INSTRUMENTATION

AND
MEASUREMENTS
Chapter 2
Measurement Planning
and
Error Analysis
School of Mechatronic Engineering
Dr. Mohammed Saeed
m.saeed@ust.edu
 Generalized Measurement
System

Measurand

Measurand:
• Numerical values for certain physical variables
• E.g. Temperature, velocity and voltage
 Generalized Measurement
System

Measurand Sensing
element

Sensing Element:
• Changes in response to changes in measurand
 Generalized Measurement
System

Measurand Signal
Sensing
modification
element
subsystem

Signal Modification System:

• Changes the output of the sensing element to make it more suitable for the indicating recording
devices
 Generalized Measurement
System

Measurand Signal
Sensing Indicator or
modification
element recorder
subsystem

Indicator or Recorder:
• User reads the output / copies it to paper (indicator)
• Output is automatically saved (recorder)
• Computer
Generalized Measurement
System

Measurand: Temperature

Sensing Element: Liquid in Bulb

Signal Modification System: Diameter

of the thermometer capillary relative to
bulb volume

Indicator or Recorder: Scale

Validity of Measurement – Error
and Other Important Terms

Error
– Difference between measured value and the true value of the
measured
– Error = measured value – true value
– Systematic & random errors
Systematic & random errors
 Measurement Error

Systematic errors
• ≡ Fixed or bias error
• Consistent, repeatable errors
• Source:
Calibration errors (error during calibration)
Loading errors (medium)
Spatial errors (other variables)

• Systematic error= average of readings – true value

 Measurement Error

Random errors
• ≡ Precision errors
• Caused by a lack of repeatability in the output
of the measurand system
• Random error= reading – average readings
• Source of errors
– Uncontrolled variables in measurement
 Maximum random error

To estimate the maximum random error, we need to determine the

reading that deviates the most from the average reading
Measurement Error - Example

Example:
In a calibration test, 10 measurements using a digital voltmeter have
been made of the voltage of a battery that is known to have a true
voltage of 6.11 V. The readings are: 5.98, 6.05, 6.10, 6.06, 5.99, 5.96,
6.02, 6.09, 6.03 and 5.99 V. Estimate the systematic and maximum
random errors caused by the voltmeter.
Measurement Error - Example

Steps
– determine average, calculate systematic error; determine the most deviate
reading, calculate maximum random error

Answers:
Average V = 6.03 V
Systematic error = -0.08 V
Maximum random error = -0.07 V / +0.07 V
Measurement Error – Important
Terms
Range
– Values of the measurand to which that measuring system will
respond properly
Span
– Difference between the upper and lower value of the range
Measurement Error – Important
Terms
Accuracy
– Closeness of agreement between measured value and the true
value
Precision
– Random error
– A highly precise measuring system simply give the same value
each time it is read, but it may not be accurate
 Measurement Error – Important
Terms

Precision and accuracy are two ways that scientists think about error. Accuracy refers to how
close a measurement is to the true or accepted value. Precision refers to how close measurements
of the same item are to each other. Precision is independent of accuracy.
Measurement Error – Important
Terms

Accuracy as a percentage of full scale

 Measurement Error
– Important Terms

Hysteresis errors
• Effects of friction, mechanical flexure
of internal parts, electrical capacitance

Effect of hysteresis on instrument reading

 Measurement Error – Important
Terms
Resolution
• Random error
• Inability of measurement system to follow
changes in the measurand exactly

The left half has a low sample rate, and the right
half has a high sample rate (ie. high resolution)
https://www.e-education.psu.edu/natureofgeoinfo/book/export/html/1782
Measurement Error – Important
Terms
Readability

Ability of a device to produce the same output reading when the same
measured is applied using the same procedure
Measurement Error – Important
Terms
Linear relationship
• Change in output is proportional to the change in the value of the measurand
• Deviation from true linearity when linearity is assumed = linearity error
Zero or null point
• E.g. A weight scale should read zero pounds when there is no weight on the
platform
Sensitivity
• The ratio of the change in magnitude of the output to the change in magnitude
of the measurand
• Determine during calibration process
Measurement Error – Important
Terms
Calibration of Measurement
Systems
Calibration

• A process in which a set of measurements are made of measurand

values that can be determined independently.

• Setting or correcting of a measuring device, usually by adjusting it to

match or conform to a dependably known and unvarying measure

• The readings can be compared to the known “true” values and the
errors determined.
Calibration of Measurement
Systems
Static Calibration

• Measurements of known values of the measurand

• Using known values of measurand, or determine values of some
measurands using other system with known accuracy

Dynamic Calibration

• When measurand is changing in time and the measuring system does

not show instantaneous response