Preamble

The Ministry of Public Works, Housing and Water Resources (MOPHRH) in Mozambique is
responsible for the National Road Administration of Mozambique, Administração Nacional
de Estradas (ANE) and custodian of the standards and specifications for roads in the
Mozambique Road Sector. This manual provides guidance to all practitioners for the site
investigation for all roads in Mozambique. The content adequately covers all relevant
technical areas from the initial route location to details on site investigations for various
components of the transport infrastructure and where additional information is required
users may consult other documents referenced in the Manual.

This manual is tailor-made for Mozambique and ANE will apply it as mandated by the
Ministry

© Copyright Administração Nacional de Estradas (ANE) 2019

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Preface

This manual on site investigation has been developed for the design of new roads and
rehabilitation of existing roads showing severe distress with typical Average Annual Daily
Traffic (AADT) counts of more than 1000 and a cumulative design traffic loading
exceeding 1 million equivalent standard axles (mesa). If the cumulative axle loadings are
less than 1 mesa over the design life, then the Low Volume Road Design Manual of ANE
shall be used.

The manual provides the input information required for the design of roads and does not
cover the actual design processes. In addition, it only introduces issues carried out under
the pre-feasibility and route location phases and does not include detail in this respect.
While this manual provides adequate guidance on site investigations, users should use
their knowledge and experience to apply the manual to their particular situations, which
may be unique in many respects.

Users are encouraged to contribute to future editions noting any necessary

improvements through feedback from practice.

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Acknowledgements

This manual was prepared through the concerted effort from many stakeholders within
and outside Mozambique. The immense contributions from ANE, the Technical Working
Group (WG) members, the World Bank Expert Reviewer, the MOPHRH and other key
stakeholders which included academia, consultants, municipal engineers, National
Institute of Mining (INAMI), Ministry of Water Resources, etc. are acknowledged and
greatly appreciated. ANE provided leadership and guidance including management of the
project in general. They also provided information and support required for the
successful delivery of the manual. The WG members, World Bank reviewer, academia,
consultants and municipal engineers reviewed the manual in its different stages of
development and provided invaluable inputs through technical deliberations, comments,
edits and additions.

The production of this manual was financed by the Government of Mozambique through
the Ministry of Finance and the Road Fund with support from the World Bank.

ANE

Eng. Marcos Vaz Dos Anjos General Director

Eng. Luis Fernandes Director of Emergency Works and Project
Coordinator
Eng. Irene Simeos Director of Maintenance
Eng. Migel Coanai Director of Planning
Eng. Rubina Normahomed Head of Maintenance
Eng. Anibal Nuvunga Head of Planning
Technical Working Group ANE Engineers, MOPHRH Engineers, Municipal
Engineers, Consultants, Academia,

TRL Consortium – Research Consultant

Dr Phil Peige Green Lead Author

Eng. Kenneth Mukura Assistant Author
Eng. Piouslin Samuel Team Leader

Financiers

Gov. of Mozambique MOPHRH, Min of Finance, Road Fund

World Bank Representative Kulwinder S. Rao
World Bank Reviewer Eng. A Pinelo

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Abbreviations

AADT Average Annual Daily Traffic

American Association of State Highway Transport
AASHTO Officials
AFCAP African Community Access Partnership
ANE Administracao Nacional de Estradas
ASTM American Society for Testing Materials
CBR California Bearing Ratio
CEC Cation Exchange Capacity
CESA Cumulative Equivalent Standards Axles
CP Collapse Potential
CPT Cone Penetration test
DCP Dynamic Cone Penetrometer
DEM Digital Elevation Model
DFID Department for International Development
DNAIA National Directorate of Environmental Affairs
DPCA Direcção Provincial para a Coordenação da Acção
Ambiental
ECA Environmentally Critical Area
EIA Environmental Impact Assessment
EIRR Economic Internal rate of Return
ESP Exchangeable sodium percentage
ESA Equivalent Standard Axles
FWD Falling Weight Deflectometer
GPS Global Positioning System
GVW Gross Vehicle Weight
HDM Highway Development and Management model
LEM Laboratório de Engenharia de Moçambique
LIDAR Light Detection and Ranging
MCA Multi Criteria Analysis
MICOA Ministry for Coordination of Environmental Affairs
MS Multi-spectral
O-D Origin – Destination (survey)
PP Plasticity product (Plasticity Index x Percentage
passing 0.075 mm)
RED Roads Economic Decision Model
SAR Sodium Absorption Ratio
SIA Social Impact Assessment
SCS Soil Conservation Service
SPT Standard Penetration Test
SRTM Shuttle Radar Topographic Mission
TC Traffic Class
TRL Transport Research Laboratory
WB/IFC World Bank/ International Finance Corporation
WIM Weigh-in-motion

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Site Investigation Manual Table of Contents

Table of Contents
PREAMBLE ............................................................................................... I
PREFACE ................................................................................................II
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ......................................................................... III
ABBREVIATIONS ................................................................................... IV
LIST OF TABLES .................................................................................. VII
LIST OF FIGURES ............................................................................... VIII
1 INTRODUCTION .................................................................................1
1.1 PURPOSE ....................................................................................... 1
1.2 SCOPE .......................................................................................... 1
1.3 INVESTIGATION STEPS ....................................................................... 2
1.4 RISK ASSESSMENT ............................................................................ 3
1.5 RELATED ANE GUIDELINES .................................................................. 3
2 PHYSIOGRAPHIC FEATURES OF MOZAMBIQUE...................................4
2.1 PURPOSE ....................................................................................... 4
2.2 TOPOGRAPHY................................................................................... 4
2.3 GEOLOGY AND SOILS OF MOZAMBIQUE..................................................... 6
2.4 CLIMATIC CONDITIONS ....................................................................... 9
2.5 VEGETATION AND LAND USE ............................................................... 14
2.6 SEISMICITY .................................................................................. 16
2.7 ADDITIONAL INFORMATION ................................................................ 17
2.8 SOURCES OF INFORMATION ................................................................ 17
3 INVESTIGATIONS FOR FEASIBILITY STUDY, ROUTE SELECTION AND
PRELIMINARY DESIGN .......................................................................... 23
3.1 BACKGROUND ................................................................................ 23
3.2 PRELIMINARY CONSIDERATIONS ........................................................... 25
3.3 ENVIRONMENTAL AND SOCIAL ISSUES .................................................... 26
3.4 TRAFFIC COUNTS AND LOADING ........................................................... 32
3.5 ROAD INVENTORY ........................................................................... 37
3.6 ANALYSIS OF PRELIMINARY INVESTIGATION DATA ...................................... 38
3.7 PRELIMINARY SITE INVESTIGATION ....................................................... 38
3.8 ANALYSIS FOR ROUTE SELECTION AND FEASIBILITY STUDY ........................... 43
4 DETAILED SITE INVESTIGATIONS FOR GEOMETRIC DESIGN ........... 46
4.1 TRAFFIC CLASSES ........................................................................... 46
4.2 TERRAIN ...................................................................................... 46
4.3 GROUND PROFILE ........................................................................... 47
5 SITE INVESTIGATION FOR PAVEMENT DESIGN ................................ 48
5.1 TRAFFIC LOADING ........................................................................... 48
5.2 CHARACTERISATION OF SUBGRADE AND IN-SITU MATERIALS ......................... 48
5.3 PROBLEM SUBGRADES ...................................................................... 51
6 SITE INVESTIGATION FOR GEOTECHNICAL DESIGN ........................ 60
6.1 ROAD CUTS AND FILLS ..................................................................... 60
6.2 INSTABILITY AND SETTLEMENT ............................................................ 61
7 SITE INVESTIGATION FOR HYDROLOGY AND DRAINAGE DESIGN.... 72
8 INVESTIGATION OF CONSTRUCTION MATERIALS ............................ 74

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Site Investigation Manual Table of Contents
8.1 SOIL AND ROCK DESCRIPTION AND CLASSIFICATION .................................... 74
8.2 INVESTIGATION TECHNIQUES .............................................................. 76
8.3 MATERIAL LOCATION ........................................................................ 79
8.4 WATER SOURCES ............................................................................ 80
9 INVESTIGATIONS DURING CONSTRUCTION..................................... 81
9.1 INTRODUCTION .............................................................................. 81
9.2 SUBGRADE CONDITIONS ................................................................... 81
9.3 ROAD CUTS .................................................................................. 82
9.4 EMBANKMENTS............................................................................... 83
9.5 RIVER CROSSINGS .......................................................................... 83
9.6 LANDSLIDES ................................................................................. 83
9.7 RETAINING WALLS .......................................................................... 84
9.8 CONSTRUCTION MATERIALS................................................................ 84
10 REPORTING ................................................................................... 86
10.1 BACKGROUND ................................................................................ 86
10.2 STRUCTURE OF REPORT ..................................................................... 86
10.3 STORAGE AND ARCHIVING OF REPORTS AND SUPPORTING DOCUMENTS .............. 88
11 BIBLIOGRAPHY ............................................................................. 89
APPENDIX ADYNAMIC CONE PENETROMETER ....................................... 90
A.1 INTRODUCTION .............................................................................. 90
A.2 DCP TEST PROCEDURE...................................................................... 90
A.3 OPERATION................................................................................... 90
A.4 INTERPRETATION OF RESULTS.............................................................. 95
APPENDIX BSOIL PROFILE DESCRIPTION ............................................. 98
B.1 MOISTURE CONDITION ...................................................................... 98
B.2 COLOUR ...................................................................................... 98
B.3 CONSISTENCY................................................................................ 98
B.4 STRUCTURE .................................................................................100
B.5 SOIL TEXTURE ..............................................................................100
APPENDIX C ROCK CLASSIFICATION .................................................. 102

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List of Tables
Table 1-1 Project Stages and Principal Activities .................................................................................... 2
Table 2-1 Potential climate changes and related problems (AfCAP, 2017b) ........................................ 13
Table 2-2 Digital data from Satellite Sensors ........................................................................................ 19
Table 2-3: Summary of Use of Physiographic Data ............................................................................... 22
Table 3-1: ECA values for Different Environmental Receptors ............................................................. 30
Table 3-2: Vehicle Classification............................................................................................................ 34
Table 3-3: Heavy Vehicle Classification ................................................................................................. 34
Table 3-4: Frequency of Traffic Counts ................................................................................................. 36
Table 3-5: Summary of Requirements .................................................................................................. 39
Table 3-6: Topographic Features in Mozambique ................................................................................ 42
Table 3-7: Example of Multi-Criteria Analysis (TRL 2005) ..................................................................... 45
Table 5-1: Subgrade Characterisation................................................................................................... 49
Table 5-2 Subgrade Strength Class ....................................................................................................... 49
Table 5-3: Frequency of DCP Testing .................................................................................................... 51
Table 5-4: Preliminary Indicators of Problem Soils ............................................................................... 52
Table 5-5 Potentially Expansive Clay Properties ................................................................................... 52
Table 5-6 Tests to Determine Saline ..................................................................................................... 56
Table 5-7 Assessment of Collapse Potential ......................................................................................... 58
Table 5-8 Indications of High Water Table in Test pits ......................................................................... 59
Table 6-1 Information for Designing Cuts and Embankments .............................................................. 61
Table 6-2 Excavation Investigations ...................................................................................................... 62
Table 6-3 Embankment Investigations.................................................................................................. 64
Table 6-4 Standard Ground Investigation Techniques.......................................................................... 65
Table 6-5 Trial Pit Requirements and Locations ................................................................................... 69
Table 8-1 Classification of Soils ............................................................................................................. 75
Table 8-2 Preliminary Indication of Possible Problems Related to soils and Weathered Materials
Derived from the Major Stratigraphic Groups ...................................................................................... 76
Table B-1 Description of secondary colour term ............................................................................. 98
Table B-2 Description of consistency of granular materials ................................................................. 99
Table B-3 Description of consistency of cohesive materials ................................................................. 99
Table B-4 Description of soil structure ............................................................................................... 100
Table B-5 Description of soil texture................................................................................................... 101
Table C-1 Classification of Igneous Rocks ........................................................................................... 102
Table C-2 Classification of Sedimentary Rocks ................................................................................... 102
Table C-4 Classification of sedimentary rock particle sizes ................................................................ 102
Table C-5 Simplified classification of Metamorphic Rocks ................................................................. 103

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List of Figures
Figure 1-1 Site Investigation Elements at Various Stages of a Project ................................................... 1
Figure 2-1 Broad Elevational Classification of Mozambique .................................................................. 4
Figure 2-2 Extract of the Published 1:250,000 Scale Topographic Mapping .......................................... 5
Figure 2-3 Broad Generalisation of the Geology of Mozambique .......................................................... 7
Figure 2-4 Extract from the 1:1 million scale Carta de Solos .................................................................. 8
Figure 2-5 Precipitation Map of Mozambique ........................................................................................ 9
Figure 2-6 Average Temperature Distribution Map of Mozambique ................................................... 10
Figure 2-7 Projected Changes in Annual Average Maximum Temperatures (AfCAP, 2017a) .............. 11
Figure 2-8 Projected Changes in Average Rainfall (AfCAP, 2017a) ....................................................... 12
Figure 2-9 Vegetation Map of Mozambique ......................................................................................... 15
Figure 2-10 Seismic hazard map of Mozambique
(https://www.humanitarianlibrary.org/sites/default/files/2013/05/moz-seismic.pdf) ...................... 16
Figure 2-11 Coverage of SPOT 4 held at Cenacarta .............................................................................. 20
Figure 2-12 Coverage of SPOT 5 held at Cenacarta .............................................................................. 21
Figure 3-1: Activity Flow Chart for Route Selection .............................................................................. 23
Figure 5-1: Predicted heave of expansive soils ..................................................................................... 53
Figure 5-2: Dispersive soil showing formation of “pipes”..................................................................... 54
Figure 5-3: Crumb test Showing Suspension ........................................................................................ 54
Figure 5-4: Mechanism of Soluble Salt Damage to Bituminous Surfacing............................................ 56
Figure 6-1: Potentially Problematic Earth and Rockfill Embankment Locations (note changes to figure
text – deletion of sub-headings) ........................................................................................................... 63
Figure 6-2: Effect of Topography on Volume of Failed Material .......................................................... 68
Figure A-1 Dynamic Cone Penetrometer .............................................................................................. 91
Figure A-2 DCP effects where large stones are present ................................................................ 92
Figure A-3 DCP Test Form ..................................................................................................................... 94
Figure A-4 Typical DCP test result ......................................................................................................... 95
Figure A-5 DCP – CBR relationships ...................................................................................................... 96

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1 Introduction

1.1 Purpose
This manual has been prepared to assist practitioners in the site investigations for roads
and identifies means of optimising costs and minimising risks in road design and
construction. The manual provides the input information required for the design of roads
and does not cover the actual design processes. In addition, it only introduces issues
carried out under the pre-feasibility and route location phases and does not include
detail in this respect.

1.2 Scope
ANE is responsible for the management of the classified network comprising Primary,
Secondary, Tertiary and Vicinal roads. This manual on site investigation has been
developed for the design of new roads and rehabilitation of existing roads showing
severe distress with typical Average Annual Daily Traffic (AADT) counts of more than
1000 and a cumulative design traffic loading exceeding 1 million equivalent standard
axles (mesa). If the cumulative axle loadings are less than 1 mesa over the design life,
then the Low Volume Road Design Manual of ANE shall be used.
A new project or project corridor is usually identified by strategic, economic and/or
social/rural mobility considerations during the pre-feasibility stage of the project. This
project then progresses through various stages, as shown in Figure 1-1 and this manual
provides guidance for the site investigations associated with the feasibility studies, the
design and the construction stages of the project which are highlighted in the figure.

Project/Corridor Selection
(re

Feasibility Study/Route Selection

Design

Construction

Maintenance

Figure 1-1 Site Investigation Elements at Various Stages of a Project

Table 1-1 shows the site investigation elements associated within the three stages, the
purpose and the principal activities.

1
 Table 1-1 Project Stages and Principal Activities

Project Phase Purpose /Principal Activities

Pre- feasibility study - Preliminary investigations for Route

location - Identification of route options, desk studies to
yield comparisons of length, cost, potential slope stability
and geo-hazards, environmental and social considerations –
Feasibility study, Overall cost-effectiveness and viability of the project (not
route selection covered in this document).
and preliminary
design Feasibility Study - Preliminary design and economic analysis
of preferred route, including traffic studies, geotechnical,
environmental and social issues, EIRR to demonstrate
economic feasibility.

Detailed design requires investigation and determination of

Detailed Design inputs for geometric design, pavement design, geotechnical
design and hydrology and drainage design
Additional site investigation and testing required during the
Construction
construction stage to confirm design assumptions

Guidance on detailed investigations for carrying out Rehabilitation Design and Drainage
Design are not included in this manual but are available in the Rehabilitation Design and
Hydrology and Drainage Design Manuals.
Moreover, the detailed environmental investigations required for undertaking the
feasibility study are not included in this manual, as these are already covered under the
ANE Environmental Guide 2012. However, the preliminary environmental issues to be
gathered are covered.
For road widening projects such as two lanes to four lanes, the investigation methods
and procedures in this manual shall be applied.

1.3 Investigation Steps

1.3.1 Physiographic Features

Prior to the design of any road, whether it be a new one or rehabilitation of an existing
one, a good knowledge of the physical, social and environmental factors likely to affect
the road is required. This is used during the design of the road, drainage structures and
any large earthworks that need to be constructed. Chapter 2 discusses the relevant
information on the physiographic features of Mozambique.

1.3.2 Feasibility study, Route Selection and Preliminary Design

It is important not to carry out too much investigation and design as part of the route
location and selection (pre-feasibility and feasibility) phases, as these could incur high
costs for route options that are later rejected. However, the selected route should not be
one that is neither economically viable, nor unacceptable from an environmental, social
or engineering perspective, but should be the best possible alternative. Therefore,
investigations for the feasibility study/route selection are discussed in two stages,
preliminary and detailed, in Chapter 3.

2
During the pre-feasibility and feasibility stage, the best possible route location is
identified and issues such as environmental and social impacts have an important place
in these decisions. Additional detailed information may be required during the actual
design stage. The feasibility stage will generally be covered by a desk study, a walk-over
survey and the identification of the requirements for the Design stage.

1.3.3 Investigations for Detailed Design

Detailed or final design is carried out only on the selected route. Collection of the data
required for Geometric Design, Pavement Design, and Geotechnical Design are discussed
in Chapter 4, Chapter 5 and Chapter 6. However, this chapter does not cover the data
analysis or the design.

1.3.4 Investigations for Construction Materials

Chapter 8 describes the investigation for construction materials. Knowledge about the
rocks and soils in Mozambique is essential, therefore this Chapter provides information
about various types of rocks and soils available and the procedures in locating and
assessing the quantity and quality of the required materials.

1.3.5 Investigations during Construction

Chapter 9 describes the investigation required during the construction stage of a project.

1.3.6 Reporting
Chapter 10 outlines the requirements and contents of typical site investigation reports.

1.4 Risk assessment

It is important to remember that along any road alignment, several natural hazards, and
their corresponding local phenomena, could occur. These include:
• Meteorological hazards (e.g., extreme wind and rainfall, sandstorms, extreme high
temperatures, etc.)
• Geophysical hazards (e.g., earthquake, tsunami, etc.)
• Gravitational hazards (e.g. landslides, rock fall, ground subsidence, etc.)
• Hydrological hazards (e.g. river flooding, lake overflow, urban flood, etc.)
• Other hazards (e.g. wildfires, animals crossing, etc.)

During site investigations, the risks associated with such phenomena should be assessed
and considered during the detailed design as appropriate.

1.5 Related ANE Guidelines

ANE currently has few internal design manuals: however, a wide range of manuals that
include information that may be relevant to the site investigation are currently being
developed and these should be referred to as necessary. These include:
• Geometric Design Manual, 2017
• Pavement Design Manual, 2017
• Hydrology and Drainage Manual, 2017
• Environmental Guide, 2012
• Rehabilitation Manual, 2017

3
2 Physiographic Features of Mozambique

2.1 Purpose
The design of a road and its pavement structure depends on several local conditions that
are generally considered to be relatively constant over the design life of the road. These
include topography, geology, soil and subgrade conditions, and climate. The
physiographical features influence both site investigations and the design, and this
chapter provides information on the local conditions given above.

2.2 Topography
The topography has a significant effect on the cost and level of service of a road. In flat
areas, roads can be more easily constructed than in steep mountainous areas, where
excessive volumes of material (too much for embankment use only) may need to be
excavated and placed elsewhere. Mozambique can be divided into three broad
topographic zones as in Figure 2-1.
I. Coastal lowlands (<200m) that occupy more than 40% of the country
II. Plateau surfaces that tend to increase in altitude towards the west, but range in
height between 200m and 1000m, separated broadly into two zones:
a. 200m – 500m
b. 500m – 1000m
III. Mountains and escarpments located in the far west of the country > 1000 m).

This broad zonal classification reflects both the underlying geology of the country and
the history of Cenozoic (Tertiary and Quaternary) sea level change (Section 2.3).

Figure 2-1 Broad Elevational Classification of Mozambique

4
Within this broad three-fold zonation there is significant variation in the local topography.
Some of the topographic considerations to be considered during investigation and design
stage include:
1. Mountainous terrain - These are areas such as Niassa and Manica Provinces. In
this high ground, there are lineations of ridge lines and inselbergs that are
controlled by the underlying structural geology which pose considerable
difficulties in road geometry and stability.
2. Flat and undulating sandy coastal areas: These areas are commonly found in
parts of Maputo, Gaza, and Inhambane provinces where the topography is
controlled by the cycle of marine transgressions and regressions. These have
imparted a pattern of north-south and northeast-southwest orientated dunes and
inter-dune basins. Such areas generally lack good construction materials and
pose challenges in road drainage and foundations for pavements and structures.

3. Major River basins: These are areas in the Zambezi and Limpopo river basins that
are highly susceptible to flooding, and frequent damage to infrastructure. Pan
lakes are also common in some of the coastal areas. The topographic detail
required during the site investigation stage is best obtained from traditional
topographic maps at a scale of at least 1: 250 000 but preferably 1: 50 000 maps
should be used. Figure 2-2 is an extract of the 1:250 000 scale topographic map
of part of the Save River in Inhambane Province.

Figure 2-2 Extract of the Published 1:250,000 Scale Topographic Mapping

5
2.3 Geology and Soils of Mozambique
Figure 2-3 is a simplified geological map of Mozambique. This provides information on
the distribution of various rock formations in the country. This information is necessary
for the investigation of subgrades, foundation conditions and construction materials.
Three predominant geological terrains exist in Mozambique and are summarised below.
1. The Precambrian Basement Complex, that underlies approximately 50% of the
country, predominantly in the plateau and mountainous areas of the north and
northwest. The Basement Complex includes:

• Small remnants of the Archean Zimbabwe Craton, containing granites and

greenstones; and
• Gneisses, granite-gneisses, migmatites and schists of the Mozambique
Metamorphic Belt

2. The Karoo Supergroup that comprises:

• Upper Carboniferous to Lower Jurassic continental sediments. These

sediments crop out in linear rift structures within the Basement Complex
in the north and northwest of the country
• Lower Jurassic basalts and rhyolites that crop out primarily in the narrow,
north-south orientated Libombo Range in the southwest of the country
along the margin of the Kaapvaal Craton in South Africa, in the narrow
Nuanetsi-Sabi Monocline to the north of the Save River, further north
along the margin of the Zimbabwe Craton and along the Nampula coast

3. Two sedimentary basins in the northeast (Rovuma Basin) and southeast

(Mozambique Basin) of the country that developed during the Cretaceous and
Cainozoic because of regional tectonic influences, including subsidence along NW-
SE and NE-SW orientated graben systems associated with the opening of the East
African Rift System (EARS). These sedimentary basins were subject to several
marine transgressions, the most important of which occurred during the Upper
Cretaceous, Eocene, Oligocene and Miocene. They are composed of
predominantly continental sediments (sandstones, conglomerates and clays) in
the west and marine sediments in the east (predominantly limestones and marine
sands). Marine transgressions and regressions continued in the Quaternary,
resulting in the deposition of unconsolidated sands, clays and lacustrine
limestones, coastal dunes and river alluvium.

The actual rock types within these major groups are good indications of the potential
properties of the rock and the residual weathered materials and can be obtained from
the map and the accompanying Memoir.

6
 Figure 2-3 Broad Generalisation of the Geology of Mozambique

In addition to the basic geological information needed to carry out subgrade and
materials location investigations, soil maps can be useful additions to these data.
Geological maps show the locations of the rock types and only superficial materials,
including alluvium, lacustrine sediments, coastal dune fields, and areas with significant
eluvial (in-situ weathered) soils (e.g. sand and clay soils) when they are thick. The soil
maps, on the other hand, show the actual types, and detail regarding the superficial
materials. These superficial soils are important in the south, southeast and coastal
fringes of the country whereas in the north and northwest the mapping focus is on the
underlying solid geology. The 1: 1 000 000 soil map is an appropriate start although
larger scale maps can provide more useful information. An example of the data available
on the 1: 1 000 000 map is shown in Figure 2-4.

7
 Figure 2-4 Extract from the 1:1 million scale Carta de Solos

Although the soil maps indicate the type of soil in pedological terms, the major soil types
(sand, clay, etc.) are shown and other indications are often present. For example,
vertisols are expansive clays, saline of hyalomorphic soils indicate the presence of salts,
clayey sands may indicate collapsible soils and calcareous soils often indicate the
presence of calcrete. Assistance form a soil scientist or pedologist can help with the
interpretation of the soil types.

8
2.4 Climatic Conditions
Climate has a significant impact on roads with uncontrolled precipitation probably leading
to more road failures than any other single factor. Water is detrimental to the
performance of almost any road. The drainage design should thus consider the expected
water regime, which must be controlled to minimise the ingress of water into the
pavement as well as on the road and adjacent surface, where erosion could result.
Figure 2-5 shows a generalised map of the average precipitation recorded over the past
few decades in Mozambique. Climate change is likely to affect the distribution and
quantity of rainfall in future, but is unlikely to have a significant impact on roads during
current design lives. However, major structures will need to be designed to cope with
significantly more water during their service-lives.

Figure 2-5 Precipitation Map of Mozambique

Mozambique has a variation in annual rainfall from less than 500mm in some provinces
in the west and north west to more than 1750mm in the central and northern parts.
Average temperatures are shown in Figure 2-6. However, temperatures more than 45C
are not uncommon in some places.

9
 Figure 2-6 Average Temperature Distribution Map of Mozambique

It should also be considered that there are likely to be significant climate changes in
Mozambique over the next century, many of which will affect current designs,
particularly those for bridges and structures. Figure 2-7 shows the projected changes in
annual average maximum temperatures (°C, top) expected in Mozambique for the period
2021–2050 relative to the 1961-1990 averages under a low mitigation scenario using
two downscalings (ACCESS1-0 (left) and CNRM-CM5 (right). The lower figures show the
annual number of very hot days (number of events per grid point per year).
The figures consistently indicate projected temperature increases of 1 to 2 °C in the
southern parts of the country, with increases less than 1 °C projected over the northern
parts. The number of very hot days is, however, projected to increase by 20 to 40 days
per year across the county, with the largest increases projected for the Limpopo river
basin in the south. Over Mozambique in the far-future (2071-2100), temperature
increases are projected to range between 3 and 4°C over the eastern coastal areas, with
larger increases projected for the western interior regions.

10
Figure 2-8 shows the projected changes in annual average rainfall totals (mm, top) and
the annual number of extreme rainfall days over Mozambique for the period 2021-2050
relative to 1961-1990 under a low mitigation scenario.

Figure 2-7 Projected Changes in Annual Average Maximum Temperatures

(AfCAP, 2017a)

Both downscalings indicate pronounced rainfall increases as well as increases in extreme

rainfall events over the far northern parts of Mozambique, spreading to the central parts.
A northward shift in tropical cyclone tracks is also projected, with implications of general
rainfall increases and more flood events for central to northern Mozambique.

11
 Figure 2-8 Projected Changes in Average Rainfall (AfCAP, 2017a)

Although there is no specific application of the climate changes in most current designs,
the implications of these over the longer term should be highlighted in the site
investigation report (Chapter 7). Issues such as the effects of higher temperatures on
concrete structures, more extreme rainfall events on hydrologic calculations and the
effects of reduced rainfall on subgrade materials could lead to design modifications.
Typical climate-related problems that may be encountered are summarised in Table 2-1.

12
 Table 2-1 Potential climate changes and related problems (AfCAP, 2017b)
Climate stressor Potential impacts on transport infrastructure
Increased rainfall Increased flooding (excessive surface water)
Softening of construction materials
Greater impassability of unpaved roads
Increased erosion of unpaved road surface
Loss of shape of unpaved roads and shoulders
Blockage of drains
Loss of strength of layer materials
Damage to thin surfacings
Damage to pavement edges
Blockage of drains and culverts (more silt and debris deposited)
Increased slope instability
Increased erosion of cut surfaces and drains
Undercutting of fills
Excessive vegetation growth
Expansion and cracking of soils and road structures
Increased collapse and settlement
More movement of saline materials
Deformation of rigid structures
Increased accumulation of water adjacent to road
Erosion of embankments and abutments of culverts and bridges
Silting/sedimentation of culverts and bridges
Scour of bridge foundations
Overtopping of bridges and damage or destruction
Increased damage to bridges by debris
Excessive moisture in materials – construction delays
Reduced working periods and increased delays
Water damage to partially completed works
Additional road maintenance required
More bush clearing
Additional damage to drains
Decreased rainfall Increased wear and loss of gravel from drier surface of unpaved roads
Increased dust emissions over longer periods
Increased development of loose material and roughness (corrugations)
More rapid deterioration of gravel due to loss of cohesive fines
More rapid binder deterioration
Drying out and cracking of soils
Rapid ingress of moisture into tension cracks in slopes (slope failures
from shrinkage and tension cracks)
Increased erosion from more intense storms
Damage to vegetation by more wild-fires
More difficult to establish erosion protection through bio-engineering
More shrinkage and cracking of subgrades (volumetric movements)
Drying out of drains – more susceptible to erosion when rain does come
Higher risk of wild-fires affecting roadside vegetation and loss of root
stabilization
More silting and sedimentation
Damage to bridges and culverts from debris
Insufficient water for construction
Quicker loss of compaction water due to evaporation
More unpaved road surface maintenance
More maintenance to drain damage
Increased surface erosion repairs
Increased More rapid drying out of road
temperature Increased shrinkage and cracking of soils
Increased development of roughness on unpaved roads (corrugation)
Quicker generation of loose material on unpaved roads
More rapid ageing of bituminous binders
Softening of bitumen in asphalt and more rapid deformation when hot
Expansion and buckling of concrete roads and structures
Loss of vegetation (or change of species) on side slopes (insufficient

13
 water)
More wildfires causing loss of root binding
Increased erosion (loss of soil binding)
Greater expansion/contraction of bridge elements – more maintenance
Quicker reactions when cement stabilising
Quicker drying of concrete
Increased vegetation growth (more wild-fires)
Decreased No effects except at extreme altitudes – freezing of water in road surface
temperature Reduced windows for construction of bituminous surfacings
Less rapid ageing of bituminous binders
More brittle fracture of bitumen when cold
Reduced working periods for certain operations (paving, stabilization)
Increased maintenance of bituminous surfacings (crack sealing and
pothole repair)
Increased windiness More rapid drying out of materials
Increased deterioration rates of gravel roads due to fines loss
Increased accumulation of sand
Possible damage to bituminous surfacings caused by more wild-fires
Loss of vegetation due to burning
Higher erosion rates on side slopes and drains
Greater wind-load on bridges
More debris in flood waters due to fire damage
Fire damage to bridges (wooden mainly but also concrete)
More dust
Quicker evaporation of construction water
Increased unpaved road maintenance to minimise corrugations resulting
from dust loss
Regular clearing of river debris and catchment vegetation
Rising sea level Flooding and storm damage
Increased subgrade and layer moisture contents
Increased erosion and siltation
Damage to road surfacings by salts and water impact
Deposition of debris
Fluctuating moisture levels with surges
Reduced soil strengths
Accumulation of water adjacent to road
Erosion
Scour of foundations
Increased salt damage to concrete and steel
Saline waters
Increased maintenance in coastal and low-lying areas
Changing ground- Wetter or drier subgrades
water levels More saline conditions affecting pavement structures
Slope instability (localised)
Volumetric movements possible
Localised seepage and springs
Difficult working conditions

2.5 Vegetation and Land Use

Vegetation influences the provision of roads in several ways. A knowledge of vegetation
is often useful in prospecting for materials because it can be a key indicator of the
presence of certain soils and gravels in the area. The clearing of vegetation, especially
large trees, can also be a factor in road construction, thus influencing costs. Projects
have even been delayed due to environmental considerations regarding certain trees.
The distribution of vegetation and agriculture in Mozambique is shown in Figure 2-9
indicating that six general types of vegetation and combinations of these occur.
• Bushland
• Forest

14
 • Grassland
• Mangrove
• Shrubland
• Savannah

Figure 2-9 Vegetation Map of Mozambique

Knowing the type of vegetation assists in planning site investigations and can also
influence the data sources used. For example, in thickly forested areas, little information
can be gathered from most remote sensing techniques as the materials are “masked” by
the trees. Field visits will also be affected by the type of vegetation in terms of mobility
and accessibility to various selected sites.

15
In mangrove areas, accessibility may be difficult, subgrade and founding conditions are
poor and flooding is likely during the rainy season. Materials in these areas are scarce
making haul distances excessive.
The use of vegetation to identify possible construction material locations can save
significant time and effort. The vegetation in Gaza Province, for example, is
dry/eutrophic savannah characterized by the dominance of Acacia spp. and
Colophospermum mopane on heavier-textured, base-saturated soils (i.e. clayey soils),
and Caesalpinoideae and Combretaceae on leached, sandy and lighter-textured soils.

2.6 Seismicity
Mozambique is in an active seismic zone at the lower end of the East African Rift system
and can be affected by seismic activity with ground accelerations of up to 2.4 m/s 2
(Figure 2-10). This must be considered for bridge foundation and structure design and
also where soils subject to liquefaction occur.

Figure 2-10 Seismic hazard map of Mozambique

(https://www.humanitarianlibrary.org/sites/default/files/2013/05/moz-
seismic.pdf)

16
2.7 Additional Information
Other maps produced by various agencies can be used to provide additional useful
information that may assist in the desk study and in the planning of the field work.
Typical of these are land-use maps, demographic maps and hydrologic information.

2.8 Sources of Information

Various sources of information that can be used for the desk study and preliminary site
investigation are available and the following discussion identifies them and where they
can be obtained.

2.8.1 Geographical Information System (GIS)

ANE has an internal GIS Department with full GIS database including topography,
geology, soils, demographic characteristics, etc. Reference should always be made to
this as the first step.

2.8.2 Topographical Mapping

Cenacarta (Centro Nacional de Cartografia e Teledetecção) is the main source of
published topographical information in Mozambique. 1:250,000 and 1:50 000 scale
topographic maps are available for the entire country in paper form and as
pdf. Although 1:50 000 scale is the largest scale available in the country, it portrays the
same contour interval as that shown on the smaller scale maps (100m). Most of these
topographic were published in the 1960s and 1970s and thus more recent urban and
infrastructure developments are not shown, although the topography will be the same.

2.8.3 Aerial Photographs

Cenacarta has a library of black and white stereo aerial photographs. These prints are at
a nominal scale of 1:40,000 and were taken in the 1960s. Using a stereoscope, these
photographs allow the terrain to be viewed in stereo (3D) thus allowing the topography
and its geomorphological features to be examined. They are especially helpful in
mapping the topography and geological and physical features of mountain terrain.

2.8.4 Satellite Imagery

Satellite imagery has become a key resource in the investigation of linear infrastructure.
The first line of investigation should be Google Earth, which provides a valuable tool for
viewing and interpreting the terrain. Basic information on the geology, soils, vegetation
and land-use are readily visible.
Table 2-2 lists some of the common satellite sensors that can be used. The table is
divided into those that provide elevational data and those that provide panchromatic
(black and white) and multi-spectral (MS) data. Panchromatic data enables visual
interpretation of the terrain while MS data provides the facility for interpreting drainage
conditions, soils and vegetation. To use remote sensing to compare the topography of
different route options and derive preliminary earthworks quantities for each, satellite
data that provides 3D digital information is required. Digital Elevation Models (DEMs) can
be developed from this data in Autocad, or similar highway design software, to model
the terrain and obtain earthworks quantities.
The least accurate providers of 3D digital data are SRTM (Shuttle Radar Topographic
Mission) and ASTER (Advanced Space-borne Thermal Admission and Reflection
Radiometer), although the data is free to download. As can be seen from Table 2-2,
SRTM and ASTER provide vertical accuracy of between 5m and 30m and a horizontal
accuracy of 30m. Nevertheless, given the 100m contour interval on the published
topographic maps of Mozambique, these sensors offer potential advantages. Care needs
to be taken when using this data in mountainous areas, and some form of ground control

17
verification (proofing) is recommended. Greater vertical accuracies are available from
other sensors, although the information must be purchased. As Table 2-2 shows,
Worldview, Geo-Eye and Pléiades, provide the highest resolution, although SPOT 5 DEM
is probably most cost-effective for preliminary investigations.
Cenacarta holds some localised Worldview, Geo-Eye and QuickBird imagery and these
areas can be found on Esquema Geral das imagens de Alta Resolução, available from
Cenacarta. SPOT 4 and SPOT 5 imagery is also available for parts of the country. As
Figure 2-11 shows, SPOT 4 covers much of the central and western parts of the country,
but while SPOT 4 has a reasonable vertical accuracy (10m) its horizontal accuracy is
poor (Table 2-2). Figure 2-12 shows the coverage of SPOT 5 held by Cenacarta. It
covers large parts of the south and southeast coast of the country as well as parcels of
land in the north.
There is satellite coverage of the country that is not held by Cenarcata and the road
engineer is directed to the following websites to help determine the available imagery.

https://browse.digitalglobe.com/imagefinder/
http://www.intelligence-airbusds.com/en/4871-browse-and-order

2.8.5 Digital airborne Imagery

Digital airborne imagery includes digital stereo aerial photography and a range of other
airborne sensors. In the last decade or so, LiDAR (Light Detection and Ranging) has
become one of the most common sources of DEM data for engineering use. LiDAR
provides spatial resolution of 1m or better and a vertical accuracy of 0.25 m or greater,
with ground control. One of the advantages of LiDAR is its ability to penetrate vegetation
cover, although the extent of penetration, and therefore its accuracy, depends on the
configuration of the LiDAR. LiDAR is rarely available in archived format, and would
normally have to be commissioned for a specific project. Although this is a relatively
expensive exercise and subject to potential security restrictions, it can be particularly
useful for deriving DEM data and for site investigation studies and design.
For some road alignments (e.g. in mountainous terrain) it may prove cost-effective to
commission LiDAR surveys that can then be utilised in the detailed design of the road.

18
 Table 2-2 Digital data from Satellite Sensors
Sensor Resolution Horizontal Vertical Accuracy
Accuracy
SRTM 3 arc seconds 30 m 5-15 m (terrain
(90 m) dependent)
ASTER 30 m 30 m 15-30 m
ELEVATION30 20-30m 7m (RMS) 10m (RMS)
SPOTDEM Precision
DTED Level 2 HRS DEM
SPOT HRS DEM (SPOT5) 20-30 m <10m 5- <10m (terrain
DTED Level 2 HRS DEM dependent)
SPOT 4 350m 10m B&W
DigitalGlobe AES DEM 2-8m 2-8m Relative accuracy 1-5m
Absolute accuracy 2-8m
PRISM DEM 5m 5-10m 5-10m
Elevation4 (Pléiades) 4m 3m 2m
Elevation1 (Pléiades) 1m 1.5 m 1m
Worldview 1 & 2 1m 1-2m (with 1-2m (with
GCPs, terrain GCPs, terrain
dependent) dependent)
GeoEye-1 1m 1-2m (with 1-2m (with
GCPs, terrain GCPs, terrain
dependent) dependent)
Worldview 3 B&W 0.3m 3.5m without GCP Up to 15cm (with
MS 1.24m <1m (with GCPs, terrain
GCPs, terrain dependent)
dependent)
QuickBird B&W 0.6m link Studies have been
MS 2.4m 4.7m for 1:10000 completed to determine
ortho data the viability of creating
a DEM using stereo
imagery from QuickBird
IKONOS B&W 0.82m link 22m without GCP
MS 3.2m 25m without GCP 3m with GCP
2m with GCP
SPOT 6 & 7 B&W 1.5m link None
MS 6m 20m without GCP
1.2m with GCP
LANDSAT 7 B&W 15m Not known None
MS 30m
Thermal 60m
NB GCP – Ground control points

19
Figure 2-11 Coverage of SPOT 4 held at Cenacarta

20
 Figure 2-12 Coverage of SPOT 5 held at Cenacarta

2.8.6 Geological Maps

Geological mapping that is available for the entire country was published at 1:2 million
scale in 1968, 1:1 million scale in 2008 and 1: 250,000 scale in 2005-2007. These maps
are available in paper form and pdf/jpeg format from the National Directorate of Geology
(Direcção Nacional de Geologia, DNG) in Maputo.

21
The larger scale, 1:250,000 maps, are usually the most useful for civil engineering
purposes. Despite the relatively small-scale of this mapping it does show a considerable
amount of detail.
The Noticias (Memoirs) that accompany these maps are detailed in the description of
structure, lithology, mineralogy, petrology and geochemistry of the rock types
encountered.
The DNG also holds geological maps published at 1:50,000 scale for localised areas of
the country. This larger-scale coverage occurs predominantly in parts of Tete, Manica
and Niassa Provinces. The contour intervals on the larger-scale mapping are much
smaller, providing greater topographical detail.

2.8.7 Soil Maps

Geological maps show the mapped locations of the rock types and only some superficial
materials, including alluvium, lacustrine sediments, coastal dune fields, and areas with
significant eluvial (thick in-situ weathered) soils, for example sand and clay soils. Soil
maps, on the other hand, show the actual types, and detail regarding the superficial
materials. These superficial soils are important in the south, southeast and coastal areas
of the country whereas in the north and northwest the mapping focus is on the
underlying solid geology.
There are various sources of soil maps in the country. For example, in 1994 the Instituto
Nacional de Investigação Agrária de Moçambique (INIA), Departamento de Terra e Agua
(DTA) published the Carta de Solos at a scale of 1:1 million (Figure 2-4). Despite the
small scale, the soil classification is detailed and includes classification of alluvial soils,
dune soils, and soils derived from in situ weathering of the various rock types found in
the country. Although the functional classification of these soils is focused towards
agricultural suitability rather than engineering characteristics, the maps are a useful and
important source of data. Typically, the largest scale maps provide the most useful
information.

2.8.8 Use of physiographic data

The physiographic data is used for various parts of the site investigations as summarised
in Table 2-3.
Table 2-3: Summary of Use of Physiographic Data
Data/Application Geometric Pavement Geotechnical Hydrological
design design design design
Topographic   
Geology and Soils   
Climate   
Vegetation and   
land-use
Seismicity 

22
3 Investigations for Feasibility Study, Route Selection
and Preliminary Design
The site investigation involves various steps which help to minimise the efforts and
associated costs and to ensure that all the vital information required for the route
selection or feasibility study are obtained. These are usually carried out initially through
preliminary investigations followed by a preliminary design and then the detailed
investigations.

3.1 Background
For new roads, it is usually necessary to assess several alternative route options. By the
time the full site investigation is commissioned, the final route for the road will usually
have been identified. Minor adjustments required to avoid difficult situations which may
lead to excessive construction costs may be made at this stage.
A typical feasibility study for route location would follow the procedures shown in Figure
3-1.

Government of Mozambique

Policy Directives

Road Strategic Decision

Classification Making

Road
Network

Corridor Studies

Corridor Selection

Route Option Identification • Topography

• Engineering Geology
• Hydrology and drainage
Route Selection Studies • Environmental
Engineering
• Social Engineering
Route Selection Report • Economic Evaluation

Approval ANE & other Relevant

Institutions

Detailed Design Consultant Activity

Figure 3-1: Activity Flow Chart for Route Selection

23
The geometric design class shall be identified for the road prior to the route selection,
based on the ANE Geometric Design Manual, 2017. The geometric standard selected is
primarily affected by the intended use of the road, the traffic to be carried, the
demographics of the area and the terrain. The design class may need to be adjusted
locally in certain areas of difficult terrain (steep slopes and deep valleys) but will
normally dictate the horizontal and vertical curvature requirements of the road, and thus
the preferred alignment.

3.1.1 Investigation Methods

Preliminary investigations are carried out initially by a desk study and then through a
reconnaissance survey. The objective of the desk study is to identify the data needs and
sources of information. A review of the information collected at this stage can minimize
surprises in the field.
The reconnaissance survey provides additional information about general site conditions
including adjacent land use, environmental issues, problem soils, slope stability, erosion
features and surface settlements, flood levels, and other vital information required for
route selection.

3.1.2 Desk Study

Desk studies are usually much less expensive than site visits: therefore, by making use
of existing information, the project can (at the very least) be improved, the cost of
detailed site investigations reduced, and the effectiveness and efficiency of carrying out
the required new site investigations can be considerably enhanced. However, care is
required to ensure that any existing data are reliable: old data might be out of date
(e.g.traffic data) or incomplete (e.g. hydrological data).
It is important to try and get as much information as possible for the desk study. Such
sources should include:
• Available historical data from previous construction and maintenance should be
collected for review.
• Aerial photographs and satellite images (e.g. Google Earth) provide a very useful
source of information, including road environment factors such as the alignment
of the road, drainage patterns, low-lying areas, locations of settlements, etc.
• Previously collected information on the location and variety of materials used in
constructing the gravel road – usually available from the Central Materials
Laboratory (LEM).
• Geological, soil and seismic maps.
• Topographic maps
• Social/economic reports
• Climate data.
The use of pertinent information obtained during the pre-feasibility stage of the
investigation will reduce time and cost inputs and should be the first activity. Additional
data required and their sources will then also usually be identified.
The scope and level of detail of desk studies depends on the type of project, the type of
information under consideration (e.g. geotechnical, hydrological, traffic, environmental,
social) and the amount of information that is available, but the results are usually
valuable.

3.1.3 Reconnaissance Surveys

The field visit and reconnaissance survey shall complement the desk study to ensure that
sufficient information is collected from the field. This is usually based on the findings of

24
the desk-study to streamline logistics and ensure that issues identified during the desk-
study are investigated and followed up on.

3.2 Preliminary Considerations

Various issues to be considered include:
1. Physiographic features (topography, geology, climate, materials, land use)
2. Hydrology and drainage
3. Social aspects
4. Environmental Issues
5. Traffic and axle loading
The physiographic features, their significance and data source are explained in Chapter 2,
however some of the issues related to geology, and materials to be investigated are
summarised in the sections below.
Preliminary investigations to assess social aspects, environmental issues and traffic are
explained in some detail because any adverse impacts, if not mitigated against, would
result in delays or denial of approval to proceed with the project. They are also
important inputs into the preliminary design.

3.2.1 Engineering geological constraints

Various engineering geological issues that need to be assessed include:

1. Landslides and slope instability

2. Cavity collapse

3. Irregular rock head profiles

4. Problem soils, (e.g. expansive, dispersive, compressible and saline soils)

5. Foundation failure of retaining walls, bridges and embankments

6. Excessive erosion

7. High groundwater conditions

These would not normally be investigated in detail at this stage but would be identified
for further assessment during the detailed site investigations.

3.2.2 Construction Materials

It is important during the feasibility stage to determine whether suitable construction
materials are likely to be available in the area or whether these will need to be hauled
over long distances. The use of local materials with chemical stabilisation may be
possible, but this is usually expensive and natural materials are preferable. The use of
alternative materials such as waste products, industrial by-products and recycled
materials should also be considered.
No detailed investigation is carried out at this stage, but a general impression of material
availability is required. The actual location and proving of quality and quantity of
materials is part of the site investigation process described in the following chapter.

3.2.3 Hydrology and Drainage

One of the biggest cost components of road projects is the drainage structures,
particularly bridges and large culverts. Typically, the location of bridges and drainage

25
structures shall be identified, but it is during the detailed site investigation that the
foundation conditions of these are identified.
Hydrological data is necessary to design new water crossings or to improve existing ones,
particularly if there is visual evidence that their capacity is insufficient, as well as
providing information on local drainage conditions. Such data will also provide valuable
information on the moisture regime in which the road will operate. This information will
alert the designer to the potential sources of moisture infiltration into the road pavement
and the measures that should be taken to mitigate such entry.
During this stage, the hydrological and drainage issues are visually assessed to ensure
that the optimum bridge locations and drainage requirements are achieved. These would
be followed by a full hydrological survey later to determine the required capacities and
sizes of drainage structures, described in the Hydrology and Drainage Manual (2017).

3.3 Environmental and Social Issues

The location of a road may often be dictated by the environmental and social constraints
associated with specific areas. A preliminary assessment is required as part of the
planning phase in selecting an environmentally and socially sound route among the
available options. However, a more detailed assessment is often required during the
feasibility study or detailed design phase of a project. Such studies are conducted on the
selected route. This section describes only the preliminary investigations needed for the
initial environmental and social assessment to determine the best route.
Selecting/avoiding a route primarily depends on the impact on the surrounding
environment and communities.

3.3.1 Environmental Legal Requirements and Procedural Guidelines

Country policy and legal frameworks describe what features are important to assess and
identify the scale and severity of environmental impacts. Development of road projects
fall under environmental regulations as per Mozambique’s Environmental Law (Decree
20/1997) and EIA Regulations (Decree no. 54/2015 of 31 December). The Ministry of
Land, Environment and Rural Development (MITADER) implements environmental policy
through the following arms:

1. Land Inspection, Environment and Rural Development;

2. National Directorate of Rural Development;

3. National Directorate of Forests;

4. National Directorate of Environment:

5. National Directorate of Land;

6. National Directorate of Resettlement and Territorial Planning;

7. National Cartography and Remote Sensing Centre (CENACARTA);

8. Training Institute on Land Administration and Cartography (INFATEC);

9. National Administration of Conservation Areas.

For projects funded by international aid agencies, it will be necessary to ensure that their
relevant guidelines are followed. The World Bank (WB) and the IFC (International
Finance Corporation) safeguard guidelines are becoming internationally common and
being increasingly adopted as the industry standard.
Depending on the stage and type of projects, two levels of environmental investigation
are required. For the planning and prefeasibility stage during the selection of a route or

26
realignment, a preliminary investigation is required. By assessing the impacts identified
at this stage, the option that has no, or minimal impact is usually selected.
However, for a detailed design or feasibility study a more comprehensive environmental
investigation is required. After conducting the preliminary investigation as per MITADER,
based upon the magnitude and severity of the road impacts on the environment, the
project must be categorized into one of four categories, A+, A, B or C and accordingly
detailed interventions are required as laid down by EIA regulations.
The Environmental Guide published by ANE provides detailed guidelines on the input into
a site investigation, therefore, this chapter provides guidance on conducting only the
preliminary assessment to be considered for route selection.

3.3.2 Preliminary Environmental Assessment Steps

The preliminary environmental investigation is carried out for collecting and generating
sufficient information and data about the road project to assist in formulating an
environmentally sound development plan for the project.

The process involves identifying the impacts of various issues on the environment for
different alternatives and then selecting the route that has the least adverse impacts,
following the steps below:
1. Collection of data

2. Identification of environmental issues and receptors

3. Assessment of the impact

3.3.3 Environmental Data Collection

It is required to identify all important key environmental issues by conducting a desk

study of available data, site visits/reconnaissance survey, consultation with stakeholders
for gathering additional data and validating/confirming/authenticating the collected data.

3.3.3.1 Desk Study

The preliminary stage data gathering is quick, mostly based on a desk study and internet
information. All relevant documents and reports must be collected for each proposed
route option. Examples of such documents and their sources are listed below:
1. Information from MITADER and other statutory and regulatory bodies
concerning protected and sensitive areas in the region;
2. Delineated area of national parks, national reserves and zones of historical and
cultural heritage;
3. Topographical, geological and soils maps and aerial photographs (the largest
scales available);
4. Existing environmental studies;
5. Details of any current environmental improvement schemes and related
government or local development programs;
6. Reports of relevant projects operating in the project area;
7. Demographic features, number of villages, major economic activity and towns
connected on each route;
8. Existing surface water resources (quantity, quality and flow direction), water
bodies and wetlands;
9. Groundwater resources (water table depth, pollution and flow direction);
10. Landscape value (expected landscape changes due to vegetation clearing,

27
 cutting, filling, quarrying, and spoil disposal);
11. Biological environment;
12. Infrastructure (health centres, education, etc.).

From the desk study and internet searches, the applicable policy and legal framework
should be identified and whether the following conditions occur along the route should be
confirmed:
• Coral reefs;
• Mangroves;
• Indigenous forests;
• Small islands;
• Zones of imminent erosion, including frontal dunes;
• Zones exposed to desertification;
• Zones or areas of conservation or protection;
• Marshes;
• Zones containing endangered species of animal or vegetation, habitats and
ecosystems;
• Zones of unique scenery;
• Zones of endemic species;
• Zones of migratory species;
• Zones of archaeological, geological, palaeontological, historical and cultural
value to be preserved;
• Protection areas around water supply springs and fountains;
• Densely populated areas where the road construction and operation activities
involve unacceptable pollution or other types of disturbance significantly
affecting the resident communities;
• Regions subject to high levels of development or regions where there are
conflicts in the distribution and use of natural resources;
• Areas along rivers or areas used by local communities as a source of domestic
water supply;
• Zones containing valuable resources, e.g. aquatic, minerals and medicinal
plants

3.3.3.2 Field visit/Reconnaissance survey

The fieldwork and reconnaissance survey shall complement the desk study to ensure
that sufficient information is collected on the following categories of environmentally
sensitive areas that may be affected by the project:
• Status of sensitive receptors
• Level of exposures of sensitive receptors
• Presence, status and exposure of protected, threatened or endangered species
• Status and level of exposure of forest and wildlife heritage
• Status and condition of land prone to landslides and erosion
• Areas of international water bodies
• Land prone to desertification
• Areas of particular scientific interest
• Status and level of exposure of areas of outstanding natural beauty
• Status and level of exposure to areas of particular historical or archaeological

28
 interest
• Identify likely number of trees to be felled due to the project
• Sites or areas of historical, cultural or ethnic significance
• Status and level of exposure to inhabitants and urban settlements en-route

3.3.4 Environmental Consultations

Consultation provides additional information and complements the desk study and
field surveys. Consultations should be undertaken with the following parties :
• National EIA Board (DNAB)/ Provincial Directorates of Land, Environment and
Rural Development, including regional representatives
• Relevant district offices of Provincial Directorates of Land, Environment and
Rural Development
• Representatives from the relevant regional, locality and administrative posts
authorities
• Any other community representation groups
• Industry and local transport providers, where appropriate
• ANE and project concessionaire
• Any relevant NGOs (national and international) operating in the project area.
It is important to ensure that all potentially-affected groups are consulted. All
consultations and interviews should be formally recorded. The stakeholder
consultation can be carried out through focus group discussions, consultation
meetings, interview, rapid rural appraisals and household surveys depending on the
target group and goal.
A rapid household survey of selected project-affected persons and vulnerable groups
is also required to assess the income, employment, expenditure and livelihood
dependence on the natural and biological resources, and aquatic and marine life and
level of exposure and impact from the project. Focus group discussions can be
conducted during the route visit to quickly gather information on the vulnerable
groups likely to be affected, existing species of medicinal plants and endangered
species in the project influence area, maximum historical flood levels, wild life
migration routes, migratory bird locations and the dependence of local communities
on natural resources in the area.

3.3.5 Identification of Environmental Issues and Receptors

Based on the information gathered, a list of environmental issues and receptors is

prepared, against which potential impacts can be compared for each route option.
• Key issues into the impact categories (e.g. physical, biological, socio- economic
and socio-cultural)
• National Parks and other areas of nature conservation and biodiversity
• Coastal and marine life
• Landscape effects, including areas of high landscape value
• Effects on water resources and water supply
• Erosion potential, on slopes and in streams/rivers, and the potential for
accelerated deforestation/desertification
• Slope stability and large landslides
• Potential for pollution (noise, air water)
• Land use types, including industrial and commercial
• Agricultural land and agricultural practices
• The need to resettle households and the potential to disrupt or remove
community resources and services
• Historical features and monuments of cultural or religious value
• Archaeological sites

29
 • Indigenous and/or disadvantaged groups
• Road safety issues
• Densely populated areas (including severance issues).

3.3.6 Environmental Impact Assessment

The evaluation of data gathered during the desktop and field studies provides
information for the process of evaluating and describing how the project could affect the
environment. The magnitude of actual and potential impacts shall be assessed to ensure
that environmental considerations are given adequate weightings in selecting the
project.

Impacts are assessed on two key resources – physical resources (air, noise, soil, water
and climate) and bio-physical resources (flora, fauna, aquatic and marine life). Impacts
on potentially vulnerable environmental receptors shall be quantified by assigning
weightings for important parameters. These weightings are based on the scale,
frequency, severity, longevity, reversibility, and likelihood of incidence.
Impacts on potentially vulnerable environmental receptors shall be quantified by
assigning weightings called Environmentally Critical Area (ECA) values for important
parameters. Table 3-1 provides guidance on how to determine these weightings.

Table 3-1: ECA values for Different Environmental Receptors

Environmentally Critical Area ECA Value

National Parks, Primary Forests and Coastal Areas of High 6

Biodiversity and Endangered Species
Recharge Areas for Aquifers, Protected Water Bodies and 5
Wetlands
Prime Agricultural Land 4

Areas prone to flooding 3

Areas of High Landscape Value/Scientific Interest 2

Areas Prone to Erosion and Desertification 1

Higher weightings are assigned for archaeological, cultural and historical importance
areas; however, these weightings depend on the regulatory agency’s priority on the
environment and can change time to time.
Impacts should be assessed along all routes being considered and the one which has
minimum impact shall be selected.

3.3.7 Social issues

In a similar manner to the environmental assessment, a social impact assessment (SIA)
would be done. This is carried out to minimise the impact of the road on the social well-
being of the communities along the proposed road length. The SIA, typically carried out
during the feasibility stage, is used to examine the various effects on social welfare of
the new road. Its primary purpose is to:
• Identify and mitigate any social risks

30
 • Assess the social costs and benefits

During the initial assessment, key questions to be asked are:

• Is the new road and any consequences (e.g., roadside works, increased traffic
flows, new traffic patterns, or any other changes) likely to affect the surrounding
social and economic environment?
• Will the new road generate substantial additional traffic or temporary traffic
affecting the interactions within nearby communities?
• Will there be significant social and economic activities associated with the new
road?
• What are the main local travel patterns (including walking, cycling, and public
transport), which may be affected by road changes?

3.3.8 Principles
The following principles should structure any SIA (TRL, 2005):
1. Involve the diverse public: Public involvement is essential and should be an
active and interactive process, in which members of the public are full
participants in the SIA process. It is essential that all segments of the public who
may potentially be affected have opportunities to participate. SIA involves
reaching out to groups that do not routinely participate in government decision-
making because of cultural, linguistic, and economic barriers. An effective public
plan to involve all potentially affected communities should be developed.
2. Analyse impact equity: A basic part of SIA is to analyse who wins and who
loses with each alternative considered. It is especially important to analyse
whether an alternative may have high and disproportionate adverse social or
health effects on a low-income or minority population. Impact equity must be
considered in close and sympathetic consultation with affected communities,
neighbourhoods, and groups, especially low-income and vulnerable groups
(elderly, young, infirm, poor). Analysis should begin during scoping to ensure that
important issues are not left out.
3. Focus the assessment: This is a matter of scoping. Scoping during the pre-
feasibility study should seek to ascertain what issues are important to affected
communities and groups. The analysis should not focus only on economic issues
or demographics but should also include the issues identified by the public.
4. Identify methods and assumptions and define significance: The SIA must
report the assumptions on which it is based, and describe methods employed. It
should discuss how the significance of a social impact is represented, and the
reasons for considering one kind of impact to be more significant than another
should be defined and weighted.
5. Provide feedback to project stakeholders: Participatory stakeholder
consultation should be conducted throughout the investigation, and particularly at
the project’s inception. There should be active feedback between the SIA
contractor, planners and community leaders throughout the assessment and
planning processes.
6. Use SIA practitioners: Trained social scientists, using a combination of
qualitative and quantitative as well as participatory methods will provide the best
results for a SIA. An experienced practitioner might identify critical impacts that
at first may not be recognised as public concerns but are still necessary to select
measurement procedures.

31
 7. Establish monitoring and mitigation methods: An SIA should provide an
analysis of impacts, as well as the basis for setting up programmes to mitigate
social impacts and monitor how these programmes work.
8. Identify data sources: As a matter of good practice, an SIA should identify the
sources and an evidence base upon which the analysis is based. The sources
should include published scientific literature and secondary and primary data from
the affected area.
9. Make a plan for gaps in data collected: Often the SIA is produced in the
absence of the necessary information, which is unavailable, incomplete or
outdated. The SIA practitioner should find acceptable procedures to overcome
these shortages of information such as the application of different research
methods or the use of theoretical approaches.
The overall process should identify issues such as community severance, land
acquisition, displacement and resettlement and compensation, all being significant issues
that need to be assessed and addressed.
To capture the social information, stakeholder consultation is essential. This should
ensure that the planning process is undertaken in an accountable and transparent
manner, with consultations carried out through all stages of the project cycle but which
are most critical during the early stages. They should be undertaken in such a manner as
to allow full participation of the authorities and the public with the following aims:
• Establishing background information on the project from all possible sources;
• Identifying viable alternatives for the project;
• Taking on board the views of stakeholders at all stages of the project;
• Reaching a consensus on the preferred choice of project and any resulting
mitigation measures.

It is important that the following are considered in the SIA:

• Local people must be involved in the consultation process;
• Local perception, attitudes, values and knowledge are considered;
• A continuous and comprehensive feedback process is made an integral part of all
development activities.
Communities can be consulted through a variety of means including focus group
discussions, semi-structured interviews and public meetings; and an interactive,
participatory approach is recommended.

3.4 Traffic Counts and Loading

3.4.1 Background
Quantification of traffic that will use the new road over its design life is essential to
compare the route options, identify the geometric standard required and to determine
the feasibility. The predicted traffic is estimated by considering the following:

1. Existing traffic (where a road exists) – number and type of vehicles and axle
loadings

2. Diverted traffic (attracted to the new road by its being shorter or better quality
than alternatives currently being used)

3. Generated traffic (resulting from improved economic or social development in the

area)

32
 4. Normal traffic growth rates

The (Annual) Average Daily Traffic (AADT) is defined as the total annual traffic summed
for both directions and divided by 365. For new roads, the existing pedestrian traffic can
be used to estimate the likely vehicular traffic after the road is constructed. The AADT is
usually obtained by recording actual traffic volumes over a shorter survey period, from
which the AADT is then estimated. It should be noted that for structural design purposes
the traffic loading in one direction is required and for this reason care is always required
when interpreting AADT figures. For longer projects, large differences in traffic along the
road may make it necessary to estimate the flow at several locations along the road.
The two most commonly used types of traffic surveys are:
1. Automatic Traffic Survey (traffic counters with inductive loops and weigh-in-
motion (WIM) sensors
2. Manual Traffic Survey
The objective of undertaking either of these types of traffic surveys is to obtain an
estimate of the AADT using the road for the determination of geometric design standards,
and also to break them down into vehicle type for the determination of the number of
equivalent standard axles expected to be carried over the design life of the road for
structural design purposes. The location, timing, frequency and duration of traffic
surveys should be given careful consideration in terms of striking a balance between cost
and accuracy.
For estimation of the AADT, the traffic needs to be classified according to the types of
vehicle and the numbers of the various types of vehicle must be determined.

3.4.2 Vehicle Classification

The types of vehicles are defined according to Table 3-2.

33
 Table 3-2: Vehicle Classification

Class Type Axles Description

A Car 2 Passenger cars and taxis
Pick-up, minibus, 4x4
B Pick-up/4-wheel drive 2
vehicles
C Small bus 2 ≤ 20 seats
D Bus/coach 2 > 20 seats
E Small truck 2 ≤ 3.5 tonnes
F Truck 3 or 4 > 3.5 tonnes
G Large truck >4
H Tractor
2-axled trailer
3-axled trailer 3
4-axled trailer 4
Motor-cycles and
motor cycle taxis
Bicycles
Pedestrians
Other Non-motorised
transport

Traffic data may be available based on a simpler classification system using only five
classes namely Classes A, B and C combined, Class D, Classes E and F combined,
Classes G and H combined and a class for articulated trucks. However, every effort
should be made to include a more detailed heavy traffic classification as shown in Table
3-3 because the average ESA values for the heavy vehicle classes can be very different;
this more detailed classification will enable a more accurate estimate of the total ESA
values to be obtained.

Table 3-3: Heavy Vehicle Classification

Type Axles Description*
Medium truck 2 or 3 3.5 – 7.5 tonnes
Large 2-axled truck 2 > 7.5 tonnes
3-axled truck 3 >7.5 tonnes

4-axled truck 4

5-axled truck 5

6-axled truck 6
2-axled trailer 2
3-axled trailer 3

* – an estimate of the load carried by each vehicle should also be obtained

34
3.4.3 Initial Traffic Volumes

To determine the total traffic over the design life of the road, the first step is to estimate
initial traffic volumes. The estimate should be the (Annual) Average Daily Traffic (AADT)
currently using the route (or, more specifically, the AADT expected to use the route
during the first year the road is placed in service) classified into the thirteen classes of
vehicles described above. Adjustments will usually be required between the AADT based
on the latest traffic counts and the AADT during the first year of service. These
adjustments can be made using the growth factors discussed below.
It is not possible to conduct traffic surveys on a new road but by conducting traffic
surveys on adjoining or other similar roads in the area, the traffic volume on the new
road shall be estimated in terms of the Annual Average Daily Traffic (AADT) at the time
of the road opening.
Based on the review of various traffic studies conducted in Mozambique in recent years,
it has been concluded that traffic volumes are very erratic and do not show any
identifiable general trends. This makes it difficult to predict growth rates and future
volumes. However, it is expected that, as traffic increases, the variability will decrease,
and it will become a little easier to forecast traffic more accurately.
Care should thus be exercised in selecting appropriate locations for conducting the traffic
counts to ensure a true reflection of the traffic using the entire length of the road. If any
significant junctions occur along the road length, additional counts should be conducted
before and after the junctions.
Traffic counts carried out over a short period as a basis for estimating the AADT can
produce estimates which are subject to large errors because traffic volumes can have
large daily, weekly, monthly and seasonal variations. The daily variability in traffic
volume depends on the volume of traffic, with particularly high variability on roads
carrying less than 1000 vehicles per day. Traffic volumes vary more from day-to-day
than from week-to-week over the year. Thus, there are large errors associated with
estimating annual AADTs from traffic counts of only a few days duration or excluding the
weekend. For the same reason, there is a rapid decrease in the likely error as the
duration of the counting period increases up to one week. For counts of longer duration,
improvements in accuracy are less pronounced. Traffic volumes also vary from month-
to-month (seasonal variation), so that a weekly traffic count repeated at intervals during
the year provides a better base for estimating the annual volume of traffic than a
continuous traffic count of the same total duration. Traffic also varies considerably
through a 24-hour period and this needs to be considered explicitly as outlined below.
Based on the above, and to reduce error, it is recommended that traffic counts to
establish AADT at a specific site conform to the following practice:
The counts are for seven consecutive days.
i) Every vehicle passing the survey point on the road are recorded according to
Table 3-2 and Table 3-3.
ii) The counts on some of the days are for a full 24 hours with, preferably, at least
one 24-hour count on a weekday and one during a weekend. On the other days
16-hour counts should be sufficient. These should be extrapolated to 24-hour
values in the same proportion as the 16-hour/24-hour split on those days when
full 24-hour counts have been undertaken.
iii) Counts are avoided at times when travel activity is abnormal for short periods
due to the payment of wages and salaries, public holidays, etc. If abnormal traffic
flows persist for extended periods, for example during harvest times, additional
counts need to be made to ensure this traffic is properly included.

35
 iv) If possible, the 7-day counts should be repeated several times throughout the
year.
Countrywide traffic data should, preferably, be collected on a systematic basis to
enable seasonal trends in traffic volumes to be quantified. The frequency of counting
shown in the following Table 3-4 is recommended.

Table 3-4: Frequency of Traffic Counts

Road Classification 7-day Traffic Counts
Trunk Road Quarterly
Link Road Quarterly
Main Access Road Every 6 months
Other Roads Every 3 years

3.4.4 Axle load Surveys

The traffic volume alone is not adequate for design and road maintenance programming.
Other information concerning traffic such as details of truck loading, goods carried, and
origin and destination surveys is often required for the structural and geometric design
of individual roads. Data on cumulative traffic loading is essential for the structural
design of the pavements.
The collection of traffic loading data is necessary for the development of national values
of equivalent standard axles for the different categories of traffic. These national values
are then used for any future design. It is therefore necessary to carry out axle load
surveys at critical periods of the year as traffic loading can be seasonal, especially in
agricultural areas and is also important in certain other situations.
• Roads in logging areas carry heavily loaded trucks. The actual AADT of this
category of vehicles may be low but their impact may be significant because of
the loading.
• Roads in weak subgrade areas – these are areas where deformation is likely to
occur because of heavy loading and weak support.
• Quarrying – usually roads leading to quarrying areas are prone to overloading
and stress induced failure.
• Link roads – link roads are an important part of the network and the traffic
patterns should be measured and documented.

Portable weighbridges should be used for axle load surveys. The data from these should
be recorded using the same traffic categories as those used during the traffic counting.
The importance of using this format is to develop Equivalent Standard Axles counts
(ESAs) for each of the traffic categories. These are then used as national standards for
general and project level planning and design.
During manual axle load surveys, the measurement of the weight of each vehicle axle is
carried out. The weights under the wheels on one side of the vehicle are measured using
a portable weighbridge and the weight is then multiplied by 2 to obtain the weight of the
axle. Some weighbridges convert the wheel load readings to axle loads automatically.
The weighbridges can also be composite platforms on which the weight of the axle is
measured directly. For engineering purposes, the individual axle loads are converted into
Equivalent Standard Axle loads (ESAs). These are calculated using the following formula:
Equivalent Standard Axles (ESA)= (W/8.16)n

Where W is the weight of the axle in tonnes

36
 n is the power exponent - usually the value of 4 is applied but this
depends on the pavement structure.
The measurement of axle loads must be accurate and therefore the portable
weighbridges should be calibrated regularly. Assistance should be obtained from the
police to ensure that the owners and/or drivers of heavily loaded trucks do not attempt
to avoid the weighbridge for fear of being penalised for overloading.
Weigh-in-motion (WIM) sensors can also be used to collect the axle load information.
These are simpler to use than manual scales, but more costly and need to be calibrated
with occasional checks against mechanical scales. Counting over longer periods can be
carried out more easily using WIM.

3.4.5 Origin-Destination Surveys

Where little is known about the traffic using the proposed road or there is a possibility of
large volumes of diverted traffic, it is important to understand the purpose and use of
the road. This is best carried out using origin-destination (O-D) surveys, during which
traffic using the road or other roads in the vicinity, is stopped and the drivers are
subjected to a questionnaire regarding their place of starting the journey (origin) and
their destinations. It is often useful to obtain other information such as the primary
purpose of the journey, the type of product being transported (where applicable), etc.

3.4.6 Traffic Calculation

Once the number and types of vehicles, the axle loadings of the heavy vehicle and the
expected growth rates have been determined the estimated cumulative traffic expected
over the design life of the pavement can be calculated. This is described in detail in the
Pavement Design Manual.

3.5 Road Inventory

For upgrading a road project such as widening a road from two lanes to four lanes or
strengthening its structural capacity to cope with higher traffic loads, inventory data
along the existing road must be gathered.
This usually consists of typical data recorded for a Pavement Management System. If
there is no recently collected data, this should be captured as part of the site
investigation. This is collected from the existing carriageway, as a basis for the structural
improvement, but is also used to assess the structural and functional requirements of
the upgrading/improvement. Typical information required includes:
• Road cross-section features and elements
• Structural and pavement information (Falling Weight Deflectometer (FWD) and
Dynamic Cone Penetrometer (DCP))
• Functional information (riding quality, skid resistance)
• Current overall condition (visual condition assessments)
• Assessments of shoulders, side-drains and road reserve condition and problems
• Types of bridges/culverts and other drainage structures and locations (GPS
coordinates)
• Assessment of sizes, widths and condition of water-crossing and drainage
structures (culverts and small bridges)

Some of the most important issues to be assessed when upgrading, particularly widening,
existing roads are the subgrade conditions under the widened part of the road. The
existing road would have settled and been compacted over time, and a similar degree of
“settlement” needs to be achieved in the new (widened) areas of the road during
upgrading to avoid differential settlement between the old and new sections of road.
Subgrade conditions such as collapsible material, high water contents, volumetrically

37
unstable soils, etc. must be identified and possible remedial measures identified, e.g.
early preloading, etc.

3.6 Analysis of Preliminary Investigation Data

As part of the preliminary investigation, through the desk study and reconnaissance
surveys, data pertaining to the environmental issues, social aspects, physiographic
features, engineering and economic aspects would have been gathered. It is
recommended that these data be used for selecting the route and for the prefeasibility
study.

3.6.1 Selecting the Best Route

A comparison of the different route options shall be made based on the following
parameters:

1. Environmental Compatibility

2. Social Issues

3. Physiography
4. Engineering issues
The preferred route is the one that poses the minimum environmental and social issues
and has the minimum engineering challenges and costs.
However, due to the varying degrees of subjectivity it may be difficult to find the
preferred route from the limited data available at this stage. In such cases a Multi-
Criteria Analysis (MCA) shall be used with additional data as explained under detailed
investigations.

3.6.2 Feasibility Study

The information gathered during the preliminary investigation shall be used for preparing
a feasibility report.

3.7 Preliminary Site Investigation

The purpose of conducting the initial investigation at this stage is to select the route, if
not done during the preliminary study and to develop a preliminary design and an initial
estimate of the cost.
This investigation comprises a more comprehensive desk study and walk-over survey
than that carried out during the preliminary investigation. The purpose of carrying out
this investigation is to:

1. Compare different route options and select the most appropriate one

2. Ensure the feasibility and cost-effectiveness of the chosen route

During this stage, additional information is gathered through the desk study and walk
over surveys/field visit to:
• Select the best alignment for the road.
• Identify the best location for water crossings and drainage structures.
• Provide design information for the road pavement, bridges and other structures.
• Identify any areas that might require a specialist geotechnical investigation.
• Identify areas of potentially problematic soils requiring additional investigation
and treatment.
• Identify and assess suitable, locally available borrow areas for construction
material.
• Estimate the cost

38
Not all projects will require the same detailed surveys. Site investigations for an entirely
new road are very comprehensive because none, or very little, of this information will be
available beforehand and collecting it usually requires a range of skills. However, some
information would already have been obtained during the preliminary investigation.
Additional information required is obtained using the same methods.

3.7.1 General Information

Table 3-5 shows the methods and details to be gathered.

Table 3-5: Summary of Requirements

Method Details Comments

Assessment of issues associated with geometric

design, geotechnical design, pavement design;
Engineering
hydrology and drainage design and the traffic in
order design the road

The need for the road will have been based on the
current planning process at regional or local level.
Social Social assessment based on desk study
Desk study information and concentrated on major issues such
as land take and resettlement, if any.

Assessment based on desk study information but

Environment concentrated on major issues such as land take
and re-instatement.

Cost Historic data only. Based principally on terrain and

estimation number of structures.

Consultation Social issues. Flooding and stream flows, adequacy

with local of culverts, accident locations, weak road areas,
people availability of materials.

Attention must be paid to borrow and spoil areas

Site Visit and likely changes in drainage patterns plus
(General) Environment possible effects of the road on biodiversity and
ecology. The major environmental concerns should
have been addressed earlier.

Largely based on historic records but now

Cost
supplemented with more detail about the scale
estimation
(and therefore likely cost) of structures.

Although additional surveys may be required if significant problems are identified (e.g. a
new bridge crossing), the next stage after the initial assessment is collecting detailed
data for the final engineering design
If there is an existing road or track, the basic route is already determined and potential
problems will have already become apparent, for example;
• Inadequate water crossings;
• Poor or dangerous alignments;
• Problem subgrades;

39
 • Areas susceptible to flooding; and
• Areas of possible slope instability.

Sources of construction materials for the existing road may still be useable and there are
unlikely to be any problems of land use. Nevertheless, minor realignments may be
necessary and thorough site investigations are essential to obtain all data that are
required for a professional engineering project.

3.7.2 Walk-over survey

Once the proposed alignment has been identified, a path along the selected route should
be cleared to enable the route to be walked as far as possible. Local river crossings and
certain steep grades may make this difficult, but attempts should be made to clear a
path that will allow the local environment to be inspected, with indications of distance
installed along the route. These would normally be wooden stakes, typically not more
than 50 or 100 m apart depending on the vegetation and topography, with a label or
paint mark indicating approximate distances.

3.7.2.1 In-situ Material Sampling

During the walk-over survey, the underlying in situ materials should be assessed (small
samples for classification testing can be collected where the “top-soil” is thin, local
variations in vegetation should be noted (these often indicate different soils or water
conditions beneath them), water sources, courses and maximum heights should be
noted and possible material and water sources for construction should be identified.

3.7.2.2 Geotechnical Aspects

Potentially problematic geotechnical conditions such as poor or unstable subgrade
materials, unstable slope conditions, poor founding conditions for bridges, etc. should be
recorded. These can influence the cost of the road structure significantly.
The walk-over (drive-over) survey must be carried out in addition to the one carried out
during the route location stage, as it would be carried out by the design team and
requires significantly more information - important ground details missed during the
route selection stage might have important implications later. In other words, expensive
mitigation (or even premature rehabilitation) measures may be required to compensate
for poor route selection.
To ensure that the relevant issues are adequately covered, it is recommended that an
experienced engineering geologist is employed for the site investigation stage. The
following must be carried out:
• Compile, analyse and interpret all desk study data
• Carry out a detailed inspection of the full road alignment, including on-line
upgrades and local bypasses, where relevant
• Log and photograph representative rock and soil exposures in cuttings, river
banks, borrow areas etc.
• Classify the terrain into engineering geological units where ground conditions and
geohazards, if any, are considered likely to be the same
• Examine the performance of other roads, earthworks operations and engineering
structures in the general area to identify any ground conditions or geohazards
that might impact on the location, design and performance of the proposed
alignment
• Assess the expected bulking and/or contraction features of potential rockfill and
soil materials in order to evaluate the earthworks balance and identify the need
for large spoil areas

40
 3.7.3 Consultations with Local People
It is vital to involve the future users of the upgraded road, including the communities
served by the road. Such persons can provide valuable information on various physical
characteristics, such as the likelihood of flooding of certain sections of the road,
adequacy of existing culverts, the location of weak pavement layers and accident black
spots on existing roads.

3.7.4 Drainage and Erosion

It is important to ensure that the drainage system is functioning well. As the upgrading
of major drainage structures such as bridges and large culverts is generally expensive,
existing infrastructure should be used as much as possible. Where required, however,
the necessary drainage infrastructure should be improved to an appropriate level, as
effective drainage of the road critically affects its performance and ultimate life. The
initial walk-over survey should identify any problem areas that require more detailed
analysis.

3.7.5 Geometric Design and Road Safety

Geometric characteristics of the road, in terms of its horizontal and vertical alignment,
will normally be retained for the upgraded road with only small improvements where
necessary. Nonetheless, any hazardous locations or obvious geometric shortcomings,
particularly affecting road safety, such as sharp bends combined with poor sight distance,
should be noted for possible improvement including appropriate measures for producing
a safer road environment.
Full topographic surveys are necessary to carry out the geometric assessments, but
these are done in the next, more detailed phase. Where drainage may be a problem, for
example, at low-lying points on the road, full cross-sections will be required using survey
instruments.

3.7.6 Materials
A general assessment must be made of the sources and availability of all materials
required to construct the road including the surfacing, pavement and capping layers,
construction water and concrete aggregate as well as the cost implications. Every effort
should be made to obtain materials that are as close as possible to the road alignment to
reduce haulage costs.
Investigations at this stage generally employ relatively standard engineering methods.
These include visual inspection of the proposed alignment, use of random Dynamic Cone
Penetrometer (DCP) testing to identify in situ conditions and limited laboratory testing of
materials along the road to classify the in-situ soils and borrow materials. The use of the
DCP test is described in Appendix A. Sophisticated and expensive procedures should only
be employed when a geotechnical problem that is likely to give rise to increased
construction costs or high-risk designs is encountered or suspected. Under such
circumstances, it is advisable to seek specialist geotechnical assistance.
It is the decision of the engineer to determine the frequency and type of testing
necessary for the specific road project and to assess when samples should be taken for
laboratory testing in accordance with the appropriate standard. This would often be
based on the observations made during the initial walk-over survey and it is thus
important that the design engineer is a part of this team.
Classification, strength, compaction, swelling and other types of test must be conducted
according to a carefully selected sampling and laboratory testing programme
Hydrological data is necessary to design water crossings or to improve them, particularly
if there is visual evidence that their current capacity is insufficient. Such data will also
provide valuable information on the moisture regime in which the road will operate. This

41
information will alert the designer to the potential sources of moisture infiltration into the
road pavement and the measures that should be taken to mitigate such entry.

3.7.7 Effects of Terrain

Although less mountainous than most of its regional neighbours, Mozambique contains
significant variations in topography that have important implications for road design.
Table 3-6 summarises the topographic classes in Mozambique and identifies the main
issues in each class affecting pavement design and associated engineering
considerations. A general indication as to how common each topographical facet is in the
country is provided in the final column.

Table 3-6: Topographic Features in Mozambique

Topographic Facet Typical issues or concerns for route selection Occurrence
Feature
Flat Terrain
Plateau top 1. Free-draining soils Common
2. Edges of plateau and escarpments may present Rare
challenges for route selection
3. Plateau may be cut by deeply eroded river Infrequent
courses
Mid-level Flat ground 1. Soils will vary between free-draining and poorly Common
plains and drained, and between sandier and more clayey
terraces 2. Some areas of poor drainage may be prone to
flooding Infrequent
3. Materials may be unsuitable for road
construction Infrequent
Lowland Coastal plains 1. Aeolian and marine sandy soils, locally prone to Infrequent
collapse and internal erosion
Inter-dune 1. Clay soils, sometimes diatomaceous Common
depressions 2. Poorly drained, prone to flooding Common
and basins 3. Materials may be unsuitable for road Common
construction
Flood plains 1. Clay soils may predominate, locally expansive Common
and flood plain 2. Materials largely unsuitable for construction Common
terraces 3. Prone to frequent flooding and scour potential Common
River deltas
Rolling Terrain
Low hills and Rounded 1. Predominantly free-draining soils Common
dunes relief, often 2. Soils may be shallow in inland areas (rock Common
linear below surface)
3. Soils may be deep in coastal zones Common
(aeolian/marine deposits)
4. Soils may be prone to erosion Common
Shallow Streams and 1. Clay soils may predominate Common
valleys minor rivers, 2. Water tables may be high Common
often linear 3. May be prone to flooding and scour Common
Mountainous and Escarpment Terrain
Mountains Rounded relief 1. Variable depth of soil, usually shallow Rare
Sharp relief 1. Steep slopes Infrequent
2. Soils usually non-existent
3. Costly & sometimes difficult excavation in rock
4. Large quantities of spoil to be disposed of
Irregular relief 1. Variable soil profiles Infrequent
2. Rock normally close to the surface
3. Complex cut and fill balance
Asymmetric 1. Soils usually shallow to non-existent Infrequent
relief 2. Slopes controlled by jointing patterns which
influence stability of excavations
Ridge lines 1. Ridge lines are usually extremely irregular in Rare-
their vertical profile and difficult to follow in infrequent

42
Topographic Facet Typical issues or concerns for route selection Occurrence
Feature
Mozambique, therefore avoid following ridge lines
Escarpments Stepped 1. Profile controlled by interbedded sequence of Rare
softer and harder rocks
2. Large rock excavation quantities
3. Potential for major slope instability problems
4. Tunnels may be alternative to deep cuts
Uniform slope 1. Large rock cut quantities in rock escarpments Rare
2. Large soil cut quantities in soil escarpments
3. Potential for slope instability and major erosion
problems

Valley side Slopes steeper 1. Probably underlain by rock Rare

than 35o 2. Large excavation quantities
3. Potential instability in excavations
Slopes 20-35o 1. Potential to be deeper soils, probably Infrequent
transported or failed
Rock slopes 1. Likely to be formed in dominant joint set Rare
with jointing controlling long-term stability of the slope
parallel to the 2. Potential instability in excavations
slope face
Rounded spurs 1. Probably formed in residual soils and stable Infrequent
Elongated 1. Either ancient river terraces or rock benches Infrequent
mid-slope 2. Stable and ‘easy’ for road construction, though
benches may contain expansive soils
Localised mid- 1. Could be as above, or part of deep-seated Infrequent
slope benches landslide
Steep slopes 1. Possibly unstable Rare
on margins 2. difficult for road alignments, especially on
active flood meander bends
plain 3. Possible flood risk and high water table
River terrace 1. Possible flood risk Common
2. Soft/loose soils and terrace edge scour Common
3. High water table Common
Tributary 1. Possibly active debris flows and debris fan Infrequent
streams deposition causing scour and blockage/damage to
road structures
2. Possible flood risk and high water table Common

To minimise earthwork quantities and the need for retaining walls and viaducts in hilly
terrain, it is best to follow the topography as closely as possible and avoid crossing the
steepest terrain. However, this may not always be possible where strict geometric
requirements are required – tunnels may be a viable alternative but are costly.

3.8 Analysis for Route Selection and Feasibility Study

3.8.1 Preliminary Design

The information gathered during the preliminary investigations shall be used to carry out
an initial design. The design shall include:

1. Pavement design considering the subgrade strength, available materials and

traffic data
2. Geotechnical design considering the terrain, soils and stability of slopes

3. Geometric design considering the geometric standard, terrain and drainage and
hydrology

43
 4. Bridges and culverts considering the hydrology and drainage issues

3.8.2 Preliminary Cost

The cost of the project shall be estimated from the data gathered during the preliminary
and detailed investigations.

3.8.3 Route Selection by Multi-Criteria Analysis

A Multi-Criteria Analysis (MCA) shall be carried out to identify the optimum route and the
preferred road alignment as in Overseas Road Note 5. Various steps involved in the MCA
are listed below:

1. List all the options, say 1, 2, 3

2. Identify the criteria for analysis. Normally these include economic analysis,
geotechnical conditions, environmental evaluation, development, etc.

3. Assign weights for each criterion in line with the policy of the Government/ ANE.

4. Assess the ranking for each option for each criterion.

5. Determine the score for each criterion by multiplying the rank and the weight

6. Select the option from the overall score.

An example of a typical MCA is given in Table 3-7. The highest number rank refers to the
best option with the overall score giving a measure of the overall desirability of the
project. In the example, Alternative 1 has the highest overall score while Alternative 2 is
the least desirable. In the example, the high weighting given to the economic evaluation
(50%) is a reflection that the economic analysis is a combined analysis of engineering
(pavement and drainage design and geotechnical issues), traffic, travel times, user
benefits and identifiable costs associated with resettlement and environmental mitigation
(for example, as modelled using HDM-4 or RED3).

44
 Table 3-7: Example of Multi-Criteria Analysis (TRL 2005)
Analysis Alternative 1 Alternative 2 Alternative 3
criteria
Rank Weight Score Rank Weight Score Rank Weight Score

Economic 3 50 150 1 50 50 2 50 100

evaluation

Environmental 2 30 60 3 30 90 3 30 90
evaluation

Development 3 10 30 2 10 20 1 10 10

Public 3 5 15 2 5 10 2 5 10
transport

Accessibility/ 1 5 5 2 5 10 3 5 15
severance

Overall score - - 260 - - 180 - - 225

In some instances (TRL, 2005), it may be inappropriate to apply a 3, 2, 1 ranking in the

manner shown in Table 3-7. For example, in the economic evaluation the capital
investments required for the three route options may be in a ratio of 100:90:65. To
assign ranks of 3, 2 and 1 would be incorrect and a better distribution of ranks for this
case might be 3, 3 and 1, or a ranking based on proportionality.
It is important that the economic evaluation (the criterion with the highest weighting) be
carefully considered as this will include not only the financial issues but also the costs
related to different engineering issues. In sandy areas, for instance, where there are no
aggregates, the use of stabilisation to improve the quality of the sands to structural layer
standard will often be high, giving a lower ranking for a specific option. Similarly, the
need for a large expensive bridge on one of the options will lower its ranking compared
with an option which can avoid this or only requires a smaller bridge.

3.8.4 Feasibility Study

With the information gathered a feasibility study can be conducted. Usually this study
includes a detailed economic analysis comparing the benefits and costs.

45
4 Detailed Site Investigations for Geometric Design
To carry out geometric design, traffic volume, terrain type and ground profile along the
alignment are required. These are used in determining the carriageway width, fixing the
road levels and designing horizontal and vertical alignment.

4.1 Traffic Classes

Procedures for conducting traffic surveys and determining AADT are explained in Chapter
3.

Based on the AADT, the traffic class for the road shall be selected from the following:

1. Traffic Class TC1 (AADT>10,000)

2. Traffic Class TC2 (AADT 3000 – 10,000)
3. Traffic Class TC3 (AADT 1000 – 3000)
4. Traffic Class TC4 (AADT 300-1000)

The Geometric Design Manual provides standards for various design elements based on
the traffic class and road classes. The main road classes are:
1. HVR1 – Primary Roads
2. HVR2 – Secondary Roads
3. HVR3 – Tertiary roads

4.2 Terrain
Information on the terrain is obtained from topographic maps. Terrain class needs to be
established before a road is designed. It is determined by counting the number of 5-
metre contours crossed by a straight line connecting the two ends of the road section in
question according to the following definitions:
Flat 0-10 five-metre contours per km. The transverse ground slopes
perpendicular to the ground contours are generally below 3%.
Rolling 11-25 five-metre contours per km. The transverse ground slopes
perpendicular to the ground contours are generally between 3%
and 25%.
Mountainous 26-50 five-metre contours per km. The transverse ground slopes
perpendicular to the ground contours are generally above 25%.
Escarpment Escarpments are geological features that require special geometric
standards because of the engineering problems involved. They are
characterised by more than 50 five-metre contours per km and the
transverse ground slopes perpendicular to the ground contours are
generally greater than 50%.

The terrain has a significant impact on the geometric design. A flat terrain does not pose
a major issue but hilly and mountainous terrain poses a challenge to the designers.

46
4.3 Ground Profile

Topographic survey should be carried out to determine the ground profile. The purpose
of this survey is to understand and analyze the ground features along the proposed
alignment. By applying mathematical principles to the survey data, existing or future
horizontal and vertical position will be determined. The main objective of topographic
survey for a road is to create a digital terrain model (DTM) by acquiring terrain data. The
topographic survey helps the engineers to:

1. Prepare alignment drawings

2. Prepare cross-sectional profiles
3. Identify existing structures in the proposed road alignment
4. Finalise requirement of bridges, culverts, diversions etc.
5. Plan land acquisition requirements
6. Establish control of locations
7. Establish elevation difference between fixed points
8. Determine the road cuts, embankment heights and fill
9. Identify the presence of underground utilities like pipelines, electrical cables etc.

4.3.1 Equipment & Tools for topographic survey

Following tools are normally required to conduct topographic surveys:

1. Total station with appropriate software

2. Electronic distance measurement (EDM) reflectors
3. Differential Global Positioning System (DGPS)
4. Auto level and level staff
5. Measuring tape
6. Range poles
7. Level Rods
8. Digging Tools
9. Pegs and nails
10. Paint and paint application tools

4.3.2 Procedure for Topographic Survey

Collect Great Trigonometrical Survey (GTS) Bench Mark data along the road sections, fix
the control points and establish bench mark stations. Take conventional longitudinal and
transverse level surveys along the entire length of the road at appropriate intervals –
usually 20 m in the longitudinal direction on the proposed centreline and at 2 m interval
offsets on each side of the centre-line up to the edge of the right-of-way.

Capture details of all existing structures like major bridges, minor bridges, culverts,

utilities present underground or overhead – electrical lines, gas pipelines, OFC etc.

The survey should use a GPS-based total-station with readings taken on an automatic
theodolite. The data should preferably be reported in a format that can be inserted
directly into any geometric design software being used for the project.
The topographic survey information shall be used for designing the horizontal and
vertical alignments and the cross-sectional profile of the road. Site investigation for
subgrade should commence only after fixing the alignment and finished levels.

47
5 Site Investigation for Pavement Design
Pavement design involves determining the foundation, various layers of pavement and
their thickness. Therefore, traffic loading, the subgrade strength and the materials
available for construction should be investigated to determine the payment layers and
their thicknesses
The strength of the subgrade is determined by conducting CBR tests along the alignment.
Care should be taken on where the test samples are collected. If the pavement is on a
cut or fill, conducting of tests along the existing ground may not be appropriate. In deep
cuts samples should be collected from the proposed roadbed level using augers or other
boring equipment. In sections with high fills samples of the fill materials should be tested.

5.1 Traffic loading

The collection of traffic loading data is necessary for the development of national values
of equivalent standard axles for the different categories of traffic. These national values
are then used for choosing the appropriate pavement from the design catalogues given
in the pavement design manual.
Procedure to calculate the design traffic and loading are given in Section 3.4.4.

5.2 Characterisation of Subgrade and In-Situ Materials

The designer usually has little choice over the subgrade for most of the route. It is
therefore vital that the characteristics of the subgrade along the alignment are
determined and understood after fixing the alignment and central line of the road.
In cases where the subgrade materials are unsuitable, other cost-effective methods of
improving the existing conditions must be identified (e.g. improving drainage or
stabilisation) or the road alignment must be altered to avoid such areas completely.
Samples collected from the test pits are used to provide the following basic information
on the properties of the in-situ materials and subgrade along the alignment:
1) Soil Profile: Overburden thickness, layer/horizon thickness, visual description
(Appendix B), in situ moisture content and density.
2) Index Tests: Particle size distribution (grading envelope), Atterberg limits, Linear
shrinkage
3) Compaction: density and moisture relationship
4) Strength: CBR and swell
Some regional road authorities have considerable experience and performance data on
specific soil types in the local climate and topographic conditions. Use of this information
can supplement and reduce (but not replace) the overall requirement for subgrade
evaluation. The approach involves the assessment of subgrades based on local geology,
topography and drainage, together with regular routine soil classification tests.
Design catalogues are given in the Pavement Design Manual for various subgrade
strength classes and corresponding traffic loading (ESAs). To determine the subgrade
strength class, 4 days soaked CBR tests should be conducted on samples collected along
the alignment as in Table 5-1. The soaked CBR together with other parameters such as
soil profiles, Atterberg limits, grading is used to characterise the subgrade and are
important inputs in the design of road pavements.
Various properties of subgrade materials which the designer should investigate and the
purpose and method used to assess these are summarised in Table 5-1.

48
 Table 5-1: Subgrade Characterisation

Property Purpose Method Frequency

In-situ To determine the in-situ strength and DCP See Table
strength layer profiles within the subgrade up to SPT 5-2
800 mm CPT

Soil profile To determine: Test pit 20-40m

a. the depth of humus layer or Auguring interval or
overburden Core drilling 100m
b. the depth of subgrade / intervals in
perched bed rock uniform
c. number of distinct layers in the coastal
subgrade up to a depth of 500 sands.
mm
Soil sampling To collect materials for laboratory Test pit As above
testing Augering
Core drilling
Indicator To assess the plasticity and grading in Atterberg As above
tests the laboratory limits
Grading
Compaction
characteristics
Strength – To assess the bearing capacity of Laboratory As above
Soaked CBR subgrade, compacted to the specified CBR
dry density
Stability/Swell To determine expansiveness Laboratory 1 per km
particularly for black-cotton soil and swell test
expansive clays Oedometer
Other Specific test requirements As required Variable
properties

From the above tests the soil categorisation shall be determined in accordance with
Table 5-2.

Table 5-2 Subgrade Strength Class

Class CBR Range (%)
S1 <3
S2 3-4
S3 5-7
S4 8 - 14
S5 15 - 30
S6 >30

5.2.1 Test pits and Trenches

Test pits and trenches are used to obtain samples for testing and information on the in-
situ subgrade soil and potential fill material.
For new roads 1 test pit is usually required every 20-40m but the spacing may be
increased when the subsurface soils demonstrate less variability as in the coastal sands.

49
However, when upgrading of existing roads there should be 1 test pit every km and at
least 2 test pits per uniform section. Over longer sections, pits can be staggered left and
right of the centreline to cover the full width of the road formation. To delineate uniform
sections DCP testing shall be carried out.
The depth of pits and trenches is determined by the nature of the subsurface. For
sampling and description, pits should be dug to at least 0.5 m below the expected
natural subgrade level. Potential fill materials should be sampled to a greater depth. In
cut sections, the depth can be reduced to 0.3 m. For upgrading and rehabilitation
projects there is usually vehicular access hence pits can be excavated using a backhoe
through all the existing pavement layers. In these circumstances, the depth could be
increased to as much as 1.5 m below the subgrade if required. Some problem subgrade
conditions may require deeper exploration. Greater depths may also be needed for high
embankment design. A limited number of deep pits may also be needed to ascertain
groundwater influence and irregular bedrock. Test pits should be located along the road
alignment as well as within the lateral extent of anticipated excavations to ensure
material representation.
The location of each test pit should be precisely determined on the route alignment and
all layers, including topsoil, should be accurately described and their thicknesses
measured. All horizons, below the topsoil should be sampled. This will promote a proper
assessment of the materials excavated in cuts to be used in embankments.
It is sometimes impossible to dig trial pits to the depth of all layers of soil or weathered
rocks affected by foundation loads. In this case, it is recommended that hand or power
augers are used for identification (AASHTO T203). Borings could also be necessary to
investigate the materials that lie below pavement layers. This is especially true in areas
where thick problem soils and soft deposits exist, and when the road alignment passes
through landslide zones, solution cavities, and unconsolidated soils.
All test pits should be profiled in a standard manner and guidance in this regard is
provided in Appendix B.

5.2.2 In-situ Subgrade CBR by Dynamic Cone Penetrometer for Upgrading of

Existing Roads

The most cost-effective method for obtaining sub-surface information to a depth of

approximately 800 mm is by using the Dynamic Cone Penetrometer (DCP), usually in
conjunction with test pits. The DCP test should be used to determine in-situ strength in
the case of upgrading existing roads and is not appropriate for investigations for new
roads. The rates of penetration of the DCP into the soil are used to computer in-situ CBR.
Tests are simple and rapid.
The advantage of the DCP is that information can be gathered without disturbing the in-
situ material. Using this test, the strength characteristics and thickness of the subsurface
materials at field moisture and density conditions can be obtained directly.
The frequency of the DCP measurements depends on the variability in road conditions
and level of confidence required. Where changes of surface conditions occur, the
frequency of the tests should be modified to include the changes. Similarly, where
surface conditions are uniform, the frequency of testing may be reduced. A guideline for
the frequency of testing for a new road or for upgrading an existing gravel or earth road
to a paved standard is shown in Table 5-3. More DCP tests are normally carried out on
an existing road, to assess the past traffic-compaction effects, which are not present in
new roads.

50
 Table 5-3: Frequency of DCP Testing
Frequency of testing (number/km)
Existing road condition New or Unpaved Existing
road paved road
Uniform, flat, reasonable drainage - low
5 10
risk
Non-uniform, rolling, uneven terrain,
10 20
variable drainage - medium risk
Distressed, uneven terrain, poor drainage
20 40
– high risk

The DCP penetration rate (mm/blow) has a reasonable correlation with the more familiar
CBR strength parameters. These correlations are based on CBR values versus DCP
penetration rates measured in different soil types, but depend significantly on the test
methods adopted, particularly for the CBR test. It is important to make sure that the
correlation being used is the correct one for the purposes of the study. In general, the
correlation should be between the DCP penetration rate and the actual CBR of the
material being tested (i.e. the CBR at the density and moisture content of the material at
that time). In this way, the actual in-situ strengths at the time of testing can be
determined. The data should be collected in terms of penetration depth after a selected
number of blows (usually 5) and reported in a spread-sheet that can be directly
imported into the software being utilised. Typically, the software would have a template
for the input of the data. Details about the equipment and test procedure are described
in the additional Manual

5.3 Problem Subgrades

Failure to recognise problem soils at the design stage could result in claims and overruns
if identified later during construction or have a detrimental effect on the long-term
performance of the road. A summary of preliminary indicators identifying potentially
problematic soils during the initial walk-over surveys and centre-line survey is given in.
Table 5-4 This should be used in conjunction with the identification of rocks and soils
from geological and soil maps. Should severe problem subgrades be expected, the
assistance of an experienced geotechnical expert should be obtained.

51
 Table 5-4: Preliminary Indicators of Problem Soils
Subgrade Preliminary visual Typical material types
problem indicators
Expansive soil Extreme cracking of the soil Weathered basic crystalline
surface rocks and some shales
Undulations and cracking of Transported soils
existing paved roads
Dispersive soil Extreme erosion marked by Transported soils
the presence of tunnelling and Residual acid crystalline rocks
piping Shales
Saline soil Deposits of salts (usually Fresh and weathered rock
white) on surface and salty containing sulphides (mine
taste of soil waste)
Calcretes and marine soils
Collapsible soil Very low density soils showing Highly weathered sandstones
obvious voids and pinholes on and granites
excavation Aeolian sands
Erodible soil Eroded surface with no Low cohesion silty and fine
evidence of tunnelling and sandy soils
piping
Karst conditions/ Uneven rock surface with Dolomite and limestone
Sinkhole large surface depressions or
sinkholes
Wet/high water Reeds, fogs, crabs, soft Alluvial, coastal, marshy areas
table conditions underfoot

These subgrade materials, if not identified timeously, can lead to ongoing road
performance problems. Such materials and their locations need to be identified so that
the pavement design engineer can include some form of remedial action during the
design phase. Investigation required for identifying these materials are described below.

5.3.1 Expansive Clays

Expansive (heaving) soils are those containing smectite (montmorillonite) clays, which
are mostly derived from the chemical weathering of basic rock forming minerals. Volume
changes in expansive soils are confined to the upper few metres of the soil deposit
where seasonal moisture content varies due to drying and wetting cycles. Expansive clay
material causes longitudinal unevenness and bumpiness, differential movement near
culverts and longitudinal cracking because of the variable heave. Typical characteristics
of expansive clay for the preliminary identification of potential problems are given in
Table 5-5.

Table 5-5 Potentially Expansive Clay Properties

Property Value/details
Appearance Colour-black/grey and sometimes red clays,
Fissures - deep wide cracks in block formation
when dry
Plasticity Index PI >27
(PI)
Plasticity Product Plasticity Product >1200 (= PI x %passing
(PP) 0.075 mm sieve)
Grading Passing 0.075 mm > 60%
CBR Swell >3%

52
If the soil is categorised as highly expansive, then the pavement designer shall consider
counter-measures against damage caused by heave as part of the pavement design.
The zone within which volume changes are most likely to occur is defined as the active
zone. The active zone is usually down to a depth of 300 mm: however, for design
purposes the zone for equilibrium moisture shall be considered to be at 600 mm and
below.
The active zone can be evaluated by plotting the in-situ moisture content with depth for
samples taken during the wet and dry seasons. The depth at which the moisture content
shows no seasonal variation is the limit of the active zone. This is also referred to as the
depth of seasonal moisture change.
The simplest way of identifying the presence of expansive soils is through field
observations where the surface expression of cracking in dark grey, black or sometimes
red soils is evident. However, the presence of a thick non-expansive transported or
topsoil cover can sometimes mask these cracks and excavation of a test pit, in which
cracking and slicken siding (striation due to volumetric movement) of the material will be
observed is necessary.
By their nature, smectites will tend to be more plastic than other clay minerals and a
measure of the plasticity index, or better still the activity (ratio of plasticity index to clay
fraction) is a good indication of the presence of smectites. This is one of the easiest
methods of indicating potentially expansive soils using Figure 5-1 based on the clay
fraction of the soil (minus 2 μm) and the standard Plasticity Index (PI), which remains
very useful for the preliminary identification of expansive soils.

70
Very high 8%

60
Medium 2%
PI of whole sample

Low < 2%

High 4%

50
40
30
20
10 Low < 2%

0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80
Clay fraction (%)

Figure 5-1: Predicted heave of expansive soils

It should be noted that the estimates for the degree of swell using this technique do not
take into account the initial moisture content of the material, assuming that they move
from a state of dryness normally used in the laboratory to wet, nor the depth of the
material below the surface. It is known that equilibrium moisture content develops under
a road structure and the moisture fluctuation in this zone is minimal. However, from
beneath the outer wheel track of roads with unsealed shoulders to the edge of the fill,
significant and variable moisture fluctuations occur. The initial moisture content in these
zones is highly variable from very low in the dry season to potentially saturated in the
wet season.
A preliminary indication of potentially expansive soils can also be obtained from land
type soil maps where materials identified as “vertic soils” or “vertisols” will always have
expansive characteristics, while soils with a high base status (or eutrophic) and clay
content should be investigated more thoroughly, as they have the potential to be
expansive. The identification of smectite in subgrade soils is sometimes done using X-ray
diffraction.

53
 5.3.2 Dispersive/Erodible/Slaking materials

Dispersive soils are those soils that, when placed in water, have repulsive forces
between the clay particles that exceed the attractive forces. Figure 5-2 shows a typical
dispersive soil with definite evidence of piping. This results in the colloidal fraction going
into suspension and even in still water staying in suspension (Figure 5-3). In moving
water, the dispersed particles are carried away. Their environment of formation is also
usually characterised by an annual rainfall of less than 850 mm.

Figure 5-2: Dispersive soil showing formation of “pipes”

Figure 5-3: Crumb test Showing Suspension

Slaking soils, on the other hand, disintegrate in water to silt, sand and gravel sized
particles, without going into suspension. The cause of this process is probably a
combination of swelling of clay particles, the generation of high pore air pressures as
water is drawn into the voids in the material and softening of any incipient cementation.
Slaking and erodible soils when occurring as subgrades or even when used in fills are
unlikely to cause significant problems unless rapid flows of water through the fill or
subgrade occur. Problems are thus mostly associated with poor culvert and drainage
design and construction. The inclusion of dispersive soils in the subgrade or fill on the
other hand has often led to significant failures through piping, tunnelling and the
formation of cavities in the structure. It is therefore important to identify dispersive soils
timeously.
An array of tests is needed to identify dispersive soils. These include:
• Crumb test,
• Double hydrometer test
• Pinhole test,
• Cation Exchange Capacity (CEC),

54
 • Sodium Absorption Ratio (SAR) and the pH.
• Determination of the Exchangeable Sodium Percentage (ESP)

Two particularly useful initial indicators are the crumb test and Soil Conservation Service
(SCS) double hydrometer tests

Crumb Test

The crumb test on undisturbed lumps of material is usually the best first indication but is
not always fool-proof and is not usually quantitative. Dispersive soils tend to produce a
colloidal suspension or cloudiness over the crumb/lump during the test, without the
material necessarily disintegrating fully. Disintegration of the crumb in slaking soils is
very rapid and forms a heap of silt, sand and gravel. A grade is assigned to the test
result using the following criteria:
1. No colloidal cloud develops.
2. A colloidal cloud is observable, but only immediately surrounding the original clod.
The cloud has not spread any appreciable distance from the crumb.
3. A colloidal cloud emanates an appreciable distance from the crumb. However, the
cloud does not cover the bottom of the glass, and it does not meet on the opposite side
of the glass bottom from the crumb.
4. The colloidal cloud spreads completely around the circumference of the glass. The
cloud may not completely obscure the bottom of the glass, but the cloud does
completely cover the circumference of the glass. In extreme cases, the entire bottom of
the glass is covered by the colloidal cloud.
Soils that have a 3 or 4 reaction in this test are almost always dispersive in other tests
and in field performance. Special design features should be incorporated if these soils
are to be used in a project.

SCS Double Hydrometer Test

This test is performed in the laboratory. Basically, the test compares the measured
percentage of clay in a sample that has been artificially dispersed to that of a companion
sample which has no artificial dispersing agent added. Based on SCS experience
correlating test results and field performance, the following general guidelines have been
developed for interpreting the test results:
% Dispersion >60 - The soil is probably dispersive. Avoid use of the soil or incorporate
special design features in the design.
% Dispersion <30 - The soil is probably not dispersive.
30% to 60% Dispersion - Other tests may be needed to establish whether the sample is
significantly dispersive.
When dispersive clays are detected in a site investigation and verified by testing,
counter-measures must be incorporated into the design.

5.3.3 Saline Soils

Excessive cations of sodium attached to clays, saline materials can be a major problem
on road projects where migration of soluble salts to beneath bituminous surfacings
(Figure 5-4) leads to weakening of the upper base and blistering and disintegration of
the surfacings. Soluble salts, particularly sulphates, and their acids can also have a
serious detrimental effect on the stability/durability of chemically stabilized materials and
concrete.

55
 Figure 5-4: Mechanism of Soluble Salt Damage to Bituminous Surfacing

Salt related issues are commonly found in:

1. arid, semi-arid and warm dry areas.

2. areas where the land surface shows some depression resulting in seasonal
accumulation of water are particularly prone to the accumulation of salts leached
from the surrounding areas.
3. flat areas where capillary rise of groundwater and precipitation in saline soils can
result in the upward migration of salts to or near the soil surface.

In some cases, the visible presence of crystallised salt deposits at the soil surface is a
certain indication of the need for additional investigation for possible salt problems. This
is often associated with the occurrence of animals licking the soil surface. In most other
cases, the presence of salt is best confirmed by laboratory testing as in Table 5-6.

Table 5-6 Tests to Determine Saline

Test Specification
Electrical conductivity on <0.15 Sm-1
materials finer than 6.7 mm
Electrical resistance on >200 Ω
material less than 2 mm
Soluble salt contents < 0.5 %

Where specifications are not met, such locations are to be marked for providing remedial
measures.

5.3.4 Soft Clays

These are very soft alluvial clays mostly found in estuarine (lagoon), mangrove and
marshy areas formed by periodic fluctuations in sea level. Inland soft clays tend to be
much shallower having been deposited in marshy areas. Soft clays are generally, but not
necessarily saturated and normally consolidated to lightly over-consolidated (because of
fluctuating water tables).
The materials have low shear strengths (normally between 10 and 40 kPa), are highly
compressible and their low permeabilities result in time-related settlement problems. In

56
addition, the frequent occurrence of organic material in the clays affects their behaviour
and the determination of their properties.
Soft clays are seldom uniform with depth and are usually interlayered with silts and
sands, which provide more permeable drainage paths than would be determined from
oedometer testing of undisturbed clay samples. However, the depths and strengths of
the materials are such that inspection of the materials in test pits or auger holes is not
recommended.
The in-situ condition of these materials is one of their most important properties that
need to be considered – testing of disturbed samples will usually provide results that are
meaningless. It is thus better to use in situ test methods such as Standard Penetration
Testing (SPT), vane shear or Cone Penetration Testing (CPT) to determine the depths,
presence of silt sand layers, strengths and if possible, permeabilities. It must be noted
that in the dry season, it is sometimes difficult to evaluate whether these soils will
become soft in the wet season and experience is necessary to identify their presence.
If these can be identified to a reasonable degree of confidence, estimates of the quantity
and rate of settlement and the potential stability of embankments over the materials can
be made. However, it is usual that oedometer testing is carried out to estimate the
degree and rate of consolidation of soft soils. The actual settlement values determined
depend on the thickness of the layer, the voids ratio and moisture content and the
permeability of the material.

5.3.5 Collapsible Soils

Collapsible soils are unsaturated soils that undergo a large volume change upon
saturation. The sudden and usually large volume change cause considerable structural
damage.
Collapsible materials can occur on both residual and transported materials. Many
collapsible soils are windblown silt deposits often found in arid or semi-arid climates such
as deserts, but dry climates are not necessary for collapsible soil. Typical collapsible soils
are lightly coloured, low in plasticity with relatively low densities.
Many granites and feldspathic sandstones when weathered result in the feldspar altering
to kaolinite with the quartz particles staying intact. This forms a honeycomb type of
structure, which, when wetted up and loaded, results in shearing or “collapse” of the clay
bridges and a settlement or reduction in volume of the material. Aeolian sands can also
have a significant collapse potential.
To estimate the magnitude of potential collapse in an area, a one-dimensional collapse
potential test can be performed in an oedometer on undisturbed samples according to
ASTM D 5333. For this test, an undisturbed sample is placed in an oedometer and the
vertical pressure on the sample is increased to the anticipated final loading in the field.
At this load level, water is introduced into the sample and the resulting deformation due
to collapse is recorded. The percent collapse (%C) is defined as:

%C =∆HC /∆Ho
where ∆HC is the change in height upon wetting and ∆Ho is the initial height of the
specimen.
Collapse can also be described using void ratio in the form of the following:

%C = ∆ec / (1+ eo)

where ∆ec is the change in void ratio on wetting and eo is the void ratio before saturating
the soil.
The collapse potential (CP) is calculated as the percentage collapse (%C) of a soil
specimen. The CP is an index value used to compare the susceptibility of collapse for

57
various soils. Table 5-7 provides a relative indication of the degree of severity of collapse
for various values of CP.

Table 5-7 Assessment of Collapse Potential

Collapse Potential (CP) Severity of Problem

0- 1% None

2 - 5% Slight

6 - 10% Moderate

11 - 20% Severe

> 20% Very severe

5.3.6 Sinkholes and Uneven Rock Surfaces

A sinkhole is a localized depression in the surface of the ground that was caused by the
removal of underlying material. Naturally occurring sinkholes are mainly associated with
limestone bedrock because limestone is susceptible to being dissolved by acidic
groundwater. Other geologic formations conducive to sinkhole development include
marble and dolomite.
In areas with carbonate rocks (dolomite, limestones, corals, etc.) the potential for
dissolution of the rock material to form voids beneath the ground surface always exists.
Care should thus be taken in such areas to ensure that no large voids occur beneath the
road. Specialist advise should be sought in areas known to have such dissolution
features.
Investigation usually requires gravimetric surveys and percussion drill borings to
determine the consistency of the overburden soils. The soil test borings are usually
drilled to auger refusal to check the variability of the bedrock surface. It is common to
find soft soil conditions and an erratic rock surface in active sinkhole areas. It is
important to determine the depth of the soft zone of soil above the rock relative to the
thickness of undisturbed soil above.

5.3.7 Wet Areas/High Water Tables

It is possible that some non-clayey areas have a water table close to the natural ground
surface, which makes the placement of road structures difficult and can affect their
structural integrity. Unlike the clay areas, the problem is not the low strength or
settlement potential, but the effect of the water (and high pore-water pressures
generated under traffic loading) on the pavement structure.
High water tables result in steady, high in situ moisture content, but it is also possible
that fluctuating high moisture content conditions within the pavement sub-structure may
occur because of seasonal precipitation or perched water tables. A good understanding
of the moisture conditions and environment needs to be defined during the investigation
of subgrade materials. This can be determined from the test pit in situ moisture content
covered in Section 5.2.1 and from Table 5-8.

58
 Table 5-8 Indications of High Water Table in Test pits
Season of inspection Indication of high water
table conditions
Dry season In situ moisture content higher
than optimum moisture content
(OMC)
Wet Season Seepage of water into the test
pit

Various moisture indices such as Thornthwaite’s Moisture Index or water surplus maps
can provide useful information on potential problems in this regard. It is usually easy to
recognise potential wet conditions, which are characterised by areas of standing water,
specific types of vegetation (reeds, papyrus grasses, etc.), localised muddy conditions
and often the presence of crabs and frogs. Such problems are also often visible as
springs and surface seepage.

59
6 Site Investigation for Geotechnical Design
The purpose of investigation is to determine the potential for problematic displacement
of soils and earth particles in embankments and slopes.

6.1 Road Cuts and Fills

Road cuts involve excavation of cut slopes or construction adjacent to natural slopes.
Embankments are, on the other hand, fills constructed on natural soil. The embankment
fill is either imported or relocated from another portion of the project and placed on the
existing ground. In most cases, cuts and fills are needed to meet grade and curvature
requirements where the topography is changing. Fills are also needed when the road
passes through low lying areas susceptible to flooding and inundation because of runoff
or increasing high surface water/flood levels. Fills can also be used to form temporary
access routes.
The primary geotechnical concern for road cuts is the stability of the slope. The stability
assessment requires characterization of the different geological layers and groundwater
conditions of the existing material. Engineering design activities focus on the evaluation
of short- and long-term stability for different groundwater and material strength
conditions as well as the geological structure of the ground, in the case of rock masses.
The primary geotechnical design issues for embankments, on the other hand, include
foundation bearing capacity, slope stability and long-term settlement. These design
issues are often controlled by not only the engineering characteristics of the fill, but also
the geological properties of the underlying material. Consequently, site investigation for
the embankment focuses on material exploration while evaluating the response of the
foundation to the load from the new fill. Table 6-1 summarizes the information needed
to assess cuts and embankment fills.

60
 Table 6-1 Information for Designing Cuts and Embankments
Purpose Engineering evaluations Required information for
analyses

Excavations • Slope stability • Subsurface profile (soil, ground

and road cuts • Bottom heave water, rock)
• Liquefaction • Shrink/swell properties
• Dewatering • Unit weights
• Lateral pressure • Hydraulic conductivity
• Soil softening/progressive • Time-rate consolidation
failure parameters
• Pore pressures • Shear strength of soil and rock
• Erosion potential
(including discontinuities)
• Geologic mapping including
orientation and characteristics of
rock discontinuities

Embankments • Settlement (magnitude & rate) • Subsurface profile (soil, ground

and • Bearing capacity water, rock)
embankment • Slope stability • Compressibility parameters
foundations • Lateral pressure • Shear strength parameters
• Internal stability • Unit weights
• Borrow source evaluation • Time-rate consolidation
(available quantity and quality parameters
of borrow soil) • Horizontal earth pressure
• Required reinforcement coefficients
• Surface protection
• Interface friction parameters
• Pull-out resistance
• Geologic mapping including
orientation and characteristics of
rock discontinuities
• Shrink/swell/degradation of soil
and rock fill

6.2 Instability and Settlement

These investigations should consider the types of materials in the cut, slope stability,
and the different types of movements that may occur. Scars, anomalous bulges, odd
outcrops, broken contours, ridge top trenches, fissures, terraced slopes, abrupt changes
in slope or in stream direction, springs or seepage zones all indicate the possibility of
past ground movements from the following:
1. Study of topographic maps: The first indication of possible instability problems
can be obtained from a study of the topography.
2. Visual inspection
3. Trench Excavation. In deeper cuts (>10 m), where interference with existing
stability and groundwater conditions is expected, a trench across the face of the
slope provides a better understanding of the geology of the area. Trenches are
preferable to pits to inspect cuts because of their dimension. Depending on the
geology and degree of weathering, up to five trenches are normally enough to
investigate a 100m long cut. The trenches should be located at places where
material changes may be expected and range between 1m and 3m in depth and
should be located such that they become a part of the final cut. Additional
information on performance of slopes can also be obtained by inspecting soil and

61
 rock exposures along existing road cuts in the region. In addition, increased
excavation can also lead to an increased risk of landsliding of natural slopes due
to undercutting and loss of support. For cuttings deeper than about 25 to 30 m,
the alternative of a tunnel could be considered, requiring a more sophisticated
specialist geotechnical investigation.

Suggested investigation requirements for deep excavations are summarised in Table 6-2.
Table 6-2 Excavation Investigations

Minimum spacing Minimum depth

Preliminary investigation Final investigation

1) A minimum of three 1) In deep cuts (> 5m) a 1) Exploration depth should be

exploration points for minimum of one boring to at least 4.5 m below the
every 120 m (uniform per cut is required. minimum elevation of the
conditions) of the slope cut unless a hard stratum is
length. encountered.

2) At critical locations (e.g. 2) For longer cuts, 2) Exploration depth should be

maximum cut depths or horizontal spacing for adequate to fully penetrate
soft strata, a minimum borings parallel to the through the soft strata into
of three exploration cut should generally be competent material (e.g.,
points in the transverse between 50 and 200 m stiff to hard cohesive soil,
direction of the slope is depending on the site compact to dense
needed. geology. cohesionless soil, or
bedrock).
2) For cut slopes in rock, 2) In rock exposures, the 2) Where the base of the cut is
geologic and use of inclined bore- below ground-water level,
discontinuity mapping holes to intersect the depth of exploration
should be carried out steeply dipping depth should be extended
along the entire cut discontinuities should to determine the depth to
length. be considered. any permeable strata.

A common difficulty in steep terrain is the disposal of excess material (spoil). Therefore,
every effort should be made to balance the cut and fill. Where this is not possible,
suitable stable areas for the disposal of spoil must be identified. Spoil can erode or may
become very wet and slide in a mass. Material may be carried downslope and may cause
scour of watercourses or bury stable vegetated or agricultural land. Material may also
choke stream beds causing the stream to meander from side to side, undercutting the
banks and creating instability. High level embankment foundation investigations should,
as a minimum, consider:
• the range of materials and settlement potential
• side-slope stability
• groundwater
• moisture regime and drainage requirements
• erosion resistance
• haul distance
• bulking factors
• environmental impact.

Settlement problems are unlikely if rock is encountered at a shallow depth. However, if

the underlying foundation is covered by transported soils, problems are likely as the
material may vary from soft alluvial clays to collapsing silts (sands) or expansive clays.
It is therefore important to understand the soil transportation history and mechanism

62
and the result that this has on the nature of the soil and its behaviour. This is
particularly relevant when the embankment is entirely on the sloping in situ material and
water is likely to flow along the interface between the fill and the soil or the road is likely
to consist of part fill and part cut and water may follow the interface under part of the
road (Figure 6-1). Careful drainage design to counter adverse water conditions is an
important part of the overall embankment design. The fill slope gradient shown in Figure
6-1 is only applicable to gentle slopes or where the embankment is rockfill and on
steeper slopes this gradient will be higher, requiring stabilisation and support.

Figure 6-1: Potentially Problematic Earth and Rockfill Embankment Locations

(note changes to figure text – deletion of sub-headings)

The type of field investigation will depend on the types of soils encountered. If soils are
predominately cohesive, the primary design issues will be bearing capacity, side slope
stability, and long-term settlement. These design issues will usually require the collection
of undisturbed soil samples for laboratory strength and consolidation testing. The vane
shear test can provide valuable in-situ strength data, particularly in soft clays.
Where embankments cross alluvial deposits, there will probably be a stream requiring a
structure. In these areas investigations should assess the interaction between these
structures, the embankment and the in-situ material. Most embankment failures in
stream areas are a direct result of poor drainage and consequent high pore pressures.
During the site investigation, it is important that all sources of water along the alignment
are identified and their impact on the design assessed.
The size, complexity and extent of site investigation for embankments will depend
primarily on the type, height and size of the embankment as well as the expected soil
conditions. Embankments with a height of 3m or less, constructed over average to good
soil conditions (non-liquefiable, medium to very dense sand, silt or gravel, with no signs
of previous instability) require only basic site investigation. A site reconnaissance
combined with widely spaced test pits (500m apart), auger holes, or a few shallow
borings to verify the anticipated site geology may be sufficient, especially if the geology
of the area is well known, or if there is some prior experience in the region. However, for
larger embankments, investigations as shown in Table 6-3 should be carried out

63
 Table 6-3 Embankment Investigations
Minimum spacing Minimum depth

Preliminary investigation Final investigation

1) A minimum of one 1) When boring is 1) The depth of exploration

exploration point (pit) considered, this should should be at least double
every 60 m (erratic be in areas where thick the embankment height
conditions) to 120 m soft deposits and unless a hard stratum is
(uniform conditions) of potentially unstable encountered above this
embankment length ground are present. depth.
along the centreline of
the embankment.
2) At critical locations, (for 2) For bridge approach 2) If soft strata are
high embankments, embankments, at least encountered below the
thick underlying soft one borehole at depth greater than twice
strata, embankments in abutment locations is the embankment height,
hilly areas) a minimum needed. Shallow the exploration depth
of three exploration boreholes may also be should be increased to fully
points in the transverse needed for penetrate the soft strata
direction to define the embankments in hilly into competent material
existing subsurface areas. (e.g., stiff to hard cohesive
conditions for stability soil, dense cohesionless
analyses is necessary. soil, or bedrock). For bridge
approach embankments,
the depth of boreholes
should be deeper than the
river floor.

When boreholes are considered, the depth of the borings will typically extend to twice
the height of the embankment. However, depending on the foundation conditions, the
required boring depth could be deeper or shallower than this. It is also important to
determine the level of the groundwater table. When structures are involved, it is
economical to use the same borings to provide information for both the embankment
and structural design.

6.2.1 Ground Investigation Techniques

A wide variety of techniques is used for geotechnical or ground investigations as
presented in Table 6-4. The more sophisticated and expensive techniques should only be
employed when a significant geotechnical problem is encountered with potentially severe
consequences should failure occur and when planned and managed by a specialist
geotechnical engineer. Ground investigations need to be carefully planned and must
consider the following:
• The nature of the ground
• The nature and phase of the project
• The project design requirements.

Results from the earlier desk study and walk-over survey should be used in the planning
of cost-effective ground investigations. The variety of sampling and testing techniques
outlined in Table 6-4. can then be employed during the geotechnical investigation. Each
of these needs to be customised depending on the type of foundation being investigated

64
 Table 6-4 Standard Ground Investigation Techniques
Ground Purpose and Advantages Frequency
Investigation foundation
Technique type
DCP survey Location and Light and portable, A minimum of 5-20 DCP
thinness of weak gives information tests/km should be
material in the on state of any used – depends on
soil profile pavement layers variability of materials
Excavations and present. Can test
pavements both road and
shoulder. Test
quick and simple
Vane shear test In-situ shear Especially good for Where soft clays are
strength in clays assessing soft present, 4-10 tests/km
clays. Equipment should be used
is easily portable
Cone In situ strength Good reliable Used in areas under
Penetration Test and information in soft moderate to high
compressibility to stiff clays and embankment and for
of soils loose to dense structure foundation
sands investigations.

Test pits and Provide a ground Gives an accurate Dependent on DCP

trenches profile and picture of the testing. Pits should be
samples for ground profile at least 0.5m below the
testing subgrade natural subgrade level.
and potential fill In cuts this can be
materials reduced to 0.3m. For a
new alignment, pits
should be at least 2m
deep unless rock is
present
Auguring and Provide in situ Can be used in Should be used in
Boring information on areas where trial landslide zones,
material present pits are not unconsolidated soils and
possible. Can where existing
extend to great pavement layers are
depth present
SPT Provides in situ Used in Used for structure
strength conjunction with foundation investigation
parameters in augering or boring and high earthworks
most materials holes
and can be used
in very weak
rocks
Seismic Can differentiate Light and portable. Can use for key areas
hammer and between loose A sledge hammer where rock head is
electrical unconsolidated and geophones uncertain and critical for
resistivity sediments and provide a cheap design
intact rock option Can also identify water
Resistivity requires table
more equipment

Ground investigations should provide a description of ground conditions relevant to the

proposed works and establish a basis for the assessment of the geotechnical and road

65
engineering parameters relevant for all stages of the Project Cycle. Ground
investigations for construction materials determine the nature and extent of proposed
construction materials sources as well as their relevant engineering parameters. This is
usually done in test pits for soils and weathered rock gravels. Investigations for crushed
aggregate materials require drilling and coring. Foundation Investigations for roads and
culverts can usually be carried out using test pits, but for larger drainage structures,
high fills and cuttings, augering or drilling will be required.
The information required for design is obtained from the in-situ investigations and by
analysing representative samples taken from the route alignment and bridge locations,
and by testing the samples for basic properties (grading and consistency), strength, and
compressibility. For larger structures, it will usually be necessary to carry out cable
percussion boring or rotary drilling to obtain samples.
Test pitting is a cheap and simple method of subsurface exploration. The pit is normally
dug by hand, but a mechanical excavator can be used if available to remove the bulk of
the material before the sides and bottom are squared and cleaned for examination. Test
pits supply excellent data on subsurface conditions and enable a clear picture of the
stratification of the soils to be obtained as well as the presence of any lenses or pockets
of weaker material and the level of the water table.
A test pit should be at least 1 m square at the bottom. The maximum practical depth to
which a pit can be excavated is about 3 m. It is important to ensure, though, that
adequate support is provided below a depth of about 1.5 m or that the sides are
battered back to provide a safe working environment, particularly in moist and wet
materials.
Nearby excavations and quarries can reveal soil and rock types and their stability
characteristics. There may also be buildings and other structures near bridge sites that
have a settlement history due to the presence of compressible or unstable soils. Such
information should be acquired from local engineers and even the public in many cases.
A specialist organisation who can undertake boring, sampling, field and laboratory
testing, and soil mechanics analysis is necessary for sites where problems may be
expected. It is advisable to use a single organisation to undertake the whole
investigation, as this provides continuity between the field, laboratory and office work.
The description of the soil profiles should follow a systematic standard process (Appendix
B.
The engineering properties necessary for design are usually best obtained from
laboratory (and where appropriate, in situ) testing of soil samples recovered during
subsurface explorations. Testing programmes vary greatly in size and scope depending
on the type and phase of the road project and associated works. Testing should not be
commissioned on an arbitrary or ad hoc basis but should be part of a rationally designed
programme to fulfil clear objectives to avoid unnecessary costs: for instance,
unconsolidated-undrained triaxial tests are deemed to be the cheapest and quickest
triaxial tests but give results that are effectively meaningless for unsaturated soils. The
relationships between in situ conditions and the in-service performance of the sampled
and tested material need to be carefully considered when designing and developing the
test regime and the effects of sample disturbance must always be considered.
In most cases, no single test procedure will satisfy all requirements and a battery of
tests will be needed. An appropriate test programme will include a logical selection and
sequence of tests that are a function of the geotechnical environment, the nature of the
investigation and the road design requirements.
It is necessary that testing requests be clear and sufficiently detailed. The owner should
require that all testing be performed in accordance with appropriate local specifications
for laboratory testing. In Mozambique these usually follow the TMH 1 methods and,
where such methods do not exist, ASTM or BS methods should be employed, and the
test method clearly noted on the results sheet.

66
 6.2.2 Landslides
Landslides are not a major source of natural geohazard in Mozambique. Nevertheless,
landslides in Zambezia, Tete and Sofala Provinces that occurred during heavy rain in
1998 did lead to several fatalities. The Mount Tumbine landslide in the Malange District
of Zambezia is considered to have been caused by deforestation and heavy rain. There
are also reports of landslides having affected community infrastructure in the steep
hillside sections of Pemba in 2014, while the loose silt and fine sand deposits that
underlie parts of Maputo are prone to instability on the steeper sections of slope when
wet. Investigations of potential instability induced by construction should consider the
possible effects over larger areas that may affect communities. Where large slope
movement are considered likely, specialist geotechnical input is essential.

6.2.3 Hilly and Mountainous Areas

Although the construction of high fills and deep cuts should be minimised to reduce
costs, in areas with variable topography larger earthworks will be necessary to
accommodate the required geometric design standards. This will require high fills and
the blasting of deep cuttings through rocky hillsides as well as the possible spoiling of
large quantities of materials.
These areas where heavier earthworks are necessarily need to be identified and
inspected during the site investigation so that the necessary geotechnical investigations
can be planned and budgeted for.
These investigations should consider;
1. The types of rock and soil materials in cuts
2. Structural effects in the materials and their impact on the different types of
movements that may occur.
3. Slope stability issues
4. Drainage issues that may affect embankment stability

Landslide scars, anomalous bulges, odd outcrops, broken contours, ridge top trenches
and tension cracks, fissures, terraced slopes, bent trees and misaligned fences, abrupt
changes in slope or in stream direction, springs or seepage zones all indicate the
possibility of past ground movements.
These areas often require carefully designed drainage structures (usually in conjunction
with the cuts and fills) to convey concentrated water flows down to lower altitudes and
these flow paths need to be identified. Evidence of active erosion and the transportation
of large boulders usually make such water courses obvious.
Natural slopes, road cuts and existing embankment fills in the vicinity of the planned
project provide preliminary evidence of expected ground stability and likely requirement
for detailed surface and subsurface investigations.
Initial investigations for cuts and excavations should concentrate on identifying those
areas where additional investigation by a slope specialist is necessary. This is particularly
relevant when an excavation is at a foot of a higher slope. If the cut does not undercut a
higher slope, failure along badly oriented discontinuities will have minimal consequences
(Figure 6-2a) with only small quantities of material failing. However, where the slope
continues above a cut, failure of the cut along such discontinuities, even small cuts, will
usually result in large quantities of material higher up the slope becoming unstable and
moving onto the road (Figure 6-2b). This requires the design of careful slope
stabilisation (support) design by a Geotechnical specialist.
It is usually necessary to inspect the material to be excavated to assess the depth of
weathering, material types and the inclination of the strata and discontinuities. Trenches
are preferable to pits to inspect cuts because of their larger dimensions.

67
 a. b.
Rock strata
Excavated material Rock strata
Excavated material
Cut face
Cut face

Figure 6-2: Effect of Topography on Volume of Failed Material

During the investigation for cuts, the material that will be removed should be assessed
for use as fill or even pavement construction materials. This will entail sampling and
laboratory testing. However, as large excavations usually involve a wide range of
material qualities (and even different materials), this sampling needs to be carefully
planned to get accurate assessments of the quantities of different materials for later use.
The investigation for fills (or embankments) is somewhat easier than for cuts as the fill
material itself is selected and constructed to specified standards ensuring adequate
shear strength to avoid failure within the fill. This leaves only the underlying subgrade
and support areas to be investigated.
The problems that are likely to be encountered are essentially one of settlement of the
fills or shear failure, both being influenced by the properties of the underlying in situ
material. The aim of the geotechnical investigation for fills is thus to determine whether
the thickness and compressibility of the underlying material is significant enough to
cause excessive settlement and whether the shear strength of the underlying material is
sufficient to avoid shear failure. Both properties are also strongly related to the moisture
content and this thus needs to be considered in the testing. The design will usually
require information from the testing of undisturbed soil samples for laboratory strength
and consolidation testing. The vane shear test can also provide valuable in-situ strength
data, particularly in soft clays.
Typically, test pits or trenches would be the first investigation requirement. These are
normally excavated to about 3 m and the materials in the pits classified and described.
Any soft or wet cohesive materials less than 2 m thick are likely to result in settlement of
the fill and/or possible shear failure of the base. Such materials should be removed or
treated or pre-loading in stages should be planned to accommodate the settlement and
dissipation of pore water pressures.
Where soft or wet cohesive materials extend deeper than about 2 m, they should be
considered as potentially problematic and specialist geotechnical investigations should be
carried out. These should aim at providing quantitative estimates of the amount of
potential settlement and its rate as well as providing sufficient data to carry out stability
analyses. For fills higher than 3 m, if there is any doubt in the investigators’ mind
following the site investigation and preliminary geotechnical investigation, specialist
assistance should be sought, as failures can have significant consequences.
If groundwater is not identified and adequately addressed early, it can significantly
impair constructability, road performance and slope stability. Claims related to
unforeseen groundwater conditions often form a significant proportion of contractual
disputes. Many of these claims originate from a failure to record groundwater during the
geotechnical investigation.

68
 6.2.4 Bridge Foundations
Areas requiring water crossings or where water will naturally cross over the road if not
catered for, should have been identified during the site investigation. Those areas that
necessitate the provision of large culverts or bridges also should have been identified, as
they require detailed geotechnical investigations for their foundations.
The sub-surface investigation for the final design stage is typically performed prior to
defining the proposed structural elements or the specific locations of culverts,
embankments or other structures. Accordingly, the investigation process includes
techniques sufficient to define soil and rock characteristics and the centreline subgrade
conditions. Potential seismic loadings that may affect the bridge foundations or structure
should also be indicated.
For small, structures such as drifts, culverts and vented fords it is normally sufficient to
ensure that the proposed foundation material consists of well drained, firm (compacted)
material. This will require the excavation and description of a few test pits (usually to
slightly weathered or hard rock) at critical points under the structures with simple
material descriptions and in situ strength/stiffness testing (e.g., DCP or plate load tests)
where necessary. These will allow material types, depths and estimated strengths to be
determined for use in the design. Weathered rock, clays and silts that are at least “firm”
or sands and gravels that are at least “loose” will be suitable for design purposes. Such
conditions can also be determined on site by checking for footprints when walking on the
proposed location. If more than a faint footprint is left it will be necessary to improve the
ground before construction commences. Additional useful information for design can
usually be obtained from similar structures in the area.
The number of trial pits that should be dug will depend on the type of foundation,
complexity of the structure and the uniformity of the soil. Table 6-5 gives a guide to the
number and depth of trial pits that should be dug for different structures. If the ground
conditions are known to vary over the proposed site, or two trial pits show markedly
different results, then further trial pits should be dug as appropriate. The trial pit depth
is only given as a guideline figure. If the soil conditions are very poor it may be
necessary to increase their depth or carry out deeper investigations using boring or
drilling. Where bedrock exists close to the ground surface this offers the best foundation.

Table 6-5 Trial Pit Requirements and Locations

Structure Number Location Depth
Drift 1 in each 50 m section 1m
Culvert 2 At inlet and outlet. 1.5 metres.
Vented drift 2 (only 1 required if ford At each end of the vented 1.5 metres.
is shorter than 15 m) section preferably one on
the upstream, and one on
the downstream side
Large box 2 (additional pits at each At each abutment and 2.5 metres
culvert (> 3 “pier” location required) each pier. (deeper in poor
m width) ground
conditions).
Bridge (< 2 At each abutment To firm strata
15 m span) (minimum of
3m).
Bridges Single span - 2 At each abutment To firm strata
(15- 60 m) (minimum of
3m).
Bridges > See text – test pits
60 m unsuitable

69
If the ground conditions are poor at the proposed or expected level of the structure’s
foundation it will be necessary to continue excavation to firm material that can provide
sufficient bearing capacity. However, test pits are only usually generally appropriate for
raft or footing foundations and give little useful information for deeper foundations, when
auguring or drilling is necessary.
For larger structures, a range of foundations could be used depending on the materials
at site. It is useful to carry out a geophysical survey (seismic or electrical resistivity) to
identify the general strata in the area and to provide a basis for siting further exploratory
points. This can substantially reduce the number of boreholes or deep auger holes
required.
Information on aspects such as the depth to bedrock, the strength of overlying soils and
the underlying bedrock, scour resistance, etc. need to be identified so that the most
cost-effective and appropriate foundation solutions can be designed. These structures
are usually founded on spread footings if acceptable materials are present in the upper 2
or 3m of the underlying soil profile or piles if weak materials extend to greater depths.
The ground beneath the proposed structure should have an adequate bearing capacity to
support the load of the structure itself (dead load) and the vehicles and road users (live
load), which pass over it. If the soil has insufficient strength it will compress and the
structure will subside, possibly causing failure.
As the type of soil may change with depth it is necessary to dig trial pits at the proposed
site to determine the bearing capacity at the proposed foundation level or drill or auger if
this level is beyond the depth of safe test-pit excavation. By identifying and sampling the
material excavated from different depths of the trial pits the bearing capacity of the soil
can be determined. Bearing capacities are particularly important in the design of
structures where large localised loads are expected, (e.g. bridge abutments and piers) as
the soil must have a high bearing capacity to support these loads.
The geotechnical investigation should thus provide sufficient information for the engineer
to decide on the most appropriate design, as the strength and durability of any structure
will be determined by the quality of its foundation in relation to the bearing capacity of
the underlying material.
Small bridges are normally founded on spread footings if acceptable materials are
present in the upper 2 or 3m of the underlying soil profile or piles if weak materials
extend to greater depths. Materials subject to scour must be protected as far as possible
using a foundation and pier or abutment design that will minimise the scouring effects of
fast flowing water, especially turbulence caused by the shapes of the structures.
Larger structures on weak support materials will usually be founded on piles. Two types
of pile can be considered, depending on the foundation conditions. If strong material
exists at moderate depths (5 – 10m) an end-bearing pile can be considered where the
pile is supported totally on this layer. Enlargement of the pile end (under-reaming) can
be considered to reduce the pile loads. Where strong material exists at depth below
about 10m, a friction pile, making use of the friction between the pile sides and the soil
can be used. It is often, however, economic to use a combination of end-bearing and
friction properties to minimise the length of the pile. For piles the investigation (drilling
or boring) should extend to 1.5 times the expected depth of the pile.
A common problem is the junction between the approach fills and the bridge deck. The
bridge structure is normally founded such that little if any settlement movement will
occur (e.g. on piles or large footings). The approach fills, however, are placed on the in-
situ material, (often alluvial silts and clays) that are subject to slow settlement with
time. This is difficult to compensate for during construction and usually results in a sag
in the road as the bridge deck is approached. It is common practice to repeatedly fill this
sag with asphalt as it develops. The design engineer should be informed of the presence
of materials with high consolidation potentials and incorporate the necessary
precautionary measures in the design, e.g., UIC 719).

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 6.2.5 Scour
Scour is the erosion of material from the river sides and bed due to water flow. Damage
due to scour is one of the most likely causes of structural failure. Minimising or
eliminating the effects of scour should therefore receive adequate attention when
designing any structure. For this the design engineer should be made aware of the
potential for scour, which can occur during any flow, but the risk is generally greater
during floods. There are three major types of scour to be considered and the potential
for these should be assessed during the geotechnical investigation:
1. River morphology: these are long-term changes in the river due to bends and
constrictions in the channel affecting the shape and course of the channel.
2. Construction scour: this is the scour experienced around road structures where
the natural channel flow is restricted by the opening in the structure. The speed
of the water increases through the restriction and results in more erosive power,
removing material from the banks and bed.
3. Local scour: occurs around abutments and piers due to the increased velocity of
the water and vortices around these new unnatural obstructions.
The proposed site of the structure and the watercourse upstream and downstream must
be inspected for evidence of existing scour, erosion or deposition in the watercourse and
banks. It is difficult to accurately predict the level of scour that may be experienced for a
particular design as the changes on the flow characteristics of the water depend on the
actual design as well as the stream channel geometry and water flow rates. However,
the geotechnical investigation should provide the engineer with a basic knowledge of the
scour characteristics of the materials.

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7 Site Investigation for Hydrology and Drainage
Design
7.1.1 Groundwater
If groundwater is not identified and adequately addressed early, it can significantly affect
constructability, road performance and slope stability. Claims related to unforeseen
groundwater conditions often form a significant proportion of contractual disputes. Many
of these claims originate from a failure to record groundwater during site investigation.
Groundwater is frequently encountered along road cuts. In areas where springs and
seepages are present, there are several good indicators that may be used to determine
the height that groundwater may rise in a slope and roughly how long during the year
that the slope remains saturated. For example, in areas where soil and rock within the
slope contains iron, this can oxidize when in contact with groundwater and turn rusty red
or bright orange and give the soil a mottled appearance. The depth below the ground
surface where these mottled appearances first occur indicates the average maximum
height that the fluctuating water table rises in the slope.
At locations where the water table remains relatively stable, iron compounds reduce
chemically and give the soil a grey or bluish-grey appearance. The occurrence of these
greyed soils indicates a slope that is saturated for much of the year. Occasionally,
mottles may appear above subsoil, which indicates a seasonally fluctuating water table
above a layer that is subjected to a prolonged saturation. The practitioner should be
aware of the significance of mottled and greyed soils exposed during road construction.
These soil layers give clues to the need for the implementation of good drainage or extra
attention concerning the stability of the road cut.
In places where ground water exists in the form of high water tables or underground
streams or excessively high moisture contents in the soil detailed investigations should
be carried out. These include:
1. Test pits – this involves excavation of test pits followed by sampling of the soils for
moisture content tests, logging of soil profiles and discolouration to determine water
tables characteristics, determination of the depth of the water table when reached, etc.
2. Sampling – this involves the sampling of soils for testing in the laboratory. The test
should include:
a. Soil properties such as grading, Atterberg limits, etc. The soil properties would
be used for the indirect determination of the permeability coefficients of the
soils.
b. Direct permeability tests
3. Placement of piezometers to determine the depth of the water table the permeability
and drainability of soil masses.
More details on site investigations for ground water are given in the Hydrology and
Drainage Manual.

7.1.2 Surface Water - Water Crossings

Site investigations for surface water and water crossings are important in the design of
drainage structures and systems. The main aspects of the investigations include:
1. Topographic surveys – this involves the use of survey equipment such as total stations,
automatic levels to measure levels of several points on the ground to create
terrain/ground profile and contours.
2. Cross-sectional profiles – this involves taking levels across a water course to determine
the relative locations of the river banks and riverbed.

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 3. Surveys along the stream reach i.e. longitudinal profiles of the river upsteam and
downstream of crossing which will be influenced or affected by the drainage structure.
4. Survey of features such as rock outcrops, water works which may affect the flow during
flooding.
5. Depth of water
6. Flow velocities
7. Scour in the river bed and banks
8. Catchnment characteristics (slope, vegetation cover, land use, soil types and properties,
ponds, reservoirs, etc.

More details are given in the Hydrology and Drainage Manual.

Site investigation for appropriate low level structures for water crossings should include
the following:
1) Existing culverts

• Adequacy of opening (size, flooding, length of culvert).

• Outlet conditions (ponding, silting, erosion, headwalls, etc.).
• Structural strength (condition of concrete or other materials).

2) Low level structures (causeways, drifts, etc.)

• Adequacy of existing structure to cope with floods.

• Structural condition.
• Width.
• Erosion.

3) Surface drainage

• Standing water due to rutting, depressions, poor shoulder shape, etc.

4) Drainage channels

• Adequacy of side drains (shape of drain, ponding, silting, erosion).

• Catchwater drains and cut-off drains (shape of drain, ponding, silting,
erosion).
• Mitre drains (frequency, shape of drain, ponding, silting, erosion)
• Effectiveness of flow retarding measures.

5) Down chutes (condition, erosion).

7.1.3 Erosion
Erosion is closely related to drainage and depends on soil type, grade, climate and site
conditions. A general assessment of erosion potential is needed for embankments,
cuttings, road reserve and borrow areas, leading to design of anti-erosion measures
where necessary. Most of these assessments would normally be done during the
hydrological investigation. Recommendations on bio-engineering solutions using local
vegetation should be made.

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8 Investigation of Construction Materials
This chapter provides information about the soils and rock formations available in
Mozambique and guidance on their possible use in road construction. The expertise of a
Material engineer is often required for this purpose and consultation with Geologists may
be required from time to time.

8.1 Soil and rock description and classification

It is important that soil and rock is accurately described and classified during the site
investigation. These can both be complex operations, best done by an experienced
geologist or engineering geologist. However, for most common site investigations
simplified methods described below and summarised in Appendix B and Appendix C can
be used.

8.1.1 Rock Description

Rocks are generally more difficult to identify and classify than soils and this is best done
by a geologist or engineering geologist. Typically, rock samples will be obtained by core
drilling or percussion drilling and accurate descriptions can often only be made during
microscopic investigation.
Rocks are generally described by their origin, initially and then by their composition and
particle size.
Rocks are either:
• Igneous - derived the cooling of magmas and lavas
• Sedimentary – deposited by the sedimentation of eroded materials carried by
water, wind ice or gravity, or else be chemical sedimentation,
• Metamorphic – igneous, sedimentary or other metamorphic rocks affected by
heating, pressure or chemical fluids.

Additional data on rock classification is provided in Appendix C.

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 8.1.2 Common Rocks in Mozambique
Igneous, metamorphic and sedimentary rocks are all represented in Mozambique. The
most common rock types exposed at the surface are the high-grade metamorphic
gneisses, granite-gneisses and granites and granodiorites found in the north and
northwest of the country. Cretaceous and Tertiary sandstones and limestones are the
most common rocks found at the surface in parts of the south and southeast
(predominantly in Inhambane and Gaza Provinces) while volcanic rocks (rhyolites and
basalts) form the Libombo Mountains in the far west of Maputo Province.

8.1.3 Soil Description and Classification

Soils are typically described in the field during the profiling of test pits excavated at
suitable points along the road alignment. Details regarding test pitting have been
discussed earlier, however the fundamental principles are described below.
During test pitting, a detailed description of the moisture, colour, consistency, soil
structure, soil texture and origin of each obvious layer is made. This is in addition to the
sampling for the determination of properties such as moisture content, grading, plasticity
and strength.
The standard definitions for each of these descriptors is provided in Appendix B, but the
soil texture or material type is briefly described below.
This is primarily based on the distribution of the various particle sizes within the material
as defined below. The actual descriptors can vary from specification to specification and
from country to country, but the size classification below (Table 8-1) is generally used in
southern Africa). A brief indicator of the means of identifying the particles is also given.

Table 8-1 Classification of Soils

Particle description Size Identification
Cobbles and boulders 64 -256 mm Measurable (tape measure)
Gravel 2 - 64 mm Easily discernible by eye
Sand 0.075 to 2 mm Discernible by eye and touch
Silt 0.002 to 0.075 mm Gritty feel when ground by teeth
Clay < 0 002 mm Not visible – often sticky and stains
fingers

These descriptions together with grading, plasticity and strength test results allow the
materials to be classified for general use in roads and structures.

8.1.4 Soil Types

Given the diversity of origin (in situ weathered eluvial, aeolian, alluvial, colluvial and
lacustrine) there is a range of soils types in the country, each with varying significance
from an engineering perspective. In situ weathered ferruginous soils are probably the
most common, and they usually vary from less than a metre to 5m or more in depth.
Most of these soils are composed of silts, clays and varying degrees of sands, and those
that occupy the higher plateau areas tend to be well drained red-brown and lateritic.
These soils are usually well-drained and they represent a condition of maturity in the
weathering profile and stability in the terrain. Generally, these soils pose little difficulty
for route selection and in many cases, are beneficial. Soils developed in more low-lying
parts of the terrain tend to be greyish and greyish-brown in colour and are often siltier
and sandier. They offer poorer subgrade conditions and are often prone to high water
tables. Quite often, very subtle changes in topography can give rise to marked
differences in soil type and weathering depth.

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Aeolian soils are common in the east and south of the country. They tend to be
composed of silty sands with low plasticity indices and therefore are prone to erosion by
water and wind. Fluvial clays, silts, sands and gravels are common on valley floors and
in estuaries and in the graben structures of inland Inhambane and Gaza Provinces.
Diatomaceous muds and other fine-grained lacustrine deposits occur in parts of the east
and south of the country, in pans, lagoons and inter-dune swales. Some of these soils
pose potential problems for road construction, and these have been discussed in Section
5.3.

8.2 Investigation Techniques

Error! Reference source not found. shows potential problems that may be associated
with soils and weathered materials derived from the common stratigraphic groups founds
in Mozambique.
Table 8-2 Preliminary Indication of Possible Problems Related to soils and
Weathered Materials Derived from the Major Stratigraphic Groups
Material
Irregular rock head profiles

retaining walls and bridges

Earthworks instability

Groundwater flooding
Foundation failure for
Compressible soils
Dispersive soils
Collapsing soils

Expansive soils
Cavity collapse

Saline soils
Landslides

Erosion
Basement      
Complex granites
Karoo sediments      
Karoo Volcanics     
Cretaceous  
sediments
Cretaceous  
Carbonates
Quaternary        
unconsolidated
sediments
 - Potential problems likely

8.2.1 Field Investigations

The site investigation should be detailed enough to:
• Assess the terrain difficulty
• Identify any geohazards along the road alignment
• Assess the likely earthworks scenarios, including likely proportions of soil and
rock in excavations and whether soil improvement and stabilisation measures
might be required
• Identify significant issues relating to subgrade suitability and the availability of
construction materials

76
To do this, it is necessary to:
• Carry out trial pitting where man-made and natural exposures are inadequate
and where ground conditions require clarification
• Collect bulk samples for routine classification tests as well as more specific tests
related to aggregate quality, durability, etc. for crushed stone for surfacings and
concrete

It may be necessary, in some circumstances, to carry out boring or drilling investigations

at certain sites, especially where hard rock aggregate is being sought or foundation
conditions for structures need to be investigated. Such circumstances may also occur,
for example, where there is concern over the strength and behaviour of soils at depth,
and where undisturbed samples need to be collected for specialised laboratory testing to
determine engineering feasibility. However, this is more commonly carried out during
detailed geotechnical investigations

8.2.2 Construction Material Properties

Sources of road-building materials must be identified within an economic haulage
distance and they must be available in sufficient quantity and of sufficient quality for the
purposes intended. Previous experience in the area may assist with this but additional
survey is usually required.
Two of the most common reasons for the escalation of construction costs, once
construction has started and material sources fully explored, are that the materials are
found to be deficient in quality or quantity. This leads to expensive delays whilst new
sources are investigated or the road is redesigned to take account of the actual materials
available.
The construction materials investigation usually requires an extensive programme of site
and laboratory testing, especially if the materials are of marginal quality or occur only in
limited quantities. The site investigation must identify and prove that there are adequate
and economically viable reserves of natural construction materials. The typical materials
required for a road project include:
• Common embankment fill
• Capping layer /selected subgrade
• Sub-base and base materials
• Road surfacing aggregate
• Paving stone (e.g. for cobblestone pavements)
• Aggregates for structural concrete
• Filter/drainage materials
• Special requirements (e.g. rock-fill for gabion baskets)

If the project is in an area where good quality construction materials are scarce or
unavailable, alternate solutions that make use of the local materials should be
considered to avoid long and expensive haulage. For example, consideration should be
given to:
1) Modifying the design requirements.
2) Modifying the material (e.g. mechanical or chemical stabilization).
3) Material processing (e.g. crushing, screening, blending).
4) Innovative use of non-standard materials.

Materials investigations should also consider any future needs of the road. This is
particularly important in the case of unpaved roads where regular re-gravelling is
normally needed to replace material lost from the surface. Sources of good materials
could be depleted resulting in increased haul distances and subsequent costs.

77
Furthermore, good quality material may be required at a later stage in the road’s life
when rehabilitation or improvement is required to meet increased traffic demands.
A comprehensive list of the location and potential borrow pits and quarries is needed,
along with an assessment of their proposed use and the volumes of material available.
Apart from quality and quantity of material, the borrow pits and quarries must be:
• Accessible and suitable for efficient and economic excavation
• Close to the site to minimize haulage costs
• Of suitable quality to enable cost-effective construction with little or no treatment
• Located such that their exploitation will not lead to any complicated or lengthy
legal problems and will not unduly affect the local inhabitants or adversely affect
the environment

Exploration of an area to establish availability of materials has the following objectives:

• Determination of the nature of the deposit, including its geology, history of

previous excavation and possible mineral rights
• Determination of the depth, thickness, extent and composition of the strata of soil
and rock that are to be excavated
• Analysis of the condition of groundwater, including the position of the water table,
its variations, and possible flow of surface water into the excavation ground
• Assessment of the property of the soils and rocks for the purposes intended

Records of roads already built with the material can be a valuable source of information,
not only on the location of construction materials but also on their excavation,
processing, placement and subsequent performance. Potential problems with any of the
materials can also be identified prior to their utilisation. Construction records are often
available with regional road authorities, or by road design consultants and contractors.
The location of materials is an art only acquired with experience and requires a detailed
knowledge of the area and the soil and rock materials in the area. The first investigations
for possible materials should be based on an investigation of existing borrow pits and
materials sources in the road and surrounding areas. Large borrow pits will indicate
previous useful sources and should be investigated further with sampling and testing.
Where no such borrow pits exist, recourse usually needs to initially be made to aerial
and satellite photographs to try and identify differences in vegetation and topography
that may indicate differences in underlying materials. It is unlikely that specific materials
will be found this way, but differences in appearance typically indicate different
underlying materials and should be pin-pointed for ground investigations (test pits and
sampling).
Other signs on the ground such as specific types of vegetation (related to specific
material types), animal burrows, termite nests, etc., can also be used to indicate
underlying materials, but these require local experience. If none of these processes
produce adequate results, a systematic investigation of the area is required to try and
locate the necessary materials.
Where large excavations/cuts are to be made, the possible use of the excavated material
from these areas as construction materials should be investigated. Use of this has
obvious benefits, as much of the size reduction will be accomplished by blasting and
excavation, spoiling costs and areas will be reduced and haulage will be minimal.
The types of material required are discussed individually below.

8.2.3 Common Embankment Fill

The location and selection of fill material generally poses few problems. Materials to be
avoided include organic soils and clays with high plasticity. Problems may also exist in

78
lacustrine and flood plain areas where very fine materials (silty) are abundant. Where
possible, fill should be taken from within the road alignment (balanced cut-fill operations)
or during the excavation of slightly enlarged side drains (where materials meet the
requirements). Borrow pits producing fills should be avoided, as far as possible, and
special consideration should be given to the impacts of winning fill in agriculturally
productive areas where land expropriation costs can be high. Typically, a minimum CBR
of about 5% is required for this material, allowing most local materials to be used.

8.2.4 Selected Subgrade/capping layer

The engineer has to work with the in-situ subgrade materials. Where in-situ and
alignment soils are weak or problematic, the importation of improved (selected)
subgrade may be necessary. As far as possible the requirement to import material from
borrow areas should be avoided due to the additional haulage costs and suitable
materials, where they exist, from the road reserve and side drains should be used as far
as possible. However, import of strong (CBR>15%) subgrade materials can provide
economies in the pavement thickness design. Where improvement is necessary or
unavoidable, mechanical and chemical stabilisation methods can be considered. The
selected sub-grade is often combined with the construction of the formation, necessary
to raise the road above natural ground level for drainage purposes.

8.2.5 Base and Sub-base

Where possible, naturally occurring unprocessed materials should be selected for sub-
base and even for the base course where appropriate. However, under certain
circumstances mechanical treatment may be necessary to improve the quality to the
required standard. This often requires the use of special equipment and processing plant
that is relatively immobile or static. For this reason, borrow pits for base and sub-base
materials are usually spaced further apart than for other materials. The main sources of
sub-base and base materials are rocky hillsides and cliffs, high steep hills, and river
banks. Sub-base materials are only expected to meet requirements related to maximum
particle size, grading, plasticity, and CBR, whereas base material materials usually have
minimum requirements with respect to aggregate particle strength, durability, particle
shape and nature, etc.
The minimum thickness of a deposit normally considered workable for excavation for
materials for selected subgrade, sub-base and road base is of the order of one metre.
However, thinner horizons could also be exploited if there are no alternatives. The
absolute minimum depends on material availability, the thickness of overburden and the
type of equipment used to win the material. If there is no overburden, as may be the
case in arid areas, horizons as thin as 300 mm can often be effectively processed.

8.2.6 Hard stone and Aggregate

Hard aggregate (usually fully but sometimes partially crushed) is necessary for use as
concrete stone, bituminous road surfacing aggregate, masonry, cobble stone and stone
pitching. In any area, a relatively fresh rock must be encountered at some depth as
there is a gradual transition from one weathering state to the other. The recovery of a
suitable material is, therefore, a matter of understanding the geological history and
weathering profile at the quarry site. In rolling and mountainous terrain, hard rock
quarries can usually be located against the hill or mountain slopes, where the cover of
weathered material is thinnest.

8.3 Material location

As discussed in Section 8.2.2, the location of construction materials is an acquired art
and experience is necessary to identify potential material sources. However, some basic
indications can be obtained from the following sources.

79
 • Geological maps – different material types (lithologies) are indicated and these can be the
first source of information – for example, thick sand deposits will indicate a lack of aggregate
sources, while outcrops of hard rock (e.g. granites versus mudrocks or shales) can indicate
possible crushed stone sources. The depth of weathering for natural gravels cannot usually
be obtained from geological maps.
• Soil maps – these are useful indicators of the depth of weathering, the presence of
transported soils and the presence of pedogenic materials.
• Climatic maps – in areas of high rainfall and temperatures, the potential for deeper and
more complete weathering is higher. However, most weathering has occurred in geological
history, during which time the climatic conditions would normally have been significantly
different from those prevailing today.
• Geomorpholgical and topographic maps – thick soils are usually present in flat areas and on
old erosion surfaces, and deep excavations will normally be required for hard aggregate
sources. In steep terranes and hilly areas, fresh rock is more likely to be close to the surface.
• Remote sensing – aerial and satellite imagery can be used to identify rock outcrops, existing
borrow sources and generally, the types of materials available (e.g. hard or soft).
• Walk-over surveys are essential during the detailed design stages to identify local geological
and weathering conditions.

8.4 Water Sources

Water is a vital construction resource. Many projects have been delayed because of an
underestimate of the quantity of water that is conveniently available for construction.
Suitable sources of water must therefore be identified at the design stage and due
attention should be given to the phasing of construction if best use is to be made of the
natural moisture in the materials.
In certain areas water may be scarce for construction purposes and, specifically, for
providing sufficient moisture for successful and economic compaction of the soils and
pavement layers. Since this problem is serious in some regions of Mozambique, it is
important to search for water sources with adequate yields and within acceptable
haulage distances from the construction site. In regions where water is scarce, a
separate and dedicated hydro-geological study may be needed. Alternatively, dry
compaction could be considered for some types of materials, but it is essential that the
appropriate plant is used for this. Data from the pre-feasibility and/or feasibility field
reconnaissance can indicate if surface water is likely to be a critical problem.
Water sources for construction need to be chemically analysed for salinity (to assess the
concentration of chloride and sulphate) which could be deleterious to performance of
layer works and concrete and bituminous materials. In most cases a simple test of
portability indicates that the water is of acceptable quality.

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9 Investigations during Construction

9.1 Introduction
Site investigation is an iterative process whereby most of the explorations are complete
during the design stage, but additional surveys may be required during construction to
resolve unforeseen problems. This is especially true in new road construction projects
where access is not present to transport site investigation equipment in the early stages
of planning. Moreover, it will be difficult to mobilize investigation tools twice or three
times and may be economical to do some exploration during construction.
The investigations during construction would be primarily composed of detailed
observation of excavation faces, pit, trenches and borings with sampling and testing
concentrated on specific features. They should be specifically planned to provide the
geotechnical engineer with information to characterize the sub-grade, determine the
availability and extent of construction materials, and estimate quantities of earthworks.
If there have been changes in vertical and horizontal alignments since the final design, it
will be necessary to undertake additional site investigation according to the new
geometric design. Construction stage investigations are useful to evaluate the type of
materials encountered at road cuts and to refine earlier suggestions of cut-slope angles.
In addition, the location of river crossings, landslides, and problems soils should be
checked and potential places of disposal sites selected.

9.2 Subgrade Conditions

Generally, sub-grade performance depends on three basic characteristics; strength,
moisture content and swelling, all of which can be checked by trial pits and trenches
during the construction stage.

9.2.1 Locations
The locations shall be selected in such a way that the information obtained will assist in
filling any gap that existed during design stage. The locations and sampling frequencies
should also be at such intervals to allow the identification of all soil types, the level of
the water table and the depth to the bedrock.

9.2.2 Subgrade Strength by DCP

Moreover, inherent to the construction of roads is the ability to inspect sub-grade
properties to enforce quality control measures before the overlying structures are placed.
This is especially true in the case of silty soils which can meet the moisture-density
requirements during design but may fail at the time of construction. In such cases, the
DCP is a good indicator of sub-grade stability. As stated in the previous chapters, the
DCP can be driven to a depth of 1 m at each test location without excavating any soil
layers. The DCP can also be used to identify soft sub-grades in deep cut areas. In this
case, extension rods might be used to conduct the DCP test to a depth of 3 m in a soil
boring drilled by a hollow stem auger. In this way, the DCP allows frequent field testing
of the sub-grade in a reasonable time.

9.2.3 Proof Rolling

Proof rolling is another economical method of identifying unstable or unsuitable soils
during construction. This involves driving a loaded truck, or heavy construction
equipment, repeatedly over the sub-grade (especially in cut areas) and observing the
surface deflections and the development of rutting. It is intended to distress the soil to
conditions anticipated during construction. Since, proof rolling the entire section under
construction may be time consuming, it is often preferable to proof roll only areas of

81
potential problem, identified by the DCP investigation. Proof rolling is particularly useful
in identifying silty soils and soft deposits. Repeated passes of truck loads cause moisture
to move up from high groundwater tables, soften or remould the moisture-sensitive soils
and cause excessive rutting. Typically, proof rolling should be conducted as follows:
• The engineer should observe the earthwork at all times during construction to
identify weak areas prior to proof rolling.
• The sub-grade is prepared according to standard specifications, in which the sub-
grade shall meet the density requirement. If conditions change after sub-grade
preparation, due to rain or construction traffic before determining the type and
thickness of treatment, the sub-grade should be reworked.
• The length of sub-grade, prepared for proof rolling, should be 150m to 300m at
a time. If the section is too large, the period between truck passes will be too
long to agitate the moisture sensitive soils, and may not exhibit excessive rutting.
• The contractor should provide a fully loaded, tandem-axle truck, or loaded truck
similar to those anticipated during pavement construction.
• The number of truck passes in proof rolling is dictated by field conditions.
Sometimes, for example, in cut or at-grade sections with high moisture soft
deposits, one or two passes might be adequate to cause several centimetres of
rutting, thereby indicating sub-grade instability. However, in fill sections where
density and moisture can be controlled for each layer, five to six passes may or
may not be adequate, depending on whether the underlying material is a
compacted fill or in-situ soil.
• The number of passes should be until the sub-grade rutting exceeds 12mm. This
is particularly important in cut or at-grade sections with more than 75% silty
material or soft deposits.
• During proof rolling, the engineer should observe the sub-grade performance at
all times. The last truck pass is usually performed at walking speed so that the
engineer may follow to observe the rebound deflections, and rutting and/or
pumping of the sub-grade. Immediately after the last truck pass, the inspector
should test areas showing more than 30mm of rutting and areas of high rebound
deflections (pumping), with the DCP to determine the required treatment
thickness. However, the engineer should ensure that the finished sub-grade does
not exhibit more than 12mm of rutting.
• When rutting and deflection under heavy equipment indicates a soft sub-grade,
test pits up to a depth of 1.5m must be excavated using a backhoe to further
investigate the subsurface condition. At least two test pits are needed in any
failed sub-grade during proof rolling. Excavate the test pits across the width of
the sub-grade in the failed locations. Pick locations where the deformations are
the highest to evaluate the site.

9.3 Road Cuts

During the project design phase, the cut slope design recommendations are prepared,
with slope inclinations required for stability, mitigation requirements if needed, and the
usability of excavated cut materials.
Additional investigation might, however, be needed during construction when there is a
change in design requirements or route alignment. Road cuts are places where
geotechnical problems are often encountered. For this reason, the existing natural and
cut slopes near the project should be inspected repeatedly to evaluate the performance
of the new cuts. The inclination and height of existing cut slopes should be measured,
and erosion or slope stability problems should be examined. Additional exploration is
required to use of the excavated material as a source for fill elsewhere in the project.

82
A key to the establishment of exploration frequencies for embankments is the potential
for the subsurface conditions to impact the construction of the cut, the construction
contract in general, and the long-term performance of the finished project. Any
additional exploration programme at this time should ensure that costs and time to
complete the programme are reduced to an acceptable level.

9.4 Embankments
The key geotechnical issues for the performance of embankments include the stability
and settlement of the underlying soils and the impact to adjacent structures, such as
buildings and utilities. Therefore, additional site investigation may be needed during
embankment construction. This investigation should extend to at least two to three
times the width of the embankment on either side and to the top and bottom of adjacent
slopes. Furthermore, areas below the proposed embankments should be fully explored if
any existing landslide activity is suspected. Engineering parameters generally required
for embankment design include total stress and strength parameters; unit weight;
compression indexes; and coefficient of consolidation.
In road upgrading projects, embankment widening will require careful consideration of
exploration locations. Pits or borings near the toe of the existing fill are needed to
evaluate the present condition of the underlying soils, particularly if the soils are fine-
grained. In addition, pits through the existing fill into the underlying consolidated soft
soil, or to define over-excavation, should be obtained to determine conditions below the
existing fill. In some cases, the stability of the existing embankment fill may be
questionable because ravelling or slope failures have been observed. Embankments
constructed of material that is susceptible to weathering or instability may require
additional pits through the core of the embankment to sample and test the present
condition of the existing fill.
Pits or borings are also needed near existing or planned structures that could be
impacted by new fill placement. Soil sampling and testing will be useful for evaluating
the potential settlement of the existing foundations of the structure as the new fill is
placed.
The depth of test pits and borings will generally be determined by the expected soil
conditions and the depth of influence of the new embankment. Explorations will need to
be sufficiently deep to penetrate through problem soils such as loose sand, soft silt and
clay, and expansive soils, and at least 1.5m into competent soil conditions. In general,
all borings should be drilled to a minimum depth of twice the planned embankment
height.

9.5 River Crossings

Additional site investigations should be performed to provide the information needed for
structural foundations at river crossings. The extent of exploration during construction
should be based on any deviation of the subsurface conditions from which was
considered in the design phase, structure type, and any new project requirements.
The exploration programme should be designed to reveal the nature and types of soil
deposits and rock formations; the engineering properties of the soils and rocks; the
potential for liquefaction; and the groundwater conditions. It should also be sufficient to
identify and delineate unforeseen problematic subsurface conditions such as soft
deposits and swelling and collapsing soils. Boring logs should be prepared, and cores
retained and preserved for future reference and testing.

9.6 Landslides
If a landslide is identified during construction, inclinometers and piezometers should be
installed in normal circumstances to accurately define the depth of movement and the

83
role of groundwater. Surveying stakes can also be used for this purpose. When
monitored over several months, this instrumentation can be valuable in determining the
behaviour of the landslide and the relationship between periods of active slide movement
and seasonal groundwater levels.
Generally, in terrains where landslides are expected, the geotechnical engineer will often
be requested to provide support during construction. This support could be in the form of
selecting an appropriate remedial measure or confirm that the method suggested earlier
during design will not lead to additional failures or result in long-term maintenance
requirements.

9.7 Retaining Walls

If a slope failure is detected, then one of the methods to mitigate its effect on the road
would be to construct a retaining wall. The site investigation activity for the construction
of retaining walls should aim at establishing the suitability of the site for the type of
structure being considered, the overall stability and suitability of the foundation, and the
availability of suitable building stones for the wall.
The design of the proposed works is often helpful in identifying parameters that need to
be obtained from the ground investigation. The investigation should identify specific
groundwater and surface drainage conditions near the site and their likely response to
heavy rain. In general, the following are the general investigation requirements for
retaining wall design and construction:

• Take a minimum of 2 pits per wall.

• At retaining wall locations, pits should be taken at a maximum interval of
30m, with a minimum of two pits that are dug as close to the wall alignment
as possible, and with locations alternating from in front of the wall to behind
the wall.
• One pit should be located near the expected highest portion of the wall.
• For wall heights greater than 6m, use a maximum pit spacing of 15m.
• Retaining structures with tiebacks or soil nails will need an additional row of
pits or shallow borings spaced at 30m to 60m, where the anchor load zone is
anticipated.
• Pits or borings should continue to depths where all unsuitable foundation
materials are penetrated, and the proposed stress increase due to the
retaining wall will be less than 10% of the original overburden pressure.
Alternatively, boring may be completed at a depth of 2/3 of the anticipated
wall height or a minimum of 1.5m into the bedrock.
• Exploration depth should be great enough to fully penetrate soft,
compressible soils (peat, organic silt, soft fine-grained soils) into competent
material of suitable bearing capacity (stiff to hard cohesive soil, compact
dense cohesionless soil, or bedrock).

9.8 Construction Materials

In general, a material source investigation during construction should provide the
following minimum information.
• Expected quality of processed materials and procedures necessary to obtain
that quality.
• The boundary limits of proven materials and limits of previously used areas.
• Specific areas and elevation of non-usable materials.

84
 • Previous uses of material from the source.
• Recommendations on uses and limitations for processed materials.
This will be determined from test pits (usually excavated to about 3 m depth with a
mechanical excavator or from drill cores if the material source is rock. At a minimum,
the quality of material reserves should be known during construction. The structures of
hard rock are necessary to develop an approach for extraction (i.e. blasting or
mechanical excavation). The state of weathering or alteration also needs to be
established, as this may define the use of the materials. Highly weathered materials may
be designated for use in fill only. The indicated quantity of material that is available in
the potential material source should also be evaluated to determine its properties in
terms of the required materials. The actual properties determined will depend on the
type of materials and their intended application. Soils and gravels will normally be
assessed in terms of their classification/indicator properties whilst rock sample will be
required to undergo strength and often durability testing.
In the interest of improving material sustainability and reducing environmental problems,
there is an increasing awareness of making use of by-product industrial and mining
materials. There are often large sources of mine and industrial “wastes” that can be
effectively used as construction materials. These should be considered for use, although
some materials could have specific problematic properties that need to be assessed and
treated prior to their use. Such problems may include excessive saline materials,
deleterious minerals (e.g. sulphides and nepheline), unslaked magnesium or calcium
oxides (e.g. slags) or very fine components (e.g. flyash).

85
10 Reporting

10.1 Background
This data collected during the site investigation should be presented in a logical and
orderly manner. The report is used to present the data collected to the design engineer
for use in the design.
The site investigation report should not be confused with the design reports, which
present the design approach, assumptions, etc. for the project. The information
contained in the site investigation report is referred to often during the design period,
construction period, and frequently after completion of the project (e.g. for resolving
claims). The report should therefore be clear, concise, complete, autonomous and
accurate.
The report usually consists of two parts:
1. Factual information, and
2. Interpretive information.
The size of the project, programming requirements or the client’s preferences may
dictate the structure of the document.

10.2 Structure of report

A typical report structure would usually follow the following layout:
1. Introduction
2. Factual information
3. Interpretive information
4. Additional Work
5. Validation during construction
6. Annexures

10.2.1 Introduction
The Introduction will usually contain:
• Terms of reference - define the context of the project and investigation and
provide details of the client, the project and the investigation brief. The contractual
arrangement between the client, consultant and any sub-contractors is referenced, as
well as correspondence or decisions pertaining to the investigation made prior to and
during the investigation.
• Abbreviations & symbols - list commonly used abbreviations and symbols (and
their units) to assist with the reading and interpretation of the report.
• Purpose and scope - stated to resolve any ambiguities about the use and
application of the report.
• Nature of the development - defines the extent and nature of the project, as well
as requirements about traffic, road class and any other relevant specifications or
limitations. These form an essential part of any site investigation report and prevent the
misuse of the information and recommendations in applications for which they were
never intended.
• Reference documents - provide a list of the project specific references used in the
planning, execution and reporting of the investigation. Typically, the list includes
references to maps, photographs, reports, drawings, specifications, etc. References to

86
general publications, standards, methods, etc. that are available in the public domain are
often included as footnotes where they are applicable in the body of the report.

10.2.2 Factual Information

Factual information includes all the site and investigation data gathered as part of the
desk study, fieldwork and subsequent laboratory testing and comprises the bulk source
of information for the road design.
Site Description
The description of the site should include:
• Location
• Current land use including known services
• Accessibility
• Topography and drainage
• Vegetation
• Climate

Where possible the abovementioned descriptions should be supplemented by

photographs, figures and maps.
Traffic data
A summary of the traffic and axle weight survey results.
Description of geology and soils
A description of regional and local geology (lithology and expected stratigraphy) and
soils, identifying general characteristics and expected problems.
Description of field and laboratory investigations

This part of the report should include a comprehensive discussion of the type of
investigative methods employed, including:

• date of execution,
• number and locality of tests,
• test procedures,
• equipment used,
• limitations e.g. limited depth of excavation (shallow rock-heads), and
• relevant observations.

Results
Summaries of the test data and results are generally presented in their raw format
without interpretation, classification or characterisation, but may be summarised in table
or graph format for ease of reference. This data is fully defendable and does not not
include any interpretive analysis.
Actual profile records, laboratory test results and data sheets and other supplementary
data should be presented in appendixes.

10.2.3 Interpretive Information

This section of the report presents an interpretation and discussion of the factual data,
highlighting constraints/flaws relevant to the proposed development and summarising
the interpretations of the results.
Issues such as uniform sections, problem subgrades, areas of poor drainage, potential
slope stability problems, etc. are discussed herein and populated with design information.
As far as practical, the results should be presented in tabular or graphical format

87
including drawings where necessary. The data should present appropriate design
parameters for the determination of the pavement structure, earthwork batters, bridge
foundations, etc. It is also useful to provide a measure of the confidence in the
parameters presented, either on a statistical basis or based on experience and
judgement.
The level of interpretation and the detail of the data presented will be governed by the
level of investigation and phase of progress in the execution of the development.
Interpretation of the data depends on the knowledge and experience of the analyst and
may vary from person to person. This can be contested by other engineers with different
opinions and can only be defended by the original analyst.

10.2.4 Additional Work

Depending on the phase of investigation, the report should conclude with
recommendations for further investigations to be undertaken to address any
shortcomings in the available data. This is particularly relevant to problem soils, poor
drainage conditions, potential slope instability, etc. that may require additional
specialised geotechnical input. Other factors such as the need for detailed axle weight
surveys or additional material location investigations are typical of this type of need.
This should not be seen as a deficiency in the investigation process, but rather a means
to address unforeseen conditions in a timely manner.

10.2.5 Validation during Construction

Additional investigations or at least an assessment of the ground conditions exposed
during construction can often result in significant construction cost and time savings.
Similarly, excavation of borrow pits and preparation of quarries may often identify
alternative cost-effective materials for use on the project.

10.2.6 Annexures
The list of annexes to the report varies in accordance with the nature and complexity of
the report, but typically should include:
• Topographic survey reports
• Traffic survey reports
• Geological and soil reports
• Test hole profiles and borehole logs
• In-situ test results
• Laboratory test results
• Drawings

10.3 Storage and archiving of reports and supporting documents

All supporting documents, including investigation records, test results, etc. should be
stored for a minimum period of ten years after completion of the project.
A hard copy of at least the latest revision of the report should be kept on file or in
archives for as long as practically possible. Electronic copies of all issued revisions of the
report should be kept for as long as practical.

88
11 Bibliography
AfCAP, 2017a. Climate Adaptation: Risk Management and Resilience Optimisation for
Vulnerable Road Access in Africa: Climate Threats and Vulnerability Assessment
Guidelines, (Le Roux, Makhanya, Arnold and Mwenge Kahinda). AfCAP Project
GEN2014C.
AfCAP. 2017b. Climate Adaptation: Risk Management and Resilience Optimisation for
Vulnerable Road Access in Africa: Engineering Adaptation Guidelines (Paige-Green,
Verhaeghe and Head). AfCAP Project GEN2014C.
Brink ABA and Bruin, R. 2001 (2nd Impression). Guidelines for Soil and Rock Logging
in South Africa, Proceedings, Geoterminology Workshop organised by AEG, SAICE
and SAIEG, 1990.
Jennings, JE and Brink, ABA. 1961. A guide to soil profiling for civil engineering
purposes in South Africa. Trans. South Afr. Instn Civ Engnrs., Vol 3 (8), 145-151.
Jennings JE, Brink ABA & Williams AAB (1973) Revised guide to soil profiling for civil
engineering purposes in southern Africa, The Civil Engineer in South Africa, Jan 1973
Trans SAICE, Vol 15 No 1.
National Road Administration (ANE), 2012. Normas de Execucao
National Road Administration (ANE), 2017. Geometric Design Manual.
National Road Administration (ANE), 2017. Pavement Design Manual.
National Road Administration (ANE), 2017. Hydrology and Drainage Design Manual.
TRL (2005). Overseas Road Note 5: A Guide to Road Project Appraisal. Wokingham:
TRL Limited

UIC 719R: 2008. Earthworks and track bed for railway lines. (This is the closest
reference that I can find???)
https://earlywarning.usgs.gov/fews/product/259
https://www.humanitarianlibrary.org/sites/default/files/2013/05/moz-seismic.pdf)

89
Appendix A Dynamic Cone Penetrometer

A.1 Introduction
The Dynamic Cone Penetrometer (DCP) is an instrument which can be used for the rapid
measurement of the in-situ strength of existing pavements constructed with unbound
materials. Measurements can be made down to a depth of approximately 800mm or,
when an extension rod is fitted, to a depth of 1200mm. Where pavement layers have
different strengths, the boundaries between them can be identified and the thickness of
each layer estimated.
DCP tests are particularly useful for identifying the cause of road deterioration when it is
associated with one of the unbound pavement layers, e.g. shear failure of the road base
or sub-base. A comparison between DCP test results from sub-sections that are just
beginning to fail and those that are sound will quickly identify the pavement layer which
is the cause of the problem.
It is usually convenient to convert the individual pavement layer thicknesses and
strengths measured in the DCP test into a structural number.
If it is suspected that the road failures are related to the overall structural strength of
the pavement, the Modified Structural Number of different sub-sections can be readily
compared to identify the weakness.

A.2 DCP test procedure

The DCP uses an 8kg hammer dropping through a height of 575mm and a 60° cone
having a maximum diameter of 20mm.
The instrument is assembled as shown in
Figure A-1 . It is supplied with two spanners and a tommy bar to ensure that the
screwed joints are kept tight at all times. To assist in this the following joints should be
secured with a non-hardening thread locking compound prior to use:
i. Handle/hammer shaft
ii. Coupling/hammer shaft
iii. Standard shaft/cone
The instrument is usually split at the joint between the standard shaft and the coupling
for carriage and storage and therefore it is not usual to use locking compound at this
joint. However, it is important that this joint is checked regularly during use to ensure
that it does not become loose. Operating the DCP with any loose joints will significantly
reduce the life of the instrument.

A.3 Operation
A safe working environment should always be maintained. Many organisations will have
on-site safety procedures which should be followed. Where there are no local safety
procedures those in TRL’s Overseas Road Note 2 are recommended.

After assembly, the first task is to record the zero reading of the instrument. This is done
by standing the DCP on a hard surface, such as concrete, checking that it is vertical and
then entering the zero reading in the appropriate place on pro-forma (See

90
 1

2
Key:-
1 Handle
2 Hammer (8kg)
3 Hammer shaft
4 Coupling
5 Handguard
6 Clamp ring
7 Standard shaft 3
8 1 metre rule
9 60° cone

Ø 20mm

9
60° INC

Figure A-1 ).

Figure A-1 Dynamic Cone Penetrometer

The DCP usually needs three operators, one to hold the instrument, one to raise and
drop the weight and a technician to record the readings. The instrument is held vertically,
and the weight raised to just touch the handle. Care should be taken to ensure that the

91
weight is touching the handle, but not lifting the instrument, before it is dropped. The
operator must let it fall freely and not partially lower it with his hands.
It is recommended that a reading should be taken at increments of penetration of about
10mm. However, it is usually easier to take a reading after a set number of blows. It is
therefore necessary to change the number of blows between readings, according to the
strength of the layer being penetrated. For good quality granular bases readings every 5
or 10 blows are usually satisfactory but for weaker sub-base layers and subgrades
readings every 1 or 2 blows may be appropriate. There is no disadvantage in taking too
many readings, but if readings are taken too infrequently, weak spots may be missed
and it will be more difficult to identify layer boundaries accurately, hence important
information will be lost.
When the extended version of the DCP is used, the instrument is driven into the
pavement to a depth of 400-500mm before the extension shaft can be added. To do this
the metre rule is detached from its base plate and the shaft is split to accept the
extension shaft. After re-assembly, a penetration reading is taken before the test is
continued.
After completing the test, the DCP is removed by tapping the weight upwards against
the handle. Care should be taken when doing this; if it is done too vigorously the life of
the instrument will be reduced.
Care must be exercised in carrying out the DCP survey by discarding any measurements
which could produce anomalous results. Such results could arise, for example, where
large stones occur in the pavement layer (Figure A-2).

(a) Cone (b) Cone breaks stone. DCP (c) Rod pushed aside and tilts (d) Normal
cannot profile shows a plateau and at an angle. Excessive friction result
penetrate subsequent readings may be low. on rod gives low reading

Figure A-2 DCP effects where large stones are present

The DCP can be driven through surface dressings but it is recommended that thick
bituminous surfacings are drilled or cored prior to testing the lower layers. This should
be done using as little lubricating water as possible to avoid wetting the layer below and
obtaining incorrect strength readings. Little difficulty is normally experienced with the
penetration of most types of granular or lightly stabilised materials. It is more difficult to
penetrate strongly stabilised layers, granular materials with large particles and very
dense, high quality crushed stone. The TRL instrument has been designed for strong
materials and therefore the operator should persevere with the test. Penetration rates as
low as 0.5mm/blow are acceptable but if there is no measurable penetration after 20
consecutive blows then it can be assumed that the DCP will not penetrate the material.
Under these circumstances a hole can be drilled through the layer using an electric or

92
pneumatic drill, or by dry coring. The lower pavement layers can then be tested in the
normal way. If only occasional difficulties are experienced in penetrating granular
materials, it is worthwhile repeating any failed tests a short distance away from the
original test point.
If, during the test, the DCP leans away from the vertical, no attempt should be made to
correct it because contact between the shaft and the sides of the hole can give rise to an
overestimate of subgrade strength because of friction on the road. Where there is a
substantial thickness of granular material, and when estimates of the actual subgrade
strength are required (rather than relative values) it is recommended that a hole is
drilled through the granular layer prior to testing the lower layers.
It is always advisable to check that side friction has not influenced the result of a DCP
test. This is easily done by attempting to twist the shaft when the DCP is at full
penetration. If the shaft cannot be spun reasonably easily between the fingers, then
there is too much side friction and the test should be repeated. The erroneous test
should be marked as such but not abandoned because the side friction problem may not
have arisen for the first part of the test.
If the DCP is used extensively for hard materials, wear on the cone itself will be
accelerated. The cone is a replaceable part and it is recommended by other authorities
that it should be replaced when it is no longer sharp. However, other causes of wear can
also occur hence the cone should be inspected before every test.
The results of the DCP test are usually recorded on a field data sheet like that shown in
Error! Reference source not found.. The results can then either be plotted by hand,
as shown in Figure A-4, or processed by computer.

93
Figure A-3 DCP Test Form

94
 No. of blows

0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180 200 220

216mm bituminous surfacing

100
(Direct measurement)
200
*
284mm crushed stone roadbase
**
300 ** DCP = 1.9 mm/blow
** *
**
** * CBR = > 100 per cent
400 **
***
**
* ** 110mm Sub-base 1
500 *
**
** DCP = 3.4 mm/blow
*
600 ** CBR = 83 per cent
*
*
700 *
*
150mm Sub-base 2
Depth (mm)

*
* DCP = 5.1 mm/blow
*
800 * CBR = 54 per cent
*
*
900 *
*
1000
* Subgrade
*
1100 DCP = 27.1 mm/blow
*
* CBR = 9 per cent
1200 *

Figure A-4 Typical DCP test result

A.4 Interpretation of results

Relationships between DCP readings and CBR have been obtained by several research
authorities (see Figure A-5). Agreement is generally good over most of the range, but
differences are apparent at low values of CBR in fine-grained materials. It is expected
that for such materials the relationship between DCP and CBR will depend on material
state and therefore, if more precise values are needed it is advisable to calibrate the DCP
for the material being evaluated.
It is often convenient to convert the individual pavement layer thicknesses and strengths
measured in the DCP test into a structural number.
If it is suspected that the road failures are related to the overall structural strength of
the pavement, the Modified Structural Number of different sub-sections can be readily
compared to identify the weakness.

95
 Figure A-5 DCP – CBR relationships

After assembly, the first task is to record the zero reading of the instrument. This is done
by standing the DCP on a hard surface, such as concrete, checking that it is vertical and
then entering the zero reading in the appropriate place on the pro-forma (See Figure
A-2).
The DCP needs three operators, one to hold the instrument, one to raise and drop the
weight and a technician to record the readings. The instrument is held vertical and the
weight raised to the handle. Care should be taken to ensure that the weight is touching
the handle, but not lifting the instrument, before it is dropped. The operator must let it
fall freely and not partially lower it with his hands.
It is recommended that a reading should be taken at increments of penetration of about
10mm. However, it is usually easier to take a reading after a set number of blows. It is
therefore necessary to change the number of blows between readings, according to the
strength of the layer being penetrated. For good quality granular bases readings every 5
or 10 blows are usually satisfactory but for weaker sub-base layers and subgrades
readings every 1 or 2 blows may be appropriate. There is no disadvantage in taking too
many readings, but if readings are taken too infrequently, weak spots may be missed
and it will be more difficult to identify layer boundaries accurately, hence important
information will be lost.

96
When the extended version of the DCP is used, the instrument is driven into the
pavement to a depth of 400-500mm before the extension shaft can be added. To do this
the metre rule is detached from its base plate and the shaft is split to accept the
extension shaft. After re-assembly, a penetration reading is taken before the test is
continued.
After completing the test, the DCP is removed by tapping the weight upwards against
the handle. Care should be taken when doing this; if it is done too vigorously the life of
the instrument will be reduced.
The DCP can be driven through surface dressings but it is recommended that thick
bituminous surfacings are cored prior to testing the lower layers. This should be done
using as little lubricating water as possible to avoid wetting the layer below and
obtaining an incorrect strength reading. Little difficulty is normally experienced with the
penetration of most types of granular or lightly stabilised materials. It is more difficult to
penetrate strongly stabilised layers, granular materials with large particles and very
dense, high quality crushed stone. The TRL instrument has been designed for strong
materials and therefore the operator should persevere with the test. Penetration rates as
low as 0.5mm/blow are acceptable but if there is no measurable penetration after 20
consecutive blows then it can be assumed that the DCP will not penetrate the material.
Under these circumstances a hole can be drilled through the layer using an electric or
pneumatic drill, or by dry coring. The lower pavement layers can then be tested in the
normal way. If only occasional difficulties are experienced in penetrating granular
materials, it is worthwhile repeating any failed tests a short distance away from the
original test point.
If, during the test, the DCP leans away from the vertical, no attempt should be made to
correct it because contact between the shaft and the sides of the hole can give rise to an
overestimate of subgrade strength because of friction on the rod caused by either tilted
penetration through, or collapse of, any upper granular pavement layers. Where there is
a substantial thickness of granular material, and when estimates of the actual subgrade
strength are required (rather than relative values) it is recommended that a hole is
drilled through the granular layer prior to testing the lower layers.
It is always advisable to check that side friction has not influenced the result of a DCP
test. This is easily done by attempting to twist the shaft when the DCP is at full
penetration. If the shaft cannot be spun reasonably easily between the fingers, then
there is too much side friction and the test should be repeated. The erroneous test
should be marked as such but not abandoned because the side friction problem may not
have arisen for the first part of the test.
If the DCP is used extensively for hard materials, wear on the cone itself will be
accelerated. The cone is a replaceable part and it is recommended by other authorities
that it should be replaced when its diameter is reduced by 10 per cent. However, other
causes of wear can also occur hence the cone should be inspected before every test.

97
Appendix B Soil Profile Description
It is imperative that all descriptions of soil profiles in borrow pits, test pits in the road or
anywhere else related to the pavement are carried out in a consistent and repeatable
manner. The process widely employed in southern Africa is based on six primary
parameters are as described below.

B.1 Moisture condition

Assessment of the moisture condition is a precursor to the estimation of consistency
which is largely dependent on the moisture content at the time of inspection. The
following descriptors are used for the moisture evaluation.
Dry, slightly moist, moist, very moist, wet.
Slightly moist materials are near the optimum moisture condition while very moist soils
require drying to attain optimum moisture content. Wet soils generally come from below
the water table. The moisture content is, however, highly dependent on the grain size of
the soil, e.g., a sand with a moisture content of 5% to 10% will be observed to be wet,
while a clay at the same moisture content would may be dry or only slightly moist.

B.2 Colour
A repeatable description of the predominant colours of the soil assists with the
correlation of different layers/strata on a site. The description should be limited to two
colours, e.g., reddish brown or blue-green. Secondary colour patterns can be described
according to their size limits as shown in Table B-1. A typical description for an alluvial
clay would be ‘light grey mottled yellow’.
Colour as observed in the soil profile is difficult to describe and few observers agree
when their observations are made subjectively. The use of Munsell colour charts and a
soil wet to a standard degree makes the results more consistent. An experienced
observer, however, will describe colour consistently without recourse to colour charts.

Table B-1 Description of secondary colour term

Term Description

Speckled Very small patches of colour (< 2 mm)

Mottled Irregular patches of colour (2 - 6 mm)
Blotched Large irregular patches of colour (6 - 20 mm)
Banded Approximately parallel bands of varying colour
Streaked Randomly orientated streaks of colour
Stained Local colour variations: associated with discontinuity surfaces

B.3 Consistency
The consistency is a measure of the hardness or toughness of the soil. It is based on
observation of the effort required to dig into the soil, or alternatively to mould it with the
fingers. Since these operations involve shearing, the assessment of consistency is, in
fact, a rough measure of its shear strength.
The separation of soils into cohesive and non-cohesive classes to describe consistency
arises because of differences in permeability or drainage characteristics which profoundly
affect their shear strengths.
Table B-2 and Table B-3 summarise the descriptors for the consistency of granular and
cohesive materials respectively.

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 Table B-2 Description of consistency of granular materials
Consistency Gravels and clean sands. Typical dry Saturated SPT
Generally free-draining density (kg/m3) Blow counts
(cohesionless materials) (N)
Very loose Crumbles very easily when < 1450 <4
scraped with a geological pick
Loose Small resistance to penetration by 1451 - 1600 5 – 10
sharp end of geological pick
Medium dense Considerable resistance to 1601 - 1750 11 – 30
penetration by sharp end of
geological pick
Dense Very high resistance to 1750 - 1925 31 – 50
penetration by sharp end of
geological pick: requires many
blows of pick for excavation
Very dense High resistance to repeated blows >1925 >50
of geological pick: requires power
tools for excavation

Table B-3 Description of consistency of cohesive materials

(Note last column deleted)
Consistency Silts and clays and Unconfined Approximate
combinations thereof with compressive Saturated
sand. Generally slow strength SPT Blow
draining (cohesive (kN/m2) counts
materials Φ = 0) Sensitive
silts and
clays (N)
Very soft Pick head can easily be < 50 <2
pushed in to the shaft of the
handle: easily moulded by
fingers
Soft Easily penetrated by thumb; 50 - 125 2-4
sharp end of pick can be
pushed in 30 – 40 mm;
moulded with some pressure
Firm Indented by thumb with 126 - 250 5-8
effort; sharp end of pick can
be pushed in up to 10 mm;
very difficult to mould with
fingers; can just be
penetrated with an ordinary
hand spade
Stiff Penetrated by thumb nail; 251 - 500 9 - 15
slight indentation produced
when by pushing pick point
into soil: cannot be moulded
by fingers; requires hand pick
for excavation
Very stiff Indented by thumb nail with 501 - 1000 16 - 520
difficulty; slight indentation
produced by blow of pick
point: requires power tools
for excavation

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B.4 Structure
This term indicates the presence (or absence) of discontinuities in the soil and their
nature. Non-cohesive soils exhibit a granular structure and since this is an invariable
feature it is usually not recorded. Cohesive soils exhibit several types of structural
characteristics (Table B-4).

Table B-4 Description of soil structure

Term Identification
Intact Structureless, no discontinuities identified
Fissured Soil contains discontinuities which may be open or closed,
stained or unstained and of variable origin

Slickensided This term qualifies other terms to describe discontinuity

surfaces which are smooth or glossy and possibly striated as a
result of previous volumetric movements
Shattered Very closely to extremely closely spaced continuities resulting
in gravel sized soil fragments which are usually stiff to very
stiff and difficult to break down
Micro-shattered As above, but sand-sized fragments
Stratified and laminated and These and other accepted geological terms may be used to
foliated describe sedimentary structures in transported soils and relict
structures in residual soils
Pinholed Pinhole-sized voids or pores (up to say 2 mm) which may
require a hand lens to identify
Honeycombed Like pinholed but voids and pores >2 mm; (pore size may be
specified in mm)
Matrix supported Clasts supported by matrix
Clast supported Clasts touching (matrix may or may not be present)

B.5 Soil texture

The soil texture is a representation of grain size and the classes are shown in Table B-5.
In describing boulders, cobbles and gravels, care should be given to the description of
the matrix and, in particular the percentage it occupies. The shape of larger particles
often aids the interpretation of origin:
• well-rounded (nearly spherical)
• rounded (tending to oval shape)
• sub-rounded (all corners rounded off)
• sub-angular (corners slightly bevelled)
• angular (corners sharp or irregular)

Most natural soils are a combination of one or more textures. The adjective is used to
denote the lesser type, e.g. a silty clay is a clay with some silt whereas a silt-clay has
approximately equal proportions of silt and clay.

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 Table B-5 Description of soil texture
Grain size Classification Individual Mineralogical Identification
(mm) particles visible composition test
using
<0.002 Clay Electron Secondary Feels sticky or
microscope minerals (clays soapy. Soils
and iron oxides) hands. Shiny
when wet
0.002 - 0.06 Silt Microscope Primary and Chalky feel on
secondary teeth. When dry
minerals rubs off hands.
Dilatant
0.06 – 0.2 Fine sand Hand lens Primary minerals Gritty feel on
(mainly quartz) teeth
0.2 – 0.6 Medium sand Naked eye Primary minerals Observed with
(mainly quartz) naked eye
0.6 – 2.0 Coarse sand Naked eye Primary minerals Observed with
(mainly quartz) naked eye
2.0 – 6.0 Fine gravel Naked eye Primary minerals Observed with
(mainly quartz) naked eye
6.0 – 20.0 Medium gravel Naked eye Primary minerals Observed with
(mainly quartz) naked eye
20.0 – 60.0 Coarse gravel Naked eye Primary minerals Observed with
(mainly quartz) naked eye
60.0 - 200 Cobbles Naked eye Primary minerals Observed with
(mainly quartz) naked eye
>200 Boulders Naked eye Primary minerals Observed with
(mainly quartz) naked eye

Origin
An attempt should be made to determine the origin of the soil in each layer of the soil
profile. This is generally quite easy in the case of residual soils below the pebble marker
(where one exists) but may prove more difficult in the transported soil zone.

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Appendix C Rock Classification
It is important that rock types are classified as accurately as possible as their individual
properties depend primarily on their type and characteristics such as mineralogy and
grain size. Additional detail on the main types of rock discussed in Chapter 5.1 is
provided in this Appendix.
Igneous rocks are most easily classified based on their particle size and the proportion
of silica in the materials as shown in Table C-1.

Table C-1 Classification of Igneous Rocks

Acidity/Grain Acid Intermediate Basic
size (> 66% Si) (52-66% Si) (45-52% Si)
(> 10% quartz) (< 10% quartz) (No quartz)
Coarse granite diorite gabbro (peridotite)
> 3 mm
Medium microgranite syenite dolerite (diabase)
1 – 5 mm
Fine rhyolite andesite basalt
< 1 mm quartz porphyry

Although the grain size is generally easy to quantify, the identification of the minerals,
particularly quartz, requires some experience. However, an initial indication of the
dominant rock types in the area from the geological map will assist in classifying the
rocks. For use as aggregate in roads or concrete, it is also important to determine other
properties such as aggregate strength and durability.
Sedimentary rocks are classified on the basis of their mode of formation and their
particle size. The clastic rocks are further classified as a function of their constituent
particle sizes as defined in Table C-2. Organic materials are classified by the dominant
mineral making up their composition, as are chemical deposits.

Table C-2 Classification of Sedimentary Rocks

Clastic Organic Chemical
(fragments of older rock) (carbon(ate), silicate or (precipitated in
phosphate) water)
Rudaceous (conglomerate) Limestone (carbonate) Limestone/dolomite
Arenaceous (sandstone) Chert (silica) (carbonates)
Argillaceous (shale and siltstone) Coal (carbon) Chert (silica)
Tillite (mixed sizes) Phosphates (phosphorous) Evaporites (salts)
Breccia (fractured rock) Bone beds (bones) Iron ores (iron
oxides)

Table C-3 Classification of sedimentary rock particle sizes

Particle description Size Identification
Cobbles and boulders 64 -256 mm Measurable (tape measure)
Gravel 2 - 64 mm Easily discernible by eye
Sand 0.075 to 2 mm Discernible by eye and touch
Silt 0.002 to 0.075 mm Gritty feel when ground by teeth
Clay < 0 002 mm Not visible – often sticky and stains fingers

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There is a wide range of mechanisms for classifying metamorphic rocks, which are more
difficult than other rocks as they are the products of raised temperatures, high
pressures and chemical fluid actions. The temperature effects result in alteration of the
composition and structure of the minerals while the pressure effects tend to lead to
crushing, fracturing and re-orientation of the minerals. The chemical fluids modify the
chemical composition of the minerals. Reorientation of the minerals results in unique
appearances of many metamorphic rocks with lineation of the minerals, together with
the development of planes of weakness in certain directions of reorientation, leading to
anisotropy (or foliation) in the materials. The classification system most easily applied in
the field makes use of the mineral particle size as well as whether the rocks show
foliation or are massive and is summarised in Table C-4.

Table C-4 Simplified classification of Metamorphic Rocks

Fabric/Grain size Foliated Massive/non-foliated*
Coarse-grained Rock appears to be a complex Rock contains randomly
(> 2 mm) intermix of metamorphic schists orientated mineral grains (fine-
and gneisses and granular igneous to coarse-grained). Foliation, if
rock. Foliations tend to be irregular present, is poorly developed.
and are best seen in field exposure: This rock type is essentially a
MIGMATITE product of thermal
metamorphism associated with
Rock contains abundant quartz igneous intrusions and is
and/or feldspar. Often the rock generally stronger than the
consists of alternating layers of parent rock:
light coloured quartz and/or HORNFELS
feldspar with layers of dark
coloured biotite and hornblende. Rock contains more than 50%
Foliation is often best seen in field calcite (reacts violently with
exposure: dilute HCl), is generally light in
GNEISS colour with a granular texture:
MARBLE
Rock consists mainly of large platy
crystals of mica, showing a distinct If the major constituent is
subparallel or parallel preferred dolomite instead of calcite
orientation. Foliation is well (dolomite does not react
developed and often undulose: immediately with dilute HCl),
SCHIST then the rock is termed a:
Medium-grained DOLOMITIC MARBLE
(0.06 -2 mm) Rock consists of medium- to fine
grained platy, prismatic or needle-
like minerals with a preferred Rock is medium to coarse-
orientation. Foliation often slightly grained with a granular texture
undulose due to isolated larger and is often banded. This rock
crystals which give rise to a spotted type is associated with regional
appearance: metamorphism:
PHYLLITE GRANULITE

Rock consists of very fine grains Rock consists mainly of quartz

Fine-grained (individual grains cannot be (95%) grains which are
(< 0.06 mm) recognized in hand specimen) with generally randomly orientated
a preferred orientation such that giving rise to a granular texture:
the rock splits easily into thin METAQUARTZITE
plates:
SLATE
* It is often difficult to assess the particle size of the massive/non-foliated materials due
to their almost mono-mineralic nature.

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