Introduction

DATA COMMUNICATIONS
• The term telecommunication means communication at a
distance. The word data refers to information presented in
whatever form is agreed upon by the parties creating and using
the data.

• Data communications are the exchange of data between two

devices via some form of transmission medium such as a wire
cable or may be wireless.
 Effectiveness of Data Communication

Four Fundamental Characteristics

• Delivery
• Accuracy
• Timeliness - -real time
• Jitter
Components of a Data Communication
System
Continue…

Five Components:

• Message- Text, Number, Image, Audio, Video

• Sender
• Receiver
• Transmission Medium
• Protocol
Data flow (Simplex, Half-duplex, and
Full-duplex
 NETWORKS

• A network is a set of devices (often referred to as nodes)

connected by communication links. A node can be a
computer, printer, or any other device capable of
sending and/or receiving data generated by other nodes
on the network.

• A link can be a cable, air, optical fiber, or any medium

which can transport a signal carrying information.
 Network Criteria
• Performance
– Depends on Network Elements- Transmit time, Response Time, Number
of users, type of transmission medium, hardware, software.
– Measured in terms of Delay and Throughput
• Reliability
– Failure rate of network components.
– Time to recover from a failure.
– Measured in terms of availability/robustness
• Security
– Data protection against corruption/loss of data due to:
– Errors
– Malicious users/ Unauthorized access.
 Physical Structures

• Type of Connection
– Point to Point - single transmitter and receiver
– Multipoint - multiple recipients of single transmission
• Physical Topology
– Connection of devices
– Type of transmission - unicast, mulitcast, broadcast
Types of connections: point-to-point and
multipoint
 Uses of Computer Network
• Business Applications
• Home Applications
• Mobile Users
• Social Issues
 Business Applications

• Resource sharing such as printers and storage

devices

• Exchange of information by means of e-Mails and

FTP
Business Applications (1)

A network with two clients and one

server
 Business Applications (2)

The client-server model involves requests and replies

 Home Applications (1)

In a peer-to-peer system there are no fixed clients

and servers.
Home Applications (2)

Some forms of e-commerce

 Mobile Users

Combinations of wireless networks and mobile

computing
 Social Issues

• Network neutrality
• Digital Millennium Copyright Act
• Profiling users
• Phishing
 PROTOCOLS
• A protocol is synonymous with rule. It consists of a set of
rules that govern data communications. It determines what is
communicated, how it is communicated and when it is
communicated.
• The key elements of a protocol are
– Syntax
– Semantics
– Timing
 Elements of a Protocol
• Syntax
– Structure or format of the data
– Indicates how to read the bits - field delineation
• Semantics
– Interprets the meaning of the bits
– Knows which fields define what action
• Timing
– When data should be sent and what
– Speed at which data should be sent or speed at which it is being
received.
 Types of Network
• Wired Networks • Mobile Networks
- high bandwidth - low bandwidth
- low bandwidth variability - high bandwidth variability
- can listen on wire - hidden terminal problem
- high power machines - low power machines
- high resource machines - low resource machines
- low delay - higher delay
- connected operation - disconnected operation

-No Mobility. Mobility.

The End
 Network
Software Architecture and its
Layers and Protocols
CSE306
 Network Software
• Protocol Hierarchies
• Design Issues for the Layers
• Connection-Oriented and Connectionless Services
• Service Primitives
• The Relationship of Services to Protocols
 Network Software
Protocol Hierarchies

• Layers, protocols, and interfaces- Network Architecture

• A protocol is an agreement between the communicating parties
on how communication is to proceed.

• The entities comprising the corresponding layers on different

machines are called peers. The peers may be software processes,
hardware devices, or even human beings. In other words, it is the
peers that communicate by using the protocol to talk to each other.

• A list of the protocols used by a certain system, one protocol per

layer, is called a protocol stack.
 Protocol Hierarchies (2)
• The philosopher-translator-secretary architecture.
 Protocol Hierarchies (3)
• Example information flow supporting virtual
communication in layer 5.
 Design Issues for the Layers

• Addressing or naming
• Error Control
• Flow Control---Congestion
• Statistical Multiplexing
• Routing
• Scalable
• QoS---real time
• Reliability
• Security
 Connection-Oriented and Connectionless
Services
• A circuit is another name for a connection with associated
resources, such as a fixed bandwidth.
• This dates from the telephone network in which a circuit was a
path over copper wire that carried a phone conversation.
• In contrast to connection-oriented service, connectionless service
is modeled after the postal system.
• Each message (letter) carries the full destination address, and each
one is routed through the intermediate nodes inside the system
independent of all the subsequent messages.
• Store or forward switching
• Cut through switching
• Each kind of service can further be characterized by its reliability. Some
services are reliable in the sense that they never lose data.

• Usually, a reliable service is implemented by having the receiver

acknowledge the receipt of each message so the sender is sure that it arrived.

• Reliable connection-oriented service has two minor variations: message

sequences and byte streams.

• The acknowledgement process introduces overhead and delays, which are

often worth it but are sometimes undesirable.

• One such application is digitized voice traffic for voice over IP.

• Unreliable (meaning not acknowledged) connectionless service is often

called datagram service.
Connection-Oriented and Connectionless
Services
• Six different types of service.
 Service Primitives

• Five service primitives for implementing a simple

connection-oriented service.
 Service Primitives (2)

• Packets sent in a simple client-server interaction

on a connection-oriented network.
 Services to Protocols Relationship
• The relationship between a service and a protocol.
Network Hardware and its
Topologies

CSE306
 Categories of Networks

• Personal area networks

• Local Area networks
• Metropolitan Area networks
• Wide Area networks
• Wireless Networks
• Home Networks
• Internetworks- The Internet
Personal Area Network

Bluetooth PAN configuration

 Local Area Networks (LANs)
– Short distances
– Designed to provide local interconnectivity

Wireless and wired LANs. (a) 802.11. (b) Switched

Ethernet.
Isolated LAN connecting 12 computers to a hub in a
closet
 Wide Area Networks (WANs)

– Long distances
– Provide connectivity over large areas
WANs: a switched WAN and a
point-to-point WAN
A heterogeneous network made of four WANs and two LAN

1.8
 Metropolitan Area Networks (MANs)
• Provide connectivity over areas such as a city, a campus
• A metropolitan area network based on cable TV or telephone
cable using DSL
Wireless Networks

• (a) Bluetooth configuration

• (b) Wireless LAN
 Wireless Networks

• (a) Individual mobile computers

• (b) A flying LAN
 Home Network Categories
• Computers (desktop PC, PDA, shared peripherals
• Entertainment (TV, DVD, VCR, camera, stereo, MP3)
• Telecomm (telephone, cell phone, intercom, fax)
• Appliances (microwave, fridge, clock, furnace, airco)
• Telemetry (utility meter, burglar alarm, babycam).
 THE INTERNET
• Inter connection of two or more networks become an
internet.

• The Internet has revolutionized many aspects of our daily

lives. It has affected the way we do business as well as the
way we spend our leisure time.

• The Internet is a communication system that has brought a

wealth of information to our fingertips and organized it for
our use.
Hierarchical organization of the Internet
 Broadcast Networks

• Classification of interconnected processors by scale.

 Network Topology

• The topology of a network defines how the nodes of a

network are connected.
• The shape of the cabling layout used to link devices is called
the physical topology of the network.
• The logical topology, in contrast, is the way that the signals
act on the network media, or the way that the data passes
through the network from one device to the next without
regard to the physical interconnection of the devices.
Categories of Physical Topology
 Mesh Topology

• Here every device has a point to point link to every

other device.
• Node 1 node must be connected with n-1 nodes.
• A fully connected mesh can have n(n-1)/2 physical
channels to link n devices.
• It must have n-1 I/O ports.
A fully connected mesh topology (five devices)

1.19
 Advantages of Mesh

1. They use dedicated links so each link can only carry its
own data load. So traffic problem can be avoided.
2. It is robust. If any one link get damaged it cannot affect
others.
3. It gives privacy and security.(Message travels along a
dedicated link)
4. Fault identification and fault isolation are easy.
 Disadvantages of Mesh

1. The amount of cabling and the number of I/O ports

required are very large. Since every device is
connected to each devices through dedicated links.
2. The sheer bulk of wiring is larger then the available
space.
3. Hardware required to connected each device is
highly expensive.
 Applications of Mesh

1. Telephone Regional office.

2. WAN.(Wide Area Network).
 Star Topology

• Here each device has a dedicated point-to-point link to

the central controller called “Hub”(Act as a
Exchange).
• There is no direct traffic between devices.
• The transmission are occurred only through the central
“hub”.
• When device 1 wants to send data to device 2; First
sends the data to hub. Which then relays the data to
the other connected device.
Star Topology
 Advantages of Star Topology

1. Less expensive then mesh since each device is connected

only to the hub.
2. Installation and configuration are easy.
3. Less cabling is need then mesh.
4. Robustness.(if one link fails, only that links is affected.
All other links remain active)
5. Easy to fault identification & to remove parts.
6. No distruptions to the network then connecting(or)
removing devices.
 Disadvantages of Star Topology

1. Even it requires less cabling then mesh when

compared with other topologies it still large.(Ring or
bus).

2. Dependency(whole n/w dependent on one single

point(hub). When it goes down. The whole system is
dead.
 Applications of Star Topology

• Star topology used in Local Area Networks(LANs).

• High speed LAN often used STAR.
 Bus Topology

• A bus topology is multipoint.

• Here one long cable act as a backbone to link all the
devices are connected to the backbone by drop lines
and taps.
• Drop line- is the connection b/w the devices and the
cable.
• Tap- is the splitter that cut the main link.
• This allows only one device to transmit at a time.
Bus Topology
• When a device sends a message, it is broadcast down on the
cable in both directions. Terminators at the end of the cable
prevent the signal from reflecting back to the sender.

• All devices on the cable constantly monitor for messages

meant to them. When a device detects a message meant for
it, it reads the message from the cable and the other devices
will ignore it.

• Since all devices are sharing the same cable, some form of
control is needed to make sure which device will transmit
when, otherwise there will be a collision.
 Advantages of Bus Topology

1. Ease of installation.
2. Less cabling.
3. less expensive.
 Disadvantages of Bus Topology

1. Difficult reconfiguration and fault isolation.

2. Difficult to add new devices.

3. Signal reflection at top can degradation in quality.

4. If any fault in backbone can stops all transmission.

 Applications of Bus Topology

• Most computer motherboard.

 Ring Topology

• Here each device has a dedicated connection with two

devices on either side.
• The signal is passed in one direction from device to device
until it reaches the destination and each device have repeater.
• When one device received signals instead of intended
another device, its repeater then regenerates the data and
passes them along.
• To add or delete a device requires changing only two
connections.
Ring Topology
 Ring Topology

Advantages:
1. Easy to install.
2. Easy to reconfigure.
3. Fault identification is easy.

Disadvantages:
1. Unidirectional traffic.
2. Break in a single ring can break entire network.
 Ring Topology

Applications:
• Ring topologies are found in some office buildings or
school campuses.
• Today high speed LANs made this topology less
popular.
 Tree Topology

• Alternatively referred to as a star bus topology.

• Tree topology is one of the most common network setups
that is similar to a bus topology and a star topology.
• A tree topology connects multiple star networks to other star
networks. Below is a visual example of a simple computer
setup on a network using the star topology.
 Hybrid Topology

• A network which contain all type of physical

structure and connected under a single
backbone channel.
Hybrid Topology
 Considerations for Choosing
Network Topology
• Money-Bus n/w may be the least expensive way to install a n/w.
• Length-of cable needed- the linear bus n/w uses shorter lengths of
cable.
• Future growth-with star topology, expending a n/w is easily done by
adding another devices.
• Cable type-most common used cable in commercial
organization is twisted pair. Which is often used with star
topologies.
• Full mesh topology is theoretically the best since every
device is connected to every other device.(thus
maximizing speed and security. however, it quite
expensive to install)
• Next best would be tree topology , which is basically a
connection of star.
 Backbone Networks: Serial Backbone

• Daisy chain: linked series of devices

– Hubs and switches often connected in daisy chain to
extend a network
• Hubs, gateways, routers, switches, and bridges
can form part of backbone
• Extent to which hubs can be connected is limited
Connecting devices
 Repeater or hub

A repeater forwards every bit; it has no filtering

capability.
A router is a three-layer (physical, data
link, and network) device.
A repeater or a bridge connects segments of a LAN.
A router connects independent LANs or WANs to
create an internetwork (internet).
Routing example
 Hub

• Broadcast
• More collision
• Connect same networking device
 Switch

• Switch is intelligent device

• Learning the address
• Forwarding
• Work on mac address
 Router

• Connect different networks

• Routing
 OSI
Model
and
TCP/IP protocol suite)

CSE306
Tasks involved in sending a letter
 THE OSI MODEL
Established in 1947, the International Standards Organization (ISO) is a
multinational body dedicated to worldwide agreement on international
standards. An ISO standard that covers all aspects of network
communications is the Open Systems Interconnection (OSI) model. It
was first introduced in the late 1970s.

Topics discussed in this section:

Layered Architecture
Peer-to-Peer Processes
Encapsulation
ISO is the organization.
OSI is the model.
Seven layers of the OSI model
The interaction between layers in the OSI model
An exchange using the OSI model
 LAYERS IN THE OSI MODEL
In this section we briefly describe the functions of each layer in the OSI
model.

Topics discussed in this section:

Physical Layer
Data Link Layer
Network Layer
Transport Layer
Session Layer
Presentation Layer
Application Layer
Physical layer
The physical layer is responsible for movements of
individual bits from one hop (node) to the next.
 Physical layer
• Type of transmission media
• Representation of bits
• Data rate
• Synchronization of bits
• Line Configuration
• Topology
• Transmission mode
Data link layer
The data link layer is responsible for moving
frames from one hop (node) to the next.
 Data link layer
• Framing
• Physical addressing
• Flow control
• Error control
• Access control
Hop-to-hop delivery
Network layer
The network layer is responsible for the
delivery of individual packets from
the source host to the destination host.
 Network layer
• Logical addressing
• Routing
Source-to-destination delivery
Transport layer
The transport layer is responsible for the delivery
of a message from one process to another.
 Transport layer
• Service-point addressing
• Segmentation and reassembly
• Connection control
• Flow control
• Error control
Reliable process-to-process delivery of a message
Session layer
The session layer is responsible for dialog
control and synchronization.
 Session layer
• Dialog control (turn to transmit)
• Synchronization (introducing check point)
Presentation layer
The presentation layer is responsible for translation,
compression, and encryption.
 Presentation layer
• Translation
• Encryption
• Compression
Application layer
The application layer is responsible for
providing services to the user.
 Application layer
• Network Virtual Terminal
• File transfer, access, and management.
• Mail services
• Directory Services
Summary of layers
 TCP/IP PROTOCOL SUITE

The layers in the TCP/IP protocol suite do not exactly match those in
the OSI model. The original TCP/IP protocol suite was defined as
having four layers: host-to-network, internet, transport, and application.
However, when TCP/IP is compared to OSI, we can say that the TCP/IP
protocol suite is made of five layers: physical, data link, network,
transport, and application.
TCP/IP and OSI model
 ADDRESSING

Four levels of addresses are used in an internet employing

the TCP/IP protocols: physical, logical, port, and specific.

Physical Addresses
Logical Addresses
Port Addresses
Specific Addresses
Addresses in TCP/IP
Relationship of layers and addresses in TCP/IP
Comparison of the OSI and TCP/IP Reference
Models
 Functionality of the layers is roughly similar

Concepts central to OSI model

• Services : The service definition tells what the layer does, not how entities
above it access it . It defines the layer's semantics.
• Interfaces : tells the processes above it how to access it. It specifies what
the parameters are and what results to expect
• Protocols: the layer's own business.
 Comparison of the OSI and TCP/IP
Reference Models
 OSI reference model was devised before the corresponding protocols were
invented. This ordering means that the model was not biased toward one
particular set of protocols
 In TCP/IP, the protocols came first, and the model was really just a
description of the existing protocols
 Number of layers: the OSI model has seven layers and the TCP/IP has four
layers.
 The TCP/IP model has only one mode in the network layer (connectionless)
but supports both modes in the transport layer.