Asphalt)
Test Number Determination of Moisture and Volatile Distillates in Bituminous Paving
MTM L11-17 Mixtures (Asphalt)
Description: 1. Apparatus
a. A metal still (Figure 11-14 and Figure 11-15) – with a faced flange at the
This test method
top to fasten the head using a clamp with an inserted tubulation of 25.4
describes the
mm internal diameter.
standard
b. Condenser – consisting of water-cooled reflux glass tube with a
procedure for the
condenser jacket of length ≥ 400 mm and inner tube of 9.5-12.7 mm in
determination of
external diameter. The end of the condense shall be at 30˚ at the
the amount of
entrance into the condenser. A second condenser may be required in
water or the
situations where the content of volatiles is high.
amount of volatile
c. Receiver – well annealed glass:
petroleum
i. For determination of water content, Figure 11-15: 10-25 ml;
distillates in
graduated to 0.1 ml with a maximum error of ± 0.05 ml below 1
bituminous
ml and a graduation of 0.2 ml with a maximum error of ± 0.05 ml
materials.
above 1 ml.
Water is not ii. For volatile fractions see types A to D, Figure 11-10 to Figure 11-13
desirable in d. Heating device – The source heat should be able to maintain a distillation
asphalt because it rate of 85-95 drops per min.
affects the e. Container (≥ 2L) – for sampling asphalt with a friction top.
construction
processes, 2. Material
bonding and Solvents – preferably aromatic solvents which have high solvency and
promotes dispersion power. Xylene or blend of 20% toluene and 80% xylene; petroleum
stripping of distillates with 5% boiling at 90 to 100 ˚C and 90% boiling below 210˚C
aggregate.
3. Sample preparation
Petroleum a. Sample following procedure MTM L11-2 (AASHTO T168)
volatiles are b. Sample size should be > 2L (2L is adequate for duplicate tests)
essential for the
good
4. Procedure
performance of
a. Mix the sample thoroughly
bitumen. They
b. Weigh a portion of the sample that would yield an amount of water or
prevent the
diluent suitable for the capacity of the receiver. Usually the size of
bitumen from
sample should not be less than 500 g.
hardening or
c. Keep the remainder of the sample in the tightly closed container.
becoming brittle.
d. Break up the sample to be tested thoroughly to avoid lumps.
Brittle
e. Place it in the still
bitumen/binder
f. For determination of moisture:
causes cracking of
i. Add 200 ml of solvent and stir quickly
asphalt and
ii. Set up the apparatus and select an appropriate receiver.
surfacings. High
iii. Ensure all connections are vapour tight
content of
iv. Place a heavy paper gasket moistened with water between the
petroleum
still and the cover
volatiles increases
v. Insert a cotton plug at the top of the condenser to prevent
the durability of
condensation of atmospheric moisture into the apparatus.
binders,
vi. Circulate cold water through the jacket of the condenser
surfacings and
vii. Apply heat such that reflux starts in 5-10 mins
asphalt.

252
Reference Test: viii. Continue applying sufficient heat to achieve a condensation rate
AASHTO T110 of 85-95 drops per minute.
ix. Take readings at 15 min intervals until successive readings show
ASTM 1461
no increase in water levels.
x. Distillation should not continue for more than 1.5hrs.
xi. When distillation has stopped turn off the heating and allow the
distillates in the in the receiver to attain room temperature
xii. Record the volume of water.
xiii. Calculate moisture content as a percentage by mass of the sample
g. For determination of volatile distillates:
i. Place the sample in the still.
ii. Add 250 ml of water and 3 g of sodium carbonate (Na2CO3) and
stir quickly
iii. Apply the still cover firmly.
iv. Assemble the apparatus and moisten the gasket with solvent
instead of water and use a dilution trap.
v. Apply heat such that reflux starts in 5-10 mins and the condensed
distillate will drip at 85-95 drops per minute.
vi. A second receiver may need to be assembled in sequence if the
content of volatiles is expected to be high. Continue the
distillation and check the upper and lower levels of the volatile
distillates.
vii. Stop the distillation when successive readings show no change in
the levels of diluent.
viii. Allow the contents of the receiver to cool down for 30 mins (to
room temperature) and take the final readings.
ix. Record the volume of diluent in the receiver to the nearest
division of the graduation scale.
x. Calculate the content of diluent as a percentage by mass of the
sample.
xi. Note the specific gravity of the diluent at 25 ˚C if known. If the
specific

5. Calculations:
Calculate the moisture content, w (%):
𝑀𝑤
𝑤= 𝑥 100
𝑀𝑠
Where:
Mw = mass of water in the receiver, g
Ms = mass of sample, g

Calculate the content of diluent (volatiles), d (%):

𝑉𝑑 𝑥 𝐺𝑑
𝑑= 𝑥 100
𝑀𝑠
Where:
Vd = volume of diluent, g

253
 Gd = specific gravity of diluent at 25 ˚C
Ms = mass of sample, g

6. Report:
a. Test reference
b. Moisture content as percentage by mass of the mass of sample.
c. The content of volatiles (diluent) as a percentage by mass of the sample.

7. Precision
Repeatability:
For moisture content the repeated tests, results should not differ by more than:
a. 0.1 ml for up to 1 ml
b. 0.1 ml or 2% for 1.1-25ml whichever is greater

For volatiles content the repeated tests, results should not differ by more than
0.6% in the volume.
For reproducibility:
For moisture content tests carried out by different laboratories results should
not differ by more than:
a. 0.2 ml for up to 1 ml
b. 0.2 ml or 10 % for 1.1-25ml whichever is greater

For volatiles content tests carried out by different laboratories, results should
not differ by 1.4 % in volume of distillates.

Figure 11-10 Receivers – Type A

254
Figure 11-11 Receivers – Type B

Figure 11-12 Receivers – Type C

255
 Figure 11-13 Receivers – Type D

Figure 11-14 Apparatus for the Determination of Content of Volatiles

– Type A

256
 (i)

(ii)

Figure 11-15 Apparatus for the Determination of Moisture Content –

Type A (a) and (ii)

257
12 Tests on Steel
This section covers the determination of strength of steel. The most common is the tensile
strength test for reinforcement bars used in drainage structures including bridges

258
12.1 MTM L12-1 Determination of Tensile Strength of Steel
Test Number MTM Determination of tensile strength of steel
L12-1
Description: 1. Apparatus:
a. Testing Machine – capable of loading the test sample at the required
This test method
rate of stress or strain (illustrated in Figure 12-1.
describes the
b. Gripping devices –
standard
i. General type - capable of transferring the load axially to avoid
procedure for
inducing bending moments to the sample during testing.
tension testing of
ii. Wedge type – most machines are equipped with grip wedges. For
metals for the
effective transfer of the loading the grip should hold the sample
determination of
uniform around sample to avoid eccentricity of the loading. It
yield strength,
should also be supported by the machine head through its full
yield point
length for effective anchorage. Any lining used should be of
elongation, tensile
uniform thickness.
strength,
iii. Grips for threaded and shouldered samples and brittle materials:
elongation and
- samples, which are shouldered should be supported on the
reduction in area.
heads of the machine through lubricated ball bearings
The test shall be iv. Grips for sheet materials – should be self-adjusting
carried out at room v. Grips for wire – wedge, snubbing or flat wedges may be used.
temperature 10°C c. Dimension measuring devices – capable of measuring in micrometres
to 35°C unless and accurate to the nearest value specified for the report.
specified d. Extensometers – capable of measuring strain to the value expected at
otherwise. Ideally yield point (or point of failure).
testing should be i. For samples without reduced section – the extensometer gauge
carried out at 23°C length shall generally be ≤ 80% of the distance between the grips
±5°C If the test is ii. For measuring elongation and fracture – the extensometer
carried out outside gauge length should be equal to the distance between the grips.
this temperature
range, calibration
shall be carried out
to allow for
necessary
adjustments
The purpose of this
test to determine
the strength and
ductility of metals
under uniaxial
tensile stress. The
results are used to
compare different
materials for
purposes of design,
quality control and
any technical or
engineering
investigations. Figure 12-1 Tensile Strength Testing Machine
Steel
reinforcement is

259
usually used in 2. Sample preparation
structures on roads a. This section specifies the properties of the test pieces or samples for
such as the tensile test. Table 12-1 gives and illustration of the most common
interchanges, types of test pieces that are used.
bridges, rigid
pavements, etc.
The strength of the Table 12-1 Main types of test samples Types
reinforcing steel of samples Details
and its
Sheets/Plates/ Wire/Bars/Sections
characteristics Flats
under tensile stress
and strain are
required for
design.
Test reference: Thickness, a Diameter or side

AASHTO T68 0.1mm≤a<3mm

<4mm
ASTM E8
a>3mm ≥4mm
ISO 6892-1 2016
Tubes

b. The samples shall be prepared to the required size:

i. Unmachined – products that are manufactured may be cut to the
right length. Unless specified they may be tested without cutting
and at their original cross-section.
ii. Machined – it may be specified to machine a test sample out of
a product or machine it to the requirement of the test standard.
Machining shall be done by an experienced person because this
can be a source of erroneous results. The machine surface shall
not have cold work, notches, edges, be overheated or subjected
to any other deleterious condition.
c. Dimension – the shape and dimensions should correspond to the
product specifications.
i. Plate type – useg for testing metallic materials, which are in the
form of plates, shapes and flat materials. Ideally, the thickness
shall be 4.75mm.
ii. Sheet type – is used for testing of sheets, plates, flat wire, strips,
bands, hoops, rectangles and shapes. The thickness range should
be from 0.127 mm to 19 mm.
iii. Round type – is used for testing metallic materials both cast and
wrought. Generally, the size should be 12.7 mm. This size is used
when the standard sample or product cannot be used for the
test. The gauge length shall be 4 times the sample’s diameter.
iv. Sheet, Strip, Flat wire and plate – for material of thickness from
0.127 mm to 19 mm used 2c(ii). For material of thickness ≥
0.127mm use 2c(i). For material of thickness ≥ 12.7 mm use
sample type given in 2c(iii).
v. Wire, rod and bar – use a sample with the full cross-section of
the product. The gauge length for wire with diameter < 3 mm
shall be as specified. For samples of diameter ≥ 3 mm the gauge

260
 the length shall be 4 times the diameter. The total length shall be
the gauge length plus the extra length on either side that is
adequate to ensure adequate grip. This applies to both round
wire, hexagonal, octagonal and square sections. However slight
reduction of sections by abrasion or machining is permissible. For
sample thicknesses ≤ 4.8mm, the section areas may be reduced
to ≥ 90% of the original cross-sectional area without changing the
shape of the cross-section. For sample thickness > 4.8mm, the
thickness or diameter may not be reduced by more than 0.25
mm. In this process octagonal, hexagonal and square sections
may be turned to round sections
vi. Rectangular bar – use full section. It is permissible to reduce the
width through filling or machining to facilitate fracture to occur
within the gauge length. The reduced width should not be less
than 90% of the original width. If rectangular bars are wider than
can fit in the grip, they shall be cut to fit. Ensure that the sides
are parallel and align with the load axis within 0.05mm.
vii. Shapes, structural and other – when testing shapes that are
different from the ones given above, used 2c(i) or 2c(ii) or 2c(ii).
viii. Pipe and tube type – for out diameter ≤ 25mm or > 25mm use
the full-size tubular section. Insert plugs inside the end section to
facilitate griping of the pipes by the machine. Measure
elongation over the parallel section within 4 times the diameter.

3. Procedure:
a. Measure the original cross-sectional area, So.
i. Measure the cross-sectional dimensions in at least 3 positions
along the parallel length.
ii. Calculate and record the average original cross-sectional (So) in
mm2
b. Determine the original gauge length, Lo (mm):
i. The original gauge length can be as provided in (2) above:
ii. Alternatively, the original gauge length can be calculated as
follows:
For proportional test pieces:

𝐿𝑜 = 𝑘√𝑆𝑜
Where:
k = the coefficient of proportionality generally = 5.65
𝑆𝑜
𝐿𝑜 = 5.65√𝑆𝑜 = 5√4
𝜋

For test pieces that are not proportional:

𝐿𝑜 = 𝑘√𝑆𝑜
Where:
k = the coefficient of proportionality = 11.3

c. Mark the original gauge length, Lo.

i. Use fine inscribed lines or punches which should not influence
fracture.

261
 ii.
If the difference between the calculated and marked gauge
length is less than 90 % of Lo rounded off the calculated gauge
length to the nearest 5 mm.
iii. If the parallel length Lc is much greater than the original gauge
length as in unmachined test pieces, mark a series of overlapping
gauge length or draw a line parallel to the longitudinal axis and
mark several gauge lengths along it.
d. Determine the extensometer gauge length, Le (mm):
e. Le should span as much of the of the parallel length of the test piece as
possible.

0.5𝐿𝑜 ≤ 𝐿𝑒 < 0.9𝐿𝑐

Le is used in the determination of yield and proof strength parameters

f. Setting up the test:

i. Set the force measuring device to zero when the test piece is in
position but before the grip is fastened.
ii. Gripping – the test piece shall be gripped as described above in
in 2(c).
iii. Alignment – to ensure good alignment axially, it may be
necessary to apply a preliminary force ≤ 5% of the expected yield
strength. Ensure that correction for the effect of the preliminary
force is made to the final results.
g. Determine testing rates: Method A – Testing rate based on strain
rate, eLe
Method A is selected at the discretion of the laboratory or producer
of the product.
i. Method A1 – involves control of the strain rate using feedback
from the extensometer
ii. Method A2 – this is obtained by multiplying the required strain
rate by the parallel length.

𝑣𝑐 = 𝐿𝑐 𝑒𝐿𝑐
Where
Lc = length of parallel length
eLc = estimated strain rate of the parallel length

iii. Strain rate for the determination of the upper yield strength ReH
or proof properties Rp and Rt. Use the following strain ranges
unless guided otherwise:
Range 1: eLe = 0.00007/s with a relative tolerance of ±20%
Range 2: eLe = 0.00025/s with a relative tolerance of ±20%
(recommended)

iv. Strain rate for the determination of lower yield strength ReL and
percentage yield point extension, Ac. Use the following strain
ranges unless directed otherwise.
Range 2: eLe = 0.00025/s with a relative tolerance of ±20%
(recommended when ReL is determined)

262
 Range 3: eLe = 0.0002/s or 0.4/min with a relative tolerance of
±20%

v. Strain rate for the determination of tensile strength (Rm),

percentage elongation after fracture (A), percentage total
extension at the maximum force (Agt), percentage plastic
extension force, Ag and percentage reduction in area (Z). Use the
following strin ranges:
Range 2: eLe = 0.00025/s with a relative tolerance of ±20%
Range 3: eLe = 0.0002/s with a relative tolerance of ±20%
Range 4: eLe = 0.0067/s or 0.4/min with a relative tolerance of
±20% (recommended)

h. Determine testing rates: Method B – Testing rate based on stress rate:

When yielding starts the stress rate may drop significantly. This
approach controls the stress as constant as possible during the yielding
process.
i. For most steels the stress rate of approximately 30MPa is used.
ii. Use guidance in Table 12-2 to determine the ranges of stress
rates.

Table 12-2 Stress Rate

Modulus of
elasticity of
the material Stress rate

E (MPa)
Min Max
<150,000 2 20
≥150,000 6 60

iii. For upper yield strength, ReH:

The rate of separation of the machine crossheads (pulling the
sample either side) shall be kept as constant as possible and
stress limits given in Table 12-2 should be followed.

iv. For lower yield strength:

If only the lower yield strength is required, the parallel length
shall be under strain that is within the range of 0.00025/s and
0.0025/s. The strain should be as constant as possible.

v. For lower and upper yield strengths, ReH and ReL:

When both the lower and upper yield strengths are required,
used test requirement for the lower yield strength, 3i(iv).

vi. For proof strength (plastic extension) and proof strength (total
extension), Rp and Rt:
Keep the crossheads separation rate as constant as possible the
during elastic strain and keep within the limits given in Table

263
 12-2. This constant crosshead separation rate shall be
maintained up to proof strength (plastic extension or total
extension) and should not exceed 0.0025/s

vii. Rate of separation of crossheads:

Use the separation rate equivalent to the stress rates given in
Table 12-2 if the machine is incapable of maintaining a constant
separation rate.

viii. For Tensile strength (Rm), percentage elongation after fracture

(A), percentage total extension at maximum force, (Agt),
Percentage plastic extension at maximum force (Ag) and
percentage reduction in area (Z):
After determining the required yield and proof strength
properties the test rate may be increased to a maximum of
0.008/s. If only tensile strength is required, the whole test may
be carried out at a strain not exceeding 0,008/s

For clarity state in the report the control mode and the rates
used.

4. Calculations

i. Determine upper yield strength

Read for the stress-strain graphs as illustrated in Figure 12-3. It is the
maximum value of stress prior to the first decrease in force.
j. Determine of lower yield strength
Read for the stress-strain graphs as illustrated in Figure 12-3. It is the
lowest value of stress during plastic yielding. Divide the force by the
original cross-sectional area (So) to get the stress.

Figure 12-2 Definition of Extensions

264
Where
A = percentage elongation after fracture (obtained from
extensometer signal or directly from measuring the test
piece), %
Ag = percentage plastic extension at maximum force, %
Agt = percentage total extension at maximum force, %
At = percentage total at maximum fracture, %
e = percentage extension, %
mE = slope of the elastic part of the stress percentage extension
curve
R = stress, MPa
Rm = tensile strength, MPa
∆e = plateau extent (for determination of Ag and Agt), mm

Figure 12-3 Determination of Upper and Lower Yield

Strengths for Different Curve Types
Where:
e = percentage extension, mm
R = stress, MPa
ReH = upper yield strength, MPa
ReL = lower yield strength, MPa

265
 k. Determine the proof strength, plastic extension, Rp.
On the force-extension curve draw a line parallel to the linear portion
of the curve and at a distance from its intercept on extension/strain axis
equivalent to the prescribed percentage extension, ep. The force
corresponding to the point where the line intercepts the curve is the
presumed proof strength plastic extension. The presumed proof
strength (MPa) is obtained by dividing the force by the original cross-
sectional area (So). See Figure 12-4
If the presumed proof strength is exceeded, reduce the force to a value
approx. 10% of the force obtained and increase it again until it exceeds
the previous value. Draw a line through the loop to the extension axis
(strain-axis). Draw a line parallel to the line passing through loop
starting at a distance ep from the line of best fit on the elastic curve. See
Figure 12-7.

Figure 12-4 Determination of Proof Strength, Plastic Ex-

tension
Where:
e = percentage extension
ep = specified percentage plastic extension
R = stress
Rp = proof strength, plastic extension

266
 l. Determine proof strength, total extension, Rt.
Draw a vertical line from the extension axis at an intercept, et. to
intercept the curve. The corresponding force is the proof strength, Rt.

Figure 12-5 Proof Strength, Total Extension, Rt

Where
e = percentage extension
et = percentage total extension
R = stress
Rt = proof strength, total extension

m. Verify permanent set strength, Rr. See Figure 12-6.

Apply the corresponding specified stress for 10-12 s. multiply the
specified stress by the original area (So) to the corresponding specified
force. Remove the force and confirm that the permanent set extension
or elongation is ≤ the percentage specified for the original gauge length

Figure 12-6 Permanent set strength, Rr

267
Where:
e = percentage extension
er = percentage total extension
R = stress
Rr = proof strength, total extension

Figure 12-7 Determination of Proof Strength Plastic Ex-

tension (Rp)
Where:
e = percentage extension
ep = percentage total extension
R = stress
Rp = proof strength, total extension

n. Determine percentage yield point extension, Ae. See Figure 12-8.

For materials that exhibit discontinuous yield determine Ae from the
force extension curve by subtracting the extension at ReH from the
extension at the start of the uniform work hardening. To determine
this, draw a horizontal line at the lowest point after ReH or a regression
line through the range yielding before the uniform work-hardening.
Draw a line on the steepest gradient on the uniform work-hardening
potion of the curve. The yield point extension is the elongation
between this intercept and the elongation at the ReH.
Express it as a percentage of the extensometer gauge length.

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 Figure 12-8 Different Evaluation Methods for Percentage Yield
Point, (Ae)
Where:
e = percentage extension
ep = percentage total extension
R = stress
Rp = proof strength, total extension
ReH = upper yield strength
a = horizontal line through the last local minimum point, prior to
uniform work hardening
b = regression line through the range of yielding, prior to information
work hardening
c = line corresponding to the highest slope of the curve occurring at
the start of uniform work-hardening

o. Determination of tensile strength, Rm.

Read the tensile strength from the force extension or stress strain
graphs as the maximum force after yielding and plastic extension.

(a) ReH<Rm (a) ReH>Rm

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 (c) Special case of stress percentage extension behaviour

Figure 12-9 Different Types of Stress Extension Curve for De-

termination of Tensile Strength
Where:
e = percentage extension
R = stress
Rm = tensile strength
ReH = upper yield strength
a = horizontal line through the last local minimum point, prior to
uniform work hardening

p. Determination of the percentage plastic extension at maximum force,

Ag
This is the extension at maximum force on the force-extension curve
given by the extensometer.
Calculate the percentage plastic extension at maximum, Ag

∆𝐿𝑚 𝑅𝑚
𝐴𝑔 = ( − ) 𝑥100
𝐿𝑒 𝑚𝐸

Where
Le = is the extensometer gauge length
mE = is the slope of the elastic part of the stress-extension curve
Rm = is the tensile strength
∆Lm = the extension at maximum force

q. Determinate the percentage total extension at maximum force, Agt

This is the extension at maximum force on the force extension curve
read from the extensometer.
Calculate the percentage total extension at maximum force, Agt

∆𝐿𝑚
𝐴𝑔𝑡 = 𝑥100
𝐿𝑒

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 Le = extension gauge length
∆Lm = extension at maximum force

r. Determine the percentage total extension at fracture, At

This is the extension at fracture on a force-extension curve obtained
from the extensometer
Calculate the percentage total elongation at fracture, At

∆𝐿𝑓
𝐴𝑡 = 𝑥100
𝐿𝑒

Where
Le = is the extensometer gauge length
∆Lf = the extension at maximum force

s. Determination of percentage elongation after fracture, A.

Place the broken pieces to fit together so that their axis lies in a straight
line.
Calculate the percentage elongation after fracture, A.

𝐿𝑢 − 𝐿𝑜
𝐴= 𝑥100
𝐿𝑜

Where
Lo = original gauge length
Lu = final gauge length after fracture.
Elongation after fracture (Lu-Lo) shall be determined to the nearest
0.25 mm or better.

t. Determine the percentage reduction of area, Z

Place the broken pieces to fit together so that their axis lies in a straight
line. Measure the width or diameter in 3 places and use the average to
calculate Z.

𝑆𝑜 − 𝑆𝑢
𝑍= 𝑥100
𝑆𝑜
Where
So = original cross-sectional area of the parallel length
Su = minimum cross-sectional area after fracture measured to an
accuracy of ±2% (though this accuracy is not possible for smaller round
pieces or those with other shapes.

5. Report
a. Test reference
b. Sample identification
c. Specified material
d. Type of sample
e. Location and direction of sampling of test piece
f. Test control

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g. Testing rates
h. Upper yield strength, ReH
i. Lower yield strength, ReL
j. Proof strength, plastic extension, Rp.
k. Proof strength, total extension, Rt.
l. Permanent set strength, Rr.
m. Percentage yield point extension, Ae
n. Tensile strength, Rm.
o. Percentage plastic extension at maximum force
p. Percentage total extension at maximum force, Agt
q. Percentage total extension at fracture, Ar
r. Percentage elongation after fracture, A.
s. Percentage reduction of area, Z

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13 Departures from Standards

13.1 Procedure
Where the designer departs from a standard, written approval must be obtained from the
Director, ANE. The Designer should submit the following information to ANE:
1. The number, name, and description of the road section.
2. The design parameter for which a Departure from Standards is desired.
3. A description of the standard, including normal value, and the value of the
Departure from Standards.
4. The reason for the Departure from Standards, and
5. Any mitigation to be applied in the interests of safety.
6. Justification for departure
The Designer must submit all major and minor Departures from Standards to the
respective regional directorate for evaluation. If the proposed Departures from Standards
are acceptable, the Departures from Standards will be submitted to the Quality Assurance,
Road Inspection and Safety Directorate for final approval.

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 DEPARTURE FROM STANDARDS – APPROVAL FORM

Project Name:

1. Description of issue/challenge/problem:

2. Related standard (s) (section/page/fig/table in the manual):

3. Proposed departure from standard(s):

4. Impact if any (including quality, cost, design life, safety) and mitigations,
environmental, social etc.:
No Impact Mitigation

5. Submitted by:
Name:____________________________________Designation:________________

Company/Organisation Address ____________________________________________________________________

Email:________________________________________date:___________________

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6. Recommendations by Director (QA)

Signature Date

7. Recommendations by Director (Projects/DMAN)

Signature date

8. Decision (Approval/Conditional Approval/Rejection/Comments) by Director

General

Signature date

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14 References
1. AASHTO - American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials,
2002, AASHTO Test Standards Manual
2. Ministry of Works, Tanzania, 2000, Laboratory Testing Manual
3. Ministry of Transport and Energy, Dept. of Roads, Materials Testing Manual,
Zimbabwe
4. SATCC, 1999, Standard Specifications for Road and Bridge Works
5. National Road Administration (ANE), 2012. Normas de Execucao
6. Road Note 18 (ORN18), 2001, A guide to the Pavement Evaluation and
Maintenance of Bitumen-Surfaced Roads in Tropical and Sub-Tropical Countries

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Appendix A Compaction Judgement Chart

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