INTRODUCTION TO

RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

PROF. MD. IMTAIYAZ HASSAN, PH.D., FRSB., FRSC.

CENTRE FOR INTERDISCIPLINARY RESEARCH IN BASIC SCIENCES
JAMIA MILLIA ISLAMIA, JAMIA NAGAR, NEW DELHI 110025, INDIA
 What is Research?
 A careful investigation for new facts in any branch
of knowledge
 Research is a systematic effort to gain new
knowledge.
 Research is defining and redefining problems,
formulating hypothesis/objectives; collecting,
organizing and evaluating data; making deductions
and reaching conclusions;
 testing the conclusions to determine whether they
fit the formulating hypothesis/objectives

Why do research?
 Desire to get a research degree along with its
consequential benefits
 Desire to face the challenge in solving the unsolved
problems
 Desire to get intellectual joy of doing some creative
work
 Desire to be of service to society
 Desire to get respectability
 Directives of government, employment conditions etc.

 Validate intuition
 Improve methods
 Demands of the Job
 For publication/patent
Choose a subject
 Based on an idea
 Based on your experience
 Based on your reading
 Originality

The important features of a research design

 A plan
Specify the sources & types of information relevant to the research problem
 A strategy
Which approach will be used for gathering and analyzing the data
 The time and budgets
Most studies are done under these two constraints

CHARACTERISTICS OF RESEARCH
Systematic- All steps must be inter related- one to
another
Logical- Agreeing with the principles of logic
Empirical-Conclusions should be based on
evidences/observations
Objectivity- It must answer the research questions
Replicable- reproducible
Transmittable
Quality control- Accurate measurements
All well designed and conducted research has
potential application
Define Your objectives
Try to keep these simple
The more variables the more difficult
Use the opportunity
 Literature search
 Check to see if your idea is original
 Get articles
 Read articles and their references
 Most of these will be vital when writing up reports
 Find gap areas
 Find obsolete measurements and results
 Define objectives of the study
 Steps involved in a research
 Choose a subject
 Literature survey
 Defining and formulation of specific objectives
 Prepare Synopsis
 Procuring of suitable apparatus/materials
 Design of experimental set up
 Preliminary experiments
 Execution of the project
 Accurate measurements/data collection
 Data analysis and error compounding
 Hypothesis testing and verification
 Results and discussion
 Generalization, interpretation and drawing conclusions
 Preparation of the project report or writing thesis
 The Process of Research

1
5 2

Types of Research 4 3
Pure and Applied Research
Exploratory or Formulative Research
Descriptive Research
Diagnostic Study
Evaluation Studies
Action Research
Experimental Research
Analytical study or statistical Method
Historical Research
Surveys
Case Study
Purpose of Pure and Applied Research
Pure: it is the study of search of knowledge.
It can contribute new facts
It can put theory to the rest
It may aid in conceptual clarification
It may integrate previously existing theories.
Applied: It is the study of finding solution to a problem.
It offers solutions to many practical problems.
To find the critical factors in a practical problem.
Exploratory or Formulative Research
Exploratory research is preliminary study of an unfamiliar problem about which the researcher has
little or no knowledge.
To Generate new ideas
To increase the researcher’s familiarity with the problem
To Make a precise formulation of the problem
To gather information for clarifying concepts
 Descriptive Research
 Descriptive study is a fact- finding investigation with adequate interpretation.
 It is the simplest type of research.
 It is designed to gather descriptive information and provides information for formulating more sophisticated studies
 Data are collected using observation, interview and mail questionnaire.
 It can focus directly on a theoretical point.
 It can highlight important methodological aspects of data collection and interpretation.
 It obtained in a research may be useful for prediction about areas of social life outside in the boundaries of research.

 Descriptive studies are valuable in providing facts needed for planning social action programmes .
Diagnostic Study
 It is directed towards discovering what is happening, why is it happening and what can be done about.
 It aims at identifying the causes of a problem and the possible solutions for it.
 This study may also be concerned with discovering and testing whether certain variables are associated.
 To determine the frequency with which something occurs or with which it is associated with something else.
 Evaluation Studies
 It is one type of applied research.
 It is made for assessing the effectiveness of social or economic programmes implemented or for assessing the impact
of developmental projects area.
 The determination of the results attained by some activity designed to accomplish some valued goal or objectives.
 It directed to assess or appraise the quality and quantity of an activity and its performance.
 To specify its attributes and conditions required for its success.
 Action Research
 Researcher attempts to study action. E.g. Eradication of Malaria, Maritime Navigation
 Action research is a reflective process of progressive problem solving led by individuals working with others
in teams or as part of a "community of practice" to improve the way they address issues and solve problems
 A baseline survey of the pre-action situation
 A feasibility study of the proposed action programme
 Planning and launching the programme
 Concurrent evaluation of the programme
 Experimental Research
 Experimental research is commonly used in sciences such as sociology and psychology, physics, chemistry, biology and
medicine etc.
It is a systematic and scientific approach to research in which the researcher manipulates one or more variables, and
controls and measures any change in other variables.

 Experiments are conducted to be able to predict phenomenons.

 To maintain control over all factors

 A blueprint of the procedure that enables the researcher to test his hypothesis
Analytical Study
Analytical study is a system of procedures and techniques of analysis applied to quantitative data.
 A system of mathematical models or statistical techniques applicable to numerical data.
 It aims at testing hypothesis and specifying and interpreting relationship.
 It concentrates on analyzing data in depth and examining relationships from various angles by bringing in as many relevant variable
as possible in the analysis plan.

 Historical Research

 The systematic collection and evaluation of data related to past occurrences in order to describe causes, effects, an

trends of those events that may help explain present events and anticipate future events.

 Data is often archival-including newspaper clippings, photographs, etc.- and may include interviews.

 To draw explanations and generalizations from the past trends in order to understand the present and to anticipate th

future.

 It enables us to grasp our relationship with the past and to plan more intelligently for the future.

 The past contains the key to the present and the past and the present influences the future.
 Survey Research

 Survey research is one of the most important areas of measurement in applied social research. The broad area of survey research encompasses
any measurement procedures that involve asking questions of respondents. A "survey" can be anything form a short paper-and-pencil feedback
form to an intensive one-on-one in-depth interview.
 It is always conducted in a natural setting.
 It seeks responses directly from the respondents.
 It can cover a very large population
 A survey may involve an extensive study or an intensive study.
 A survey covers a definite geographical area, a city, district, state

 Case Study
 A case study is a research methodology common in social science.
 It is based on an in-depth investigation of a single individual, group, or event to explore causation in order to find underlying principles
 To examine limited number of variables
 case study methods involve an in-depth, longitudinal examination of a single instance or event.
 It provides a systematic way of looking at events, collecting data, analyzing information, and reporting the results
Field research
 Field research has traditionally been thought different from methods of research conducted in a laboratory or academic setting.
 The advantages of field research are that people are closer to real world conditions and design the research in the best way to discover the particular
information required.

 Research Design
 The term “research design” means ‘drawing for research’.
 It is a systematic planning of conducting research.
 It aims to achieve goals of the research.
 ‘as the arrangement of conditions for collection and analysis of data in a manner that aims to combine the relevance to the research purpose with economy
in procedure’-by Jahoda

 ‘a master plan, specifying the methods and procedures for collecting and analyzing the needed information’-by Zikmund
 Need and Purpose
 It helps in smooth sailing of the research process.
 It saves the money, manpower and materials.
 It helps the researchers for advance planning and avoids duplication.
 It helps to modify the research if any difficulties.
 It gives reality to research.
 Research Design Process
 Selection of research topic/problem,
 Framing research design,
 Framing sampling design,
 Collection of data,
 Data analysis/editing, coding, processing and preservation
 Writing research reports
 Characteristics of Good Research Design
 It should be flexible
 It should be economical
 It should be unbiased
 It should fulfill the objectives of the research
 It should be more appropriate to all the aspects of research
 It should guide him to achieve correct results.
 It provides scientific base for his research.
 It also should facilitate to complete the research work within the stipulated time.
 Functions of Research Design
 It provides a blueprint of research.
 It limits (dictates) the boundaries of the research activities.
 It enables investigation to anticipate potential problems
 Theory-Grounded,
 Environment,
 Feasibility of Implementation,
 Redundancy,
 Efficient.
 Components of Research Design

 Title of the investigation

 Purpose of the study
 Review of related literature
 Statement of the problem
 Scope of the investigation
 Objectives of the study
 Variables
 Hypothesis
 Selection of sample
 Data Collection
 Analysis of data
 Types of Research Design
 Experimental Designs
Quasi-experimental
 Experimental
 Non- Experimental Designs
 Case study designs/method.
 Content analysis.
 Ethnography.
 Focus groups.
 Network analysis and sociometry.
 Hypotheses
 A tentative statement about a population parameter that might be true or wrong
 The purpose of hypothesis testing is to determine whether there is enough statistical evidence in favor of a certain belief about a parameter.
 An hypothesis is a preliminary or tentative explanation or postulate by the researcher of what the researcher considers the outcome of an
investigation will be. It is an informed/educated guess.
 It indicates the expectations of the researcher regarding certain variables. It is the most specific way in which an answer to a problem can be
stated.
The Difference Between An Hypothesis And A Problem
 Both an hypothesis and a problem contribute to the body of knowledge which supports or refutes an existing theory.
 An hypothesis differs from a problem.
 A problem is formulated in the form of a question; it serves as the basis or origin from which an hypothesis is derived.
 An hypothesis is a suggested solution to a problem.
 A problem (question) cannot be directly tested, whereas an hypothesis can be tested and verified.
 When is an Hypothesis Formulated
 An hypothesis is formulated after the problem has been stated and the literature study has been concluded.
 It is formulated when the researcher is totally aware of the theoretical and empirical background to the problem

 PURPOSE AND FUNCTION OF AN HYPOTHESIS

 It offers explanations for the relationships between those variables that can be empirically tested.
 It furnishes proof that the researcher has sufficient background knowledge to enable him/her to make suggestions in order to extend existing
knowledge.
 It gives direction to an investigation.
 It structures the next phase in the investigation and therefore furnishes continuity to the examination of the problem.
 CHARACTERISTICS OF AN HYPOTHESIS
 It should have elucidating power.
 It should strive to furnish an acceptable explanation of the phenomenon.
 It must be verifiable.
 It must be formulated in simple, understandable terms.
 It should corresponds with existing knowledge.
Types of Hypotheses
1. Descriptive Hypotheses:
 These are propositions that describe the characteristics ( such as size, form or distribution) of a variable. The
variable may be an object, person, organization etc. ,
e.g., The rate of unemployment among arts graduates is higher than that of commerce graduates. The educational system
is not oriented to human resource needs of a country.
2. Relational Hypotheses.
 These are propositions which describe the relationship between tow variables.
e. g. , Families with higher incomes spend more for recreation
Upper – class people have fewer children than lower class people.
3. Causal Hypotheses
 It state that the existence of, or a change in, one variable Causes or leads to an effect on another variable.
 The first variable is called the independent variable, and the latter the dependent variable.
 When dealing with causal relationships between variables the researcher must consider the direction in which such relationship flow
e.g: which is cause and which is effect
4. Working Hypotheses
 While planning the study of a problem, hypotheses are formed.
 Initially they may not be very specific. In such cases, they are referred to as ‘ working hypotheses’ which are subject to modification as t
investigation proceeds
. Null Hypotheses
 This hypotheses are formulated for testing statistical significance, since, this form is a convenient approach to statistical analysis. As th
test would nullify the null hypotheses.
e.g., : There is a relationship between a family’s income and expenditure on recreation, a null hypothesis may state: There is
relationship between families income level and expenditure on recreation.
6. Statistical Hypotheses
 These are statements about a statistical population. These are derived from a sample. These are quantitative in nature in that th
are numerically measurable
eg: Group A is older than B’
 Characteristics of a Good Hypotheses.
 Conceptual Clarity
 Specificity
 Testability
 Availability of Techniques
 Theoretical relevance
 Consistency
 Objectivity
 Simplicity
 Sources of Hypotheses
 Theory
 Observation
 Analogies
 Intuition and personal experience
 Findings of studies
 State of Knowledge
 Culture
 Continuity of Research
Sampling
Sampling is the process of selecting a small number of elements from a larger defined target group of elements
such that the information gathered from the small group will allow judgments to be made about the larger
groups

Basics of Sampling Theory

Population
Element
Defined target
population
Sampling unit

Sampling frame

Sampling Error

Sampling error is any type of bias

that is attributable to mistakes
in either drawing a sample or
determining the sample size
Developing a Sampling Plan
Define the Population of Interest
Identify a Sampling Frame (if possible)
Select a Sampling Method
Determine Sample Size
Execute the Sampling Plan
Defining Population of Interest
Population of interest is entirely dependent on Management Problem, Research Problems, and Research Design.
Some Bases for Defining Population:
Geographic Area
Demographics
Usage/Lifestyle
Awareness
Types of Sampling Methods
Probability Nonprobability
• Simple random sampling
• Systematic random sampling
• Convenience sampling
• Judgment sampling
• Stratified random sampling
• Quota sampling
• Cluster sampling
• Snowball sampling
Simple Random Sampling Systematic Random Sampling
Simple random sampling is a method of Systematic random sampling is a method of probability
probability sampling in which every unit has sampling in which the defined target population is
an equal nonzero chance of being selected
ordered and the sample is selected according to
position using a skip interval
Steps in Drawing a Systematic Random Sample
1. Obtain a list of units that contains an acceptable frame of the target population
2. Determine the number of units in the list and the desired sample size
3. Compute the skip interval
4. Determine a random start point
5. Beginning at the start point, select the units by choosing each unit that corresponds to the skip interval
Stratified random sampling is a method of probability sampling in which the population is divided into different subgroups
and samples are selected from each

Steps in Drawing a Stratified Random Sample

1: Divide the target population into homogeneous subgroups or strata
2: Draw random samples fro each stratum
3: Combine the samples from each stratum into a single sample of the target population
1. Cluster Sampling
Cluster sampling is a sampling technique used when "natural" groupings are evident in a statistical population.
It is often used in marketing research.
It divide population into Comparable groups: Schools, Cities etc..
cluster sampling is to reduce the average cost per interview
the technique given more accurate results when most of the variation in the population is within the groups,
Nonprobability Sampling Methods
1)Convenience sampling relies
upon convenience and access
Judgment sampling relies upon belief
2)that participants fit characteristics

3) Quota sampling emphasizes representation

of specific characteristics
4) Snowball sampling relies upon respondent
referrals of others with like characteristics
 Convenience samples: samples drawn at the convenience of the interviewer. People tend to make the selection at familiar locations and to choose respondents who are like themselves.

 Judgment samples : samples that require a judgment or an “educated guess” on the part of the interviewer as to who should represent the population. Also, “judges” (informed individuals) may be asked
to suggest who should be in the sample.
 Quota samples: samples that set a specific number of certain types of individuals to be interviewed
 snowball sampling: is a technique for developing a research sample where existing study subjects recruit future subjects from among their acquaintances .
 Factors to Consider in Sample Design

Research objectives Degree of accuracy

Resources
Time frame
Knowledge of
target population Research scope

Statistical analysis needs

 :Data Collection:Data collection possibilities are wide and varied with any one method of collection not inherently better
than any other
 Each has pros and cons that must be weighed up in view of a rich and complex context
 All methods of collection require rigorous and systematic design and execution that includes
 thorough planning
 well considered development
 effective piloting
 weighed modification
 deliberate implementation and execution
 appropriate management and analysis
Surveys
 Surveying involves gathering information from individuals using a questionnaire
 Surveys can
 reach a large number of respondents
 generate standardized, quantifiable, empirical data - as well as some qualitative data
 and offer confidentiality / anonymity
 Designing survey instruments capable of generating credible data, however, can be difficult
 Surveys can be
 descriptive or explanatory
 involve entire populations or samples of populations
 capture a moment or map trends
 can be administered in a number of ways
Survey Construction
 Survey construction involves
 formulating questions and response categories
 writing up background information and instruction
 working through organization and length
 determining layout and design

 Interviewing
 Interviewing involves asking respondents a series of open-ended questions
 Interviews can generate both standardized quantifiable data, and more in-depth qualitative data
 However, the complexities of people and the complexities of communication can create many opportunities for
miscommunication and misinterpretation.
 Interview Types
 Interviews can range from
 formal to informal
 structured to unstructured
 can be one on one or involve groups

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 Observation
 Observation relies on the researchers’ ability to gather data though their senses - and allows researchers to document actual behaviour rather than responses related to
behaviour

 However, the observed can act differently when surveilled, and observations can be tainted by a researcher’s worldview

Observation can range from

 non-participant to participant
 candid to covert
 from structured to unstructured
The Observation Process
The observation process is sometimes treated casually, but is a method that needs to be treated as rigorously as any other
The process should include planning, observing, recording, reflecting, and authenticating
Experimentation explores cause and effect relationships by manipulating independent variables in order to see if there is a corresponding effect on a dependent variable
Pure experimentation requires both a controlled environment and the use of a randomly assigned control group
This can be difficult to achieve in human centred experiments conducted in the real-world
Real-World Experiments
There are many experiments that can only be carried out in the messy uncontrolled environments of the real-world, so the search
for cause and effect will require tradeoffs between real-world contexts and a controlled environment
Advantages:
• Quick and easy to administer.
• Can get a large amount of information in a short time.
• Allows for employee participation.
• Does not require trained interviewer.
• Relatively less expensive.
Disadvantages:
• Quality of information related to the quality of the questionnaire.
• Must have high school reading and writing ability to complete one.
• Often needs follow-up interview or observation.
• May be difficult to construct.
• May have low response rate.
• Responses may be incomplete.
• Responses may be difficult to interpret (open-ended)
Online surveys:
• The use of the Internet has made a difference to the way surveys are conducted and has
 become a science unto itself.
• quick
18 to implement. Lower cost, higher