Transmission lines- Terms and definitions

space - Once a radio signal has been radiated by an antenna, it travels or propagates
through
__________ and ultimately reaches the receiving antenna.

decreases - The energy level of the signal

___________rapidly with distance from the transmitting antenna

Electromagnetic wave - The ________________

is also affected by objects that it encounters along the way such as trees, buildings, and
other large structures.

the frequency of the signal,

atmospheric conditions, and time of day. - the path that an electromagnetic signal takes
to a
receiving antenna depends upon many factors, including ________

radio waves - act very much as light waves do

Light waves - can be reflected, refracted,

diffracted, and focused by other object

conducting surface - radio waves are reflected by any ________________ they

encounter along a propagation path.

one-half wavelength - All metallic objects rel ect radio

waves, especially if the metallic object is at least ______________ at the frequency
of operation.

Yes - does Reflection also produced by other partially conductive surfaces, such as the
earth and
bodies of water.

Light-wave reflection - Radio wave reflection follows the principles of _______

angle of incidence - the

angle of reflection is equal to the

wave front - The radio

wave is shown as a __________

angle of incidence - is the angle between

the incoming line of the wave and a perpendicular line to the rel ecting surface.

angle of reflection - is the angle between the reflected wave and the perpendicular line.

perfect conductor - would cause total reflection

True - in the real world, the

reflection is never complete. (True or False)

refraction - is the bending of a wave due to the physical makeup of the

medium through which the wave passes.

slows down - When light passes through another medium, such as water or glass, it
___________

degree of ionization - As a radio wave travels through free space,

it encounters air of different densities, the density depending on the
_________________
(caused by an overall gain or loss of electrons).

bent - This change of air density causes the

wave to be ________

index of refraction - The degree of bending depends on the ____________ of a medium

n

C(in a vacuum) / C( in the medium that causes the wave to be bent) - index of refraction
is equal to

slow - The incident wave from a transmitter

travels through air, where it meets a region of ionized air that causes the speed of
propagation to ________

n1 sin θ1 = n2 sin θ2 - Snell's law

straight line - light and radio waves travel in a

shadow zone - If an
obstacle appears between a transmitter and receiver, some of the signal is blocked,
creating what is known as a

No - does A receiver located in the

shadow zone can receive a complete signal.

diffraction - However, some signal usually gets

through the shadow zone due to the phenomenon of __________, the bending of
waves around an object

Huygen's Principle - Diffraction is explained by what is known as

spherical wave fronts - Huygens' principle

is based on the assumption that all electromagnetic waves, light as well as radio waves,
radiate as _______________from a source.

point source - Each point on a wave front at any given

time can be considered as a
_______________ for additional spherical waves.

knife-edge diffraction - When the

waves encounter an obstacle, they pass around it, above it, and on either side. As
the wave front passes the object, the point sources of waves at the edge of the obstacle
create additional spherical waves that penetrate and i ll in the shadow zone.

ground wave, sky wave and space wave - The three basic paths that a radio signal can
take through space are the

ground or surface wave - leave an antenna and remain close to the

earth

ground wave - actually follow the curvature of the earth and can,
therefore, travel at distances beyond the horizon.

vertical polarization - Ground waves must have ____________ to be propagated from

an antenna.

Ground Wave Propagation - is strongest at the low- and medium-frequency ranges.

30-kHz to 3-MHz - ground waves are the main signal path for radio signals in the
_____________
range.

ground waves during

the day and by sky waves at night. - AM broadcast signals are propagated primarily by
____________

yes - does The conductivity of the earth determines how well ground waves are
propagated.

attenuation, greater - The

better the conductivity, the less the ______________ and the ___________ the
distance the waves can
travel.

salt water - The best propagation of ground waves occurs over

low moisture areas like desert - Conductivity is usually lowest in

beyond 3Mhz - what frequency does the earth begin to attenuate radio signal

sky wave signals - are radiated by the antenna into the upper atmosphere,
where they are bent back to earth

ionosphere - This bending of the signal is caused by refraction

in a region of the upper atmosphere known as the ____________

ionize - Ultraviolet
radiation from the sun causes the upper atmosphere to ____________, i.e., to become
electri-
cally charged.

30 mi (50 km) - 250 mi (400 km) - At its lowest point, the ionosphere is approximately
____________ above the earth and extends as far as _____________ from the earth.

D,E,F layer - The ionosphere is generally considered to be divided into three layers

D,E layer - layers of the ionosphere that are farthest from the sun is weakly ionized

300KHz-3MHz - D,E layers exist only in daylight hours, in which that time, they
absorbed radio signal from __________

F1 and F2 - F layer are divided in to two, they are

F1 &F2 - layers of ionosphere which are the closest to the sun, are the most highly
ionized and have
the greatest effect on radio signals.

No, F layers exist in both daylight and night - does F layers only exist in night?

refraction - The primary effect of the F layer is to cause ______________ of radio

signals when they
cross the boundaries between layers of the ionosphere with different levels of ionization

bent - When a radio signal goes into the ionosphere, the different levels of ionization
cause the
radio waves to be gradually ____________

vertical-90° - Radiation
directly __________ from the antenna, or ______ with respect to the earth, passes
through the
ionosphere.

True - As the angle of radiation decreases from the vertical, some signals continue
to pass through the ionosphere (True or False)

smaller - The ___________ the angle with

respect to the earth, the more likely it is that the waves will be refracted and sent back
to earth

higher - the ___________ the frequency, the smaller the radiation angle required for
refraction to occur.

VHF, UHF, and microwave signals - At very high frequencies, essentially those above
about 50 MHz,
refraction seldom occurs regardless of the angle. ______________
usually pass through the ionosphere without bending

yes - does VHF and even UHF waves

may be refracted by the ionosphere in some cases of unusual phenomena happen?

minimum signal loss - Rel ected radio waves are sent back to earth with ___________

3- to 30-MHz or shortwave range - This effect is most

pronounced in the 3- to ____________, which permits extremely long
distance communication

multiple-skip or multiple-hop - In some cases, the signal rel ected back from the
ionosphere strikes the earth, is
rel ected back up to the ionosphere, and is re-rel ected back to earth. This phenomenon
is known as _______________ transmission.

20 - For strong signals and ideal

ionospheric conditions, as many as ___ hops are possible.

yes - does multiple-hop transmission can extend the communication range by a

thousand miles

2,000 miles - maximum distance of a single hop

yes - does transmission around the world is possible with multiple hops?

skip distance - The distance from the transmitting antenna to the point on earth where
the i rst
refracted signal strikes the earth to be rel ected is referred to as the
skip zone. - If a receiver lies in that area between the place where the ground wave
is fully attenuated and the point of i rst rel ection from the earth, no signal will be
received. This area is called the

space wave - direct wave

space wave - travels in a straight line directly from the transmitting antenna
to the receiving antenna

line-of-sight
communication. - Direct wave radio signaling is often referred to as

no - does Direct or space waves are refracted, or do they follow the curvature
of the earth

direct wave signals - Because of their straight-line nature, ____________ travel

horizontally from the
transmitting antenna until they reach the horizon, at which point they are blocked, as
shown in Fig. 14-42. If a direct wave signal is to be received beyond the horizon, the
receiving must be high enough to intercept it.

d= √2h - The formula for computing the distance

between a transmitting antenna and the horizon is

D= √2Ht + √2Hr - practical transmission distance D

Line-of-sight communication - is characteristic of most radio signals with a fre-

quency above approximately 30 MHz, particularly VHF, UHF, and microwave signals.
Such signals pass through the ionosphere and are not bent.

repeater stations - To extend the communication distance at VHF, UHF, and microwave
frequencies,
special techniques have been adopted. The most important of these is the use of
___________

repeater - is a combination of a receiver and a

transmitter operating on separate frequencies

sensitive receiver and high-power transmitter - Repeaters have

trunked repeater systems - Although multiple repeaters can be used to ease

overcrowding, they are often inad-
equate because communication activity is not equally distributed among them. This
prob-
lem is solved by using ____________
trunked repeater systems - two or more repeaters are
under the control of a computer system that can transfer a user from an assigned but
busy repeater to another, available repeater.

yes - does repeaters can also be used in series

Microwave relay stations - are used by

many telephone companies for long-distance communication.

communication satellite - "ultimate" repeater

22,500 mi - Most communica-

tion satellites are located in a geostationary orbit ____________ above the equator.

transponder - The receiver- transmitter combination

within the satellite is known as a .

yes - does communication satellites

appear stationary and They act as fixed repeater stations

square of the distance between the transmitter and receiver - Basically, the degree of
attenuation
is proportional to the

ground wave - attenuated by objects on the earth

sky wave - the ionospheric conditions and the number of hops

determine the signal level at the receiver, with each hop further reducing the signal level

space wave signals - are simply absorbed and attenuated by objects in their path such
as
trees or walls.

Pd = Pt(total power transmitte)/4πd - The power density at a given distance from an

isotropic
radiator is predicted by the formula

multiplied by 1.64 or Pd(1.64) - if the

Pr= PtGrGt(wavelength)^2 / 16π^2 d^2 - Knowing the power density at a given distance
is not a particularly useful thing.
However, the formula for power at a given distance can be expanded to derive a
general
formula for computing the actual power value of a signal at a receiving antenna:
fading - Although radio waves pass right through most objects on their way from
transmitter to
receiver, they are negatively inl uenced by these objects. The result is a common
problem
called

diversity system. - One way to overcome fading is to use a

fading - is the variation in signal amplitude at the receiver caused by the characteristics
of
the signal path and changes in it.

amplitude - Fading causes the received signal to vary in ____________, typically

making it smaller.

shadow fading, - Fading is also caused by objects coming between the transmitter and
receiver. Known
as

variation in distance between transmitter

and receiver, changes in the environmental characteristics of the signal path, the pres-
ence of multiple signal paths, and relative motion between the transmitter and receiver.
- Fading is caused by four factors:

multipath interference - One of the worst sources of fading is

Rayleigh fading - this type of fading occurs when a transmitted signal takes mul-
tiple paths to the receiver because of reflections

Rayleigh - refers to a particular

type of statistical response curve that mathematically describes the variation of the
received signal.

Doppler shift - Another type of fading is caused by movement of either the transmitter or
the receiver.
When the transmitter is in a car, plane, or other vehicle, rapid movement toward or
away
from the receiver introduces a signal frequency change called a

built-in fading margin. - To overcome fading, most communication systems have a

5 dB - A fade
margin of at least _______ is built into most systems.

highly directive antennas - Multipath fading can also be greatly minimized by using
_______________,
either at the transmitter or at the receiver or at both.

diversity system - uses multiple transmitters, receivers, or antennas to mitigate

the problems caused by multipath signals.

frequency and spatial. - Two common types of diversity are

space or spacial diversity - It

uses two receiver antennas spaced as far apart as possible to receive the signals

shortwave frequencies - Diversity reception is particularly difi cult at _____________,

where the spacing
will typically be many hundreds or even thousands of feet.

Snell's law - relationship between angles and indices of refraction

transmission line - The two primary requirements of a ______________ are that (1) the
line introduce minimum
attenuation to the signal and (2) the line not radiate any of the signal as radio energy

parallel wire line - is made of two parallel conductors separated

by a space of 1
⁄2 in to several inches.

300 ohm twin lead - A variation of parallel line is the type shown in Fig. 13-1(b),
where the spacing between the wires is maintained by a continuous plastic insulator.

coaxial cable - The most widely used type of transmission line is ______________,
which consists of a solid center conductor surrounded by a dielectric material, usually a
plastic insulator such as Tefl on

twisted pair cables - as the name implies, uses two insulated solid
copper wires covered with insulation and loosely twisted together

twisted pair cable - cable that is one of the most widely used types of wir-
ing in local-area networks (LANs)

balance line - is one in which

neither wire is connected to ground

unbalanced line - one conductor is connected to ground

balanced - Open-wire line has a _________ confi guration

common node rejection - Because of the identical polarities of the

signals on balanced lines, any external signal induced into the cable appears on both
wires simultaneously but cancels at the receiver. This is called

60-70 db - common-mode rejection,

and noise reduction can be as great as

unbalanced - Coaxial cables are _________ lines

balun - It is sometimes necessary or desirable to convert from balanced to unbalanced

operation
or vice versa. This is done with a device called a

C/f - wavelength=

free space. - An important consideration in transmission line applications is that the

speed of the
signal in the transmission line is slower than the speed of a signal in _________

Transmission line delay - __________________ is often

the determining factor in calculat-
ing the maximum allowed cable
length in LANs.

time delay or transit time - A signal applied at one end of a line appears some time later
at
the other end of the line. This is called the _____________________ for the line.

delay line. - A trans-

mission line used specifi cally for the purpose of achieving delay is called a

coaxial connectors - are designed not only to provide a convenient way

to attach and disconnect equipment and cables but also to maintain the physical
integrity
and electrical properties of the cable.

wavelength - At high frequencies, the ____________________ is much smaller than the

circuit size, resulting in different phases at different locations in
the circuit.

transmission line - A ________________ is a two-port network connecting

Generator circuit at the Sending end to a load at the
Receiving

length - the ____________ of a transmission line is of

utmost importance in transmission line analysis.

infinitely long transmission line - For an _______________, there can be no

reflected wave (backward travelling wave).