North Coast Medical Training College

Department of Community Health and Development

Module : Three

Lecturer : Mr. Ogal Victor

Topic : Types of Research

LECTURE NOTES
 TOPIC: TYPES AND METHODS OF RESEARCH

Classification of Research

Although any typology of research is inevitably arbitrary. Research may be classified crudely
according to its major intent or the methods. According to the intent, research may be classified
as:

 Pure Research
 Applied Research
 Exploratory Research
 Descriptive Study
 Diagnostic Study
 Evaluation Studies
 Action Research.

According to the methods of study, research may be classified as:

 Experimental Research
 Analytical Study
 Historical Research
 Survey

The Nature of Classification

The above classification is not a watertight demarcation. It is just an approach to differentiate the
distinctive approaches to research for the purpose of understanding. The different types of
research are, of course, not sharply distinguishable from one another. There may be overlapping
between one type/method and another. For example, pure research may involve experimentation
or case study or analytical study; Evaluation studies may apply experimental or survey methods;
Experimental Re-search is necessarily an analytical study; Survey Research may involve quasi-
experimental approach or analytical approach; and so on.
 1. PURE AND APPLIED RESEARCH

a) Pure Research

Pure research is undertaken for the sake of knowledge without any intention to apply it in
practice, e.g., Einstein's theory of relativity, Newton's contributions, Ga1i1eo's contributions, etc.

Pure research is also known as basic or fundamental research. It is undertaken out of intellectual
curiosity or inquisitiveness. It is not necessarily problem-oriented. It aims at extension of
knowledge. It may lead to either discovery of a new theory or refinement of an existing theory.
The development of various sciences owes much to pure research. The findings of pure research
enrich the storehouse of knowledge that can be drawn upon in the future to formulate significant
practical researches. Thus, pure research lays the foundation for applied research. The findings of
pure research formed the basis for innumerable scientific and technological inventions like steam
engine, machines, automobiles, electronic gadgets, electronic data processing,
telecommunication, etc., which have revolutionized and enriched our human life.

b) Applied Research

Applied research is carried on to find solution to a real-life problem requiring an action or policy
decision. It is thus problem-oriented and action-directed. It seeks an immediate and practical
result, e.g., marketing research carried on for developing a new market or for studying the post-
purchase experience of customers.

There is vast scope for applied research in the fields of technology, management, commerce,
economics and other social sciences. Innumerable problems are faced in these areas. They need
empirical study for finding solutions.

2. EXPLORATORY OR FORMULATIVE RESEARCH

Exploratory research is preliminary study of an unfamiliar problem about which the researcher
has little or no knowledge. It is similar to a doctor's initial investigation of a patient suffering
from an unfamiliar malady for getting some clues for identifying it. “It is ill-structured and much
less focused on pre-determined objectives”. It usually takes the form of a pilot study.

Though it is a separate type of research, it is appropriate to consider it as the first stage of a

three-stage process of exploration, description and experimentation.

Purposes

The purpose of an exploratory study may be:

 to generate new ideas or

 to increase the researcher's familiarity with the problem or
 to make a precise formulation of the problem or
 to gather information for clarifying concepts or
 to determine whether it is feasible to attempt the study.

Sometimes, a scientist may find, after spending a tremendous amount of energy and time on a
research project, that it is not possible to secure the required data. A preliminary exploration
could help avoiding such dismay.

The Need for Exploratory Studies

Social sciences are relatively young. Researches in them are scarce. Many of them inevitably
have to be exploratory ones. Few well-trodden paths exist to follow for the investigators of social
life. Most existing theories in social sciences are either too general or too specific to provide
clear guidance for empirical research. Hence exploratory research is necessary to get initial
insight into the problems for the purpose of formulating them for more precise investigation.
Hence it is also known as formulative research.

The Steps in Exploration:

a. A review of pertinent literature

b. An Experience survey
c. An Analysis of 'insight stimulating' cases.
 3. DESCRIPTIVE RESEARCH

Descriptive study is a fact-finding investigation with adequate interpretation. It is the simplest

type of research. It is more specific than an exploratory study, as it has focus on particular
aspects or dimensions of the problem studied. It is designed to gather descriptive information and
provides information for formulating more sophisticated studies. Data are collected by using one
or more appropriate methods like observation, interviewing and mail questionnaire.

Criteria

All problems do not lend themselves to descriptive study. This method is applicable to problems
that satisfy certain criteria. First, the problem must be describable and not arguable. For instance,
philosophical and controversial issues are not suitable for descriptive study. Second, the data
should be amenable to an accurate, objective, and, if possible, quantitative assemblage for
reliability and significance. Third, it should be possible to develop valid standards of
comparison. Last, it should lend itself to verifiable procedure of collection and analysis of data.

Objective

A descriptive study aims at identifying the various characteristics of a community or institution

or problem under study, but it does not deal with the testing of propositions or hypotheses.
However, it “can reveal potential relationships between variables, thus setting the stage for more
elaborate investigation later”.

A descriptive study also aims at a classification of the range of elements comprising the subject
matter of study. The classification must satisfy two criteria, viz.,

(1) Exhaustiveness and

(2) Mutual exclusiveness.

Exhaustiveness is achieved when all the important elements are identified; Mutual exclusiveness
occurs when each item can be unambiguously placed in only one category in the system.
Descriptive information should also be useful for explanation, prediction and awareness.
 4. Diagnostic Study

This is similar to descriptive study but with a different focus. It is directed towards discovering
what is happening, why is it happening/ and what can be done about. It aims at identifying the
causes of a problem and the possible solutions for it

Purpose

A diagnostic study may also be concerned with discovering and testing whether certain variables
are associated, e.g., are persons hailing from rural areas more suitable for manning the rural
branches of banks? Do more villagers than city-voters vote for a particular party?

Requirements

Both descriptive and diagnostic studies share common requirements, viz., prior knowledge of the
problem, its thorough formulation, clear-cut definition of the given population, adequate methods
for collecting ac-curate information, precise measurement of variables, statistical analysis and
test of significance. As the aim is to obtain complete and accurate information about a given
situation/phenomenon, the research design must make much more provision for protection
against bias than is required in an exploratory study. Moreover, the amount of work involved is
considerable and so concern with economy of research effort is extremely important.

5. Evaluation Studies

Evaluation study is one type of applied research. It is made for assessing the effectiveness of
social or economic programmes implemented (e.g., family planning scheme) or for assessing the
impact of developmental projects (e.g., irrigation project) on the development of the project area.

Purpose
Evaluative research is, thus, directed to assess or appraise the quality and quantity of an activity
and its performance, and to specify its attributes and conditions required for its success. It is also
concerned with change over time. As Suchman puts it, “evaluative research asks about the kind
of change the program views as desirable, the means by which the change is to be brought about,
and the signs according to which such change can be recognized.”

6. Action Research

Action research is a type of evaluation study. It is a concurrent evaluation study of an action

programme launched for solving a problem/ for improving an existing situation.

In the quest for development; advancement, excellence and promotion of welfare of people,
government, institutions and voluntary agencies undertake action programmes for achieving
specific goals or objectives. Land reform programmes, agricultural extension programmes, social
welfare programmes, human resource development programmes, managerial improvement
programmes, rural development programmes, programmes for improving the quality of life in
factories and offices, etc., are some examples of action programmes. This plethora of
development programmes has given impetus to action research. With the pressing need to assess
the relative effectiveness of different approaches to the same goal or the worth-whileness of one
goal as against another, research has been called upon to play a closer and relevant role for
action. The criterion of relevance for action is of critical importance in action research.

7. Experimental Research

There are various phenomena such as motivation, productivity, development, and operational
efficiency, which are influenced by various variables. It may become necessary to assess the
effect of one particular variable or one set of variables on a phenomenon. This need has given
rise to experimental research.

Experimental research is designed to assess the effects of particular variables on a phenomenon

by keeping the other variables constant or controlled. It aims at determining whether and in what
manner variables are related to each other. The factor that is influenced by other factors is called
a dependent variable, and the other factors, which influence it, are known as independent
variables. For example, agricultural productivity, i.e., crop yield per hectare is a dependent
variable and the factors such as soil fertility, irrigation, quality of seed, manuring, and cultural
practices which influences the yield are independent variable.

8. Analytical Study or Statistical Method

Analytical study is a system of procedures and techniques of analysis applied to quantitative

data. It may consist of a system of mathematical models or statistical techniques applicable to
numerical data. Hence it is also known as the Statistical Method.

Aim

This study aims at testing hypothesis and specifying and interpreting relationships. It
concentrates on analyzing data in depth and examining relationships from various angles by
bringing in as many relevant variables as possible in the analysis plan.

Uses

This method is extensively used in business and other fields in which quantitative numerical data
are generated. It is used for measuring variables, comparing groups and examining association
between factors. Data may be collected from either primary sources or secondary sources.

9. Historical Research

Historical study is a study of past records and other information sources with a view to
reconstructing the origin and development of an institution or a movement or a system and
discovering the trends in the past.

It is descriptive in nature. It is a difficult task; it must often depend upon inference and logical
analysis of recorded data and indirect evidences rather than upon direct observation. Hence it is
aptly described as “the induction of principles through research into the past and social forces
which have shaped the present.”
Objective

Its objective is to draw explanations and generalizations from the past trends in order to
understand the present and to anticipate the future. It enables us to grasp our relationship with the
past and to plan more intelligently for the future. The past contains the key to the present and the
past and the present influences the future. Historical study helps us in visualizing the society as a
dynamic organism and its structures and functions as evolving, steadily growing and undergoing
change and transformation.

Sources of Data

The sources of data for historical research consists of (1) eyewitness accounts narrated by an
actual observer or participant in an event, (2) oral testimony by elders, (3) records and other
documentary materials and (4) relics. The data available from the above sources may be
scattered and discontinuous and fragmented. Personal accounts are mostly subjective and so
should be studied with great caution and corroborated with documentary evidences. The origin
and genuineness of the sources and the validity of facts contained in them should be critically
tested and examined. Their authenticity should be tested. Only authentic sources should be
depended upon for collection of data. It is essential to check and crosscheck the data from as
many sources as possible.

10. Surveys

Survey is a ‘fact-finding’ study. It is a method of research involving collection of data directly

from a population or a sample thereof at particular time. It must not be confused with the mere
clerical routine of gathering and tabulating figures. It requires expert and imaginative planning,
careful analysis and rational interpretation of the findings.

Data may be collected by observation or interviewing or mailing questionnaires and analysis

may be made by using simple or complex statistical techniques depending upon the objectives of
the study.

The Characteristics of Survey Method

The survey method has certain characteristics:

1. It is always conducted in a natural setting; it is a field study.

2. It seeks responses directly from the respondents.
3. It can cover a very large population, thanks to sampling techniques.
4. A survey may involve an extensive study or an intensive study. An extensive study
covers a wider sample, an intensive covers a few samples and tends to dig deeper.
5. A survey covers a definite geographical area: a city, or a district, or a state.

The quality of a survey depends upon the thoroughness of the planning, the soundness of
sampling, the adequacy and reliability of data, the quality of analysis and the interpretation of the
findings.

The Subject matter of Surveys

All aspects of human behaviour, social institutions, economic system, and business undertakings
lend themselves to surveys. The subject matter of surveys may be broadly categorized into:

A: Social surveys

1. Demographic characteristics of a group of people

2. Social environment of people
3. People’s opinions and attitudes
4. People’s behaviour and activities.

B: Economic surveys

1. Economic conditions of people

2. Working of economic units
3. Operations of an economic system.

11. Case Study

A Case study is an in-depth comprehensive study of a person, a social group, an episode, a
process, a situation, a programme, a community, an institution or any other social unit.

It is one of the most popular types of research methods. Its purpose may be to understand the life
cycle of the unit under study or the interaction between factors that explain the present status or
the development over a period of time. Some examples of a case study are: a social-
anthropological study of a rural or tribal community; a causative study of a successful
cooperative society; a study of the financial health of a business undertaking; a study of labour
participation in management in a particular enterprise; a study of life-style of working women.

Functions

 The case study method describes a case in terms of its peculiarities.

 It gives us an insight into the typical or extreme cases whose unique features are not
reflected by the usual statistical method.
 A case study helps to secure a wealth of information about the unit of study, which may
provide clues and ideas for further research.
 It examines complex factors involved in a given situation so as to identify causal factors
operating in it.
 A case study aims at studying everything about something rather than something about
everything as in the case of a statistical method. While in a statistical approach the
'individual' disappears from the analysis, in a case study the 'individual' representing the
'wholeness' is preserved, as it is an approach which views any social unit as a whole.
 A case study gives us a total view of a unit or a clear insight into a situation or process in
its total setting. Thus the perspective of a case study is both qualitative and organic. It
gives an overall generic picture of a problem.
 It may also be useful for developing new concepts or testing existing concepts.

The case study, as a research method, often employs more techniques than one. Thus, for tracing
a developmental process, it uses historical method, it employs descriptive method where a
factual picture is needed, it employs interviewing, mail questionnaire, check lists, rating scales,
etc., to gather data, and it looks to statistics for testing hypotheses.
The aim of a case study is to ascertain the generic development of a social unit under study,
revealing the factors that moulded its life within its cultural setting. Burgess termed the case
study method as “the social microscope.”It is most valuable for diagnostic, administrative and
therapeutic purposes. It develops ideas, sometimes leading to conclusion and sometimes to
hypotheses to be tested.

12. Field Studies

Field studies are scientific enquiries aimed at discovering the relations and interactions among
sociological, psychological and educational variables in real social structures and life situations
like communities, schools, factories, organizations and institutions. A social or institutional
situation is selected and the relations among the attitudes, values, percep-tions and behaviours of
individuals and groups in the selected situation are studied.

Field Study vs. Surveys

Although it is not easy to draw a fine logical distinction between survey and field study, there are
practical differences between them.

First, a survey attempts to be representative of the universe under study and thus calls for an
adequate and representative sample. This emphasis on sampling may or may not be found in a
field study, because it is more concerned with a thorough account of the processes under study
than with their typicality in a large universe.

Second, while a field study aims at directly studying the interrelations of the parts of social
structure of a single community or a single group, a survey aims at covering a larger universe,
and it may indirectly deal with social and psychological processes, through inference from the
statistical analysis rather than through direct observation. Thus, field study will pro-vide a more
detailed natural picture of social interrelations of the group.

13. Participatory action research

Participatory action research [PAR] is a methodology which evolved to support deliberate,

committed action for change in urban community projects. It proposes that the definition, and
subsequent study of the causes of a problem by those affected by it is a way of bringing about
group involvement in the design of coherent action strategies for the solution of problems. In
many of the cities of Latin America, the methodology has been used to find solutions to
sanitation, transportation, health and political representation problems through the mobilization
of group resources and / or group pressure on local governments. The objective is to build an
awareness of the causes of problems faced by a community and to reinforce people’ capacity to
gain control over their collective destiny through joint planning and evaluation of change efforts.

In traditional research efforts, research and action rely on external expertise, capital, know-how
and equipment, resulting in dependence. Research methods use western models which orient
development towards the use of imported technology and the increase of the Gross National
Product. It is the researcher who decides on the focus, methods and outcomes of the study in
question.

Alternatively, PAR presupposes that the directions of change are locally rooted

And that the peasant farmer takes an active part in the definitions of problems and the design of
their solution. There is tacit recognition that participation must take place from the definition and
study stages of a problem through the action and evaluation phases. Action directed research is
not mechanistic or task oriented. It implies the creative and analytical observation and
understanding of socio-political, ecological and technical phenomena and of how these interact
with other components of a system in a historical context.

The outside agent here becomes a facilitator / catalyst as well as an information source who is
conscious that change through PAR will ultimately will empower him within the society. PAR is
a methodology which attempts to overcome the historical constraints which have limited the
peasant’s ability to maintain the initiative over a process of autonomous self-directed change.

PAR has not often been used to generate and test hypotheses, but to provide information that can
be used to improve a programme of joint social action. Once the research needs have been
defined by the farmers in a joint effort with researchers, the research design appropriate for the
evaluation of a given technological alternative is decided upon. Researchers must be willing to
take part in a mutual learning process with the community as well as to contribute strongly with
specialized information in down to earth language which will stimulate the process itself. The
research plans must be simple and specific. Research results must be analyzed rapidly and
written up in ways which are easy for the farmer to understand.