1. Explain briefly Extrinsic and Intrinsic Semiconductors with neat sketch?

Semiconductor: A semiconductor is a material that has its conductivity somewhere between the
insulator and conductor.

A semiconductor substance has an electrical property that sits between an insulator and a conductor. Si
and Ge are the greatest examples of semiconductors.

There are two types of semiconductors:

1. Intrinsic Semiconductor

2. Extrinsic Semiconductor

Intrinsic Semiconductor

A semiconductor material in its pure form is known as an intrinsic semiconductor. Thus, the intrinsic
semiconductors are chemically pure, i.e. they are free from impurities.

Si and Ge are two examples of intrinsic semiconductors.

The conduction band is empty in the below energy band diagram, but the valence band is completely
filled. Some heat energy can be provided to it once the temperature has been raised. As a result of exiting
the valence band, electrons from the valence band are provided to the conduction band.
The flow of electrons will be random as they go from the valence to the conduction band. The crystal’s
holes can also flow freely in any direction.

As a result, the TCR of this semiconductor will be negative (temperature coefficient of resistance). The
TCR indicates that when the temperature rises, the material’s resistance decreases and its conductivity
rises.

Extrinsic Semiconductor

Extrinsic semiconductors are semiconductors that have had an impurity introduced to them at a
regulated rate to make them conductive.
While insulating materials may be doped to make them into semiconductors, intrinsic semiconductors
can also be doped to make an extrinsic semiconductor.

Extrinsic semiconductors are divided into two categories as a result of doping: atoms with an additional
electron (n-type for negative, from group V) and atoms with one fewer electron (p-type for positive,
from group III).

Doping is the purposeful introduction of impurities into a very pure, or intrinsic, semiconductor in order
to change its electrical characteristics.

What is Doping?

Doping is the process of introducing an impurity into a semiconductor. During the production of
extrinsic semiconductors, the amount and kind of impurity to be introduced to the material must be
carefully monitored. In most cases, one impurity atom is introduced to every 108 semiconductor atoms.

Impurity is used to enhance the number of free electrons or holes in a semiconductor crystal, making it
more conductive. A significant number of free electrons will exist if a pentavalent impurity with five
valence electrons is introduced to a pure semiconductor. A significant number of holes will exist in the
semiconductor if a trivalent impurity with three valence electrons is introduced.

Extrinsic semiconductors are divided into two categories based on the type of impurity added:

N-type and P-type semiconductors.

Types of Extrinsic Semiconductors

There are generally two types of extrinsic semiconductors: n-type and p-type semiconductors.

n-type Extrinsic Semiconductor

Suppose we dope a semiconductor made of silicon or germanium with a pentavalent element (for
example phosphorus).

o When an atom on +5 valency element occupies the position of an atom in the crystal lattice of
Si, four of its electrons will bond with four silicon neighbours, while the fifth electron will
remain loosely bound to the parent atom.

o This happens because the four electrons which are participating in the bonding are seen as a
part of the effective core of the atom by the fifth electron.
 o Hence, the ionization energy required to set this electron free is very small and even at room
temperature, it will be able to move in the lattice of the conductor.

o The pentavalent dopant is adding one extra electron for electrical conductivity and this is known
as a donor impurity.

o The number of electrons from the dopant is independent of the temperature increase and is
completely dependent on the type of element used for the impurity.

o Hence, in an extrinsic semiconductor doped with a pentavalent impurity, the electrons are
majority carriers and the holes are minority carriers.

o Since electrons carry a negative charge and they are the majority carriers, such a type of
extrinsic semiconductor is known as an n-type semiconductor.

p-type Extrinsic Semiconductor

o This type of semiconductor is formed when an atom with +3 valency is added to the original
material of the semiconductor like Boron, Indium, etc.

o This dopant has one less electron than silicon or germanium.

o In this type of semiconductor, the atom can form covalent bonds but does not have a free
electron to offer to the neighbouring atom.

o Since the neighbouring atom would not receive an electron, an electron from the outer orbit of
an atom may jump to fill the vacancy and leave a hole in its own position.

o The trivalent atom added as an impurity becomes negatively charged and shares the fourth
electron with the neighbouring atom (silicon or germanium) and contains more holes.

o Hence in an extrinsic semiconductor doped with a trivalent impurity the holes are majority
carriers and electrons are minority carriers.

o Since holes have a +q charge and they are a majority carrier, such a type of extrinsic
semiconductor is known as a p-type semiconductor.

2. Explain VI characteristics of Varactor diode with its Operation?

A varactor diode, also known as a varicap or tuning diode, is a type of diode that exploits the
voltage-dependent capacitance of a reverse-biased p-n junction. It is primarily used in
applications like voltage-controlled oscillators and frequency tuning circuits.
VI Characteristics

3. Reverse Bias Region:

a. The varactor diode operates primarily in the reverse bias region.
b. As reverse voltage (V_R) is applied, the width of the depletion region increases,
leading to an increase in capacitance (C).
c. The relationship between the applied reverse voltage and the capacitance is
nonlinear.
4. Forward Bias Region:
a. The diode should not be operated in forward bias for its intended application.
In this region, the current increases rapidly, and it behaves like a regular diode.
5. Capacitance-Voltage (C-V) Relationship:
a. The capacitance decreases as the reverse voltage increases.
VI Characteristic Sketch

• X-axis: Reverse Voltage (V_R)

• Y-axis: Current (I)

• The graph shows a small leakage current in reverse bias and a steep increase in forward bias
(not typically utilized in varactor applications).

VI Characteristics

1. Reverse Bias Region:

o The varactor diode operates primarily in the reverse bias region.

o As reverse voltage (V_R) is applied, the width of the depletion region increases,
leading to an increase in capacitance (C).

o The relationship between the applied reverse voltage and the capacitance is nonlinear.

2. Forward Bias Region:

o The diode should not be operated in forward bias for its intended application. In this
region, the current increases rapidly, and it behaves like a regular diode.

3. Capacitance-Voltage (C-V) Relationship:

o The capacitance decreases as the reverse voltage increases.

o The relationship can typically be described by the formula: C=C0(1+V/Vb)mC =

\frac{C_0}{(1 + V/V_b)^{m}}C=(1+V/Vb)mC0 where C0C_0C0 is the capacitance
at zero bias, VbV_bVb is the breakdown voltage, and mmm is a constant that depends
on the diode structure.

Operation

1. Reverse Biasing:

o When reverse voltage is applied, the p-n junction is reverse-biased.

 o The majority charge carriers are swept away, creating a depletion region that widens as
the reverse voltage increases.

2. Capacitance Variation:

o The width of the depletion region is inversely related to the capacitance. As the reverse
voltage increases, the capacitance decreases.

o This allows the varactor diode to function as a variable capacitor.

3. Applications:

o Used in radio frequency (RF) circuits for tuning and frequency modulation.

o Commonly found in TV tuners, mobile phones, and phase-locked loops (PLLs).

3.Explain the Operation of npn transistor with neat diagram?

The transistor is a main building block of all modern electronic systems

What is Bipolar Junction Transistor?

A bipolar junction transistor is a single silicon component where electrons and holes are used as charge
carriers. A bipolar junction transistor lets a small current be injected at one of its terminals to control
large amounts of current flowing between the other two terminals. This makes the device capable of
performing switching or amplification.

Bipolar junction transistor is of two types:

• PNP transistor

• NPN transistor

This bipolar PNP junction transistor is formed with three layers of semiconductor material, with two P-
type regions sandwiched between one N-type region.

NPN Transistor

The NPN transistor consists of two n-type semiconductors that sandwich a p-type semiconductor. Here,
electrons are the majority charge carriers, while holes are the minority charge carriers. The NPN
transistor is represented, as shown below.
In the above figure, we can see an arrow pointing outwards from the emitter terminal. This indicates
the direction of the flow of current through the device.

Construction of NPN Transistor

The NPN transistor is made of semiconductor materials like silicon or germanium. When a p-type
semiconductor material is fused between two n-type semiconductor materials, an NPN transistor is
formed.

The NPN transistor features three terminals: emitter, base and collector. This transistor features two
diodes that are connected back to back. The diode seen between the emitter-base terminal is referred to
as the emitter-base diode. The diode between collector and base terminal is known as collector-base
diodes. The emitter is moderately doped, the base is lightly doped, and the collector is comparatively
more doped.

Working of NPN Transistor

When the emitter-base junction is forward biased, a small voltage VBE is seen. Reverse bias voltage
VCE. Due to the forward bias, the majority charge carriers in the emitter are repelled towards the base.
The electron-hole recombination is very small in the base region since the base is lightly doped. Most
of the electrons cross into the collector region.

When the emitter is forward biased, electrons move towards the base and create the emitter current IE.
Here, the majority charge carriers in the P-type material combine with the holes.
 4. Draw Energy band diagram of Insulator and write its characteristics?
Energy Band Diagram of an Insulator

The energy band diagram of an insulator typically features a large energy gap (bandgap) between the
valence band and the conduction band.

For an insulator, as shown in the fig; there is a large forbidden band gap of greater than 5Ev. Because
of this large gap there a very few electrons in the CB and hence the conductivity of insulator is poor.
Even an increase in temperature or applied electric field is insufficient to transfer electrons from VB to
CB.

Characteristics of Insulators

1. Large Bandgap (Eg):

o The bandgap in insulators is generally greater than 4 eV. This large gap prevents
electrons from easily jumping from the valence band to the conduction band, which
means they do not conduct electricity under normal conditions.

2. Low Electrical Conductivity:

o Insulators exhibit extremely low electrical conductivity, making them effective for
preventing the flow of electric current.

3. High Resistivity:

o Insulators have high resistivity values, often exceeding 1010 Ω⋅m10^{10} \, \Omega
\cdot m1010Ω⋅m.

4. Temperature Dependence:

o The conductivity of insulators remains low even with increased temperature, unlike
semiconductors, where conductivity increases with temperature due to thermally
generated charge carriers.

5. Dielectric Properties:
 o Insulators can act as dielectrics, which means they can store electric charge when
placed in an electric field. This property is utilized in capacitors and other electronic
components.

6. Non-Linear Response:

o Some insulators can exhibit non-linear behavior under high electric fields, leading to
phenomena like dielectric breakdown.

Examples of Insulators

• Common insulators include materials like glass, rubber, wood, and certain ceramics. They are
widely used in electrical applications to prevent current leakage and provide safety in electronic
devices.

5. Draw Energy band diagram of Semi conductor and its aplications?

Energy Band Diagram of a Semiconductor

The energy band diagram of a semiconductor typically features a smaller energy gap compared to
insulators, usually around 1 eV.

A semiconductor is a material that has its conductivity somewhere between the insulator and conductor.
The resistivity level is in the range of 10 and 104 Ω-cm. Two of the most commonly used are Silicon
(Si=14 atomic no.) and germanium (Ge=32 atomic no.). Both have 4 valance electrons. The forbidden
band gap is in the order of 1eV.

Characteristics of Semiconductors

1. Moderate Bandgap (Eg):

o Semiconductors have a bandgap typically ranging from about 0.1 to 3 eV. This allows
electrons to be thermally excited from the valence band to the conduction band at room
temperature.

2. Charge Carriers:

o The conduction of electricity in semiconductors is facilitated by charge carriers:

electrons (negative charge carriers) and holes (positive charge carriers).
 3. Temperature Dependence:

o The conductivity of semiconductors increases with temperature, as more electrons gain

enough energy to jump into the conduction band.

4. Doping:

o Semiconductors can be doped with impurities (e.g., phosphorus for N-type and boron
for P-type) to modify their electrical properties, increasing the number of charge
carriers.

Applications of Semiconductors

1. Diodes:

o Used in rectification, signal modulation, and voltage regulation (e.g., Zener diodes).

2. Transistors:

o Essential components in amplifiers, switches, and digital logic circuits (e.g., Bipolar
Junction Transistors (BJTs) and Field-Effect Transistors (FETs)).

3. Integrated Circuits (ICs):

o Form the basis of modern electronics, including microprocessors and memory chips.

4. Solar Cells:

o Convert light energy into electrical energy using semiconductor materials like silicon.

5. LEDs (Light Emitting Diodes):

o Emit light when current flows through the semiconductor, used in displays and lighting.

6.Sensors:

o Employed in various sensing applications, such as temperature sensors, photodetectors,

and pressure sensors.

6. Explain VI Characteristics of Zener diode with its Operation?

A Zener diode is a special type of diode designed to allow current to flow in the reverse direction when
a specific reverse voltage, known as the Zener voltage (V_Z), is reached. It is primarily used for voltage
regulation.
 7. Define Knee(Cutoff) voltage of diode?

Knee (Cutoff) Voltage of a Diode

The knee voltage, also known as the cutoff voltage or threshold voltage, is the minimum forward
voltage required to significantly forward-bias a diode and allow current to flow through it.

Key Points:

1. Threshold for Conduction:

o The knee voltage marks the point on the current-voltage (I-V) characteristic curve of
the diode where the current begins to increase rapidly. Below this voltage, the current
is very small, often in the microampere range.

2. Typical Values:

o For silicon diodes, the knee voltage is approximately 0.7 V, while for germanium
diodes, it is about 0.3 V.

3. Importance in Circuit Design:

o Understanding the knee voltage is crucial for designing circuits that use diodes, as it
helps in determining the operating conditions and ensuring proper functioning in
applications such as rectification, signal modulation, and switching.

4. Operation Regions:

o Below Knee Voltage: The diode is reverse-biased (or not conducting) with very little
current.

o At and Above Knee Voltage: The diode becomes forward-biased, allowing a

significant increase in current.

8. Define rectifiers and list the type of rectifiers?

A rectifier is an electrical device which is used to convert AC current into DC current. Rectifier does
this process by allowing current (I) to flow through any device and the process taking place here is
called rectification.
 9. Define the following: P-type Semi conductor
n-type Semiconductor
Biasing
P-type Semiconductor

A P-type semiconductor is a type of semiconductor that has been doped with acceptor impurities,
which create "holes" or positive charge carriers. In P-type materials, the majority charge carriers are
holes, while the minority charge carriers are electrons.

• Doping: Typically involves elements from Group III of the periodic table, such as boron or
gallium, which have fewer valence electrons (three) compared to silicon (four).

• Behavior: When an electric field is applied, holes move towards the negative terminal, allowing
current to flow.

• Applications: P-type semiconductors are commonly used in various electronic devices,

including diodes and transistors, where they often pair with N-type materials to form p-n
junctions.

N-type Semiconductor

An N-type semiconductor is a type of semiconductor that has been doped with donor impurities, which
provide extra electrons, resulting in negative charge carriers. In N-type materials, the majority charge
carriers are electrons, while the minority charge carriers are holes.

• Doping: Typically involves elements from Group V of the periodic table, such as phosphorus
or arsenic, which have more valence electrons (five) compared to silicon.

• Behavior: When an electric field is applied, electrons move towards the positive terminal,
facilitating current flow.

• Applications: N-type semiconductors are also used in electronic devices, often in conjunction
with P-type materials to form p-n junctions in diodes and transistors.

Biasing

Biasing refers to the application of a voltage across a semiconductor device, such as a diode or
transistor, to establish a desired operating point. Biasing is crucial for the proper functioning of these
devices in circuits.
• Types of Biasing:

o Forward Bias: When the positive terminal of the voltage source is connected to the P-
type material and the negative terminal to the N-type material. This reduces the barrier
potential, allowing current to flow.

o Reverse Bias: When the positive terminal is connected to the N-type material and the
negative terminal to the P-type material. This increases the barrier potential, preventing
current flow (except for a very small leakage current).

• Importance: Proper biasing ensures that semiconductor devices operate in their active regions,
enabling them to amplify signals or switch on and off as needed in various applications,
including amplifiers, oscillators, and digital circuits.

10. Explain VI Characteristics of Optical diode and its Operation?

11. Define Voltage regulators.List and explain any one of the Voltage regulator?