Computer Networks Lab Manual

Expt.No:1.Build a circuit to generate and detect of BASK signal and BFSK

signal using communication kit.

A) AIM OF THE EXPERIMENT: To study the generation and detection of Amplitude

Shift Keying (ASK).
EQUIPMENTS/ APPARATUS REQUIRED:

THEORY:
The binary ASK system was one of the earliest form of digital modulation used in wireless
telegraphy. In a binary ASK system binary symbol 1 is represented by transmitting a
sinusoidal carrier wave of fixed amplitude Ac and fixed frequency fc for the bit duration Tb
whereas binary symbol 0 is represented by switching of the carrier for Tb seconds. This
signal can be generated simply by turning the carrier of a sinusoidal oscillator ON and OFF
for the prescribed periods indicated by the modulating pulse train. For this reason the scheme
is also known as on-off shift testing.
PROCEDURE:
1. The connections are given as per the block diagram.
2. Connect the power supply in proper polarity to the kit and & switch it on.
3. Set the amplitude and frequency of the carrier wave as desired.
4. Set the message data bit.
5. Observe the waveforms at the
a. Message data
b. Carrier signal
c. ASK modulator output
d. ASK demodulator output
6. Plot it on graph paper.

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BLOCK DIAGRAM/ CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:

GRAPH:

RESULTS: BASK Modulation and Demodulation are verified in the hardware kit and its
waveforms are studied.

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Circuit Connection and Output: ASK modulation

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Circuit Connection and Output: ASK demodulation

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B) AIM OF THE EXPERIMENT: To study the generation and detection of

Frequency Shift Keying (FSK).

THEORY:
FSK signalling schemes find a wide range of applications in low-speed digital data
transmission system. FSK schemes are not as efficient as PSK in terms of power and
bandwidth utilization. In binary FSK signalling the waveforms are used to convey binary
digits 0 and 1 respectively. The binary FSK waveform is a continuous, phase constant
envelope FM waveform. The FSK signal bandwidth in this case is of order of 2MHz, which
is same as the order of the bandwidth of PSK signal.
PROCEDURE:
1. The connections are given as per the block diagram.

2. Connect the power supply in proper polarity to the kit and & switch it on.

3. Set the amplitude of the sine wave as desired.

4. Observe the waveforms at the

i. Clock

j. SIN 1 & SIN 2

k. MODULATOR OUTPUT

l. PSK OUT

5. Plot it on graph

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BLOCK DIAGRAM/ CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:

GRAPH:

RESULTS: BFSK Modulation and Demodulation are verified in the hardware kit and its
waveforms are studied.

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Circuit Connection and Output: FSK modulation

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Circuit Connection and Output: FSK demodulation

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Expt.No: 02
Explore all ISP in your area/locality and select best internet ISP/plan
based on cost and performance.

Types of ISPs
 Internet Service Providers (ISPs) have several types of connectivity options for the
Internet. Each ISP is different in that the company provides a different type of
connectivity protocol and speed. Most ISPs are cable or DSL, but other options are
available for small, rural areas. It’s important to analyze your individual needs before
deciding on an ISP.
Dialup
 Although it’s painfully slow, dialup access is still a necessity for small, rural areas.
ISPs offer dialup access in these areas. A dialup ISP requires the user to have a
modem for Internet access. The user dials a phone connection using a telephone
number, connects to a remote server, and uses the telephone connection to browse
websites.
DSL
 DSL is normally offered by the local phone company. DSL is a technology that uses
the “extra” signals not used by telephone signals. These “extra” signals make DSL
usage available even during times when the phone is ringing or people are using the
telephone access. DSL uses a DSL router that connects using a telephone cable to a
phone jack.
Cable
 Cable is offered by the local cable company in the user’s neighborhood. Cable
Internet access is available by connecting a cable router to the computer and
connecting to a designated jack. Cable ISPs are usually faster, especially in areas
where there is not much usage. Cable connections are shared by neighbors, which
differs from DSL, so cable access speed is dependent on the amount of traffic from
other neighborhood users.
Wi-Fi Access
 Wi-Fi is wireless Internet access. It’s used by laptops and offered freely by many
hotels and coffee shops. Wi-Fi can also be installed in the home for people who have
desktops and laptops networked. Wi-Fi is not as quick as DSL or Cable, but it’s a
more convenient ISP service.

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There are a number of different internet providers in Athani that provide good internet
services and the telecom service providers such as Airtel, Jio, BSNL etc also come under this.
Since there are so many internet service providers available in Athani, it can be a difficult
thing to choose the best one so, we are here to help you in this regard with this list of Best
Internet Service Providers in Athani:

Conclusion: According to above table comparison and research, we conclude that JIO is
providing good performance and fastest internet facility for reasonable cost.

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Expt.No: 03
Test the download/upload speed in your computer/mobile phone also check
type, bandwidth and ISP.

CHECKING INTERNET SPEED ON WINDOWS

 To check the internet speed on your Windows PC, connect your router to PC via the
ethernet cable, or you can just check Wi-Fi network also
 Click on connected Wi-fi icon at the bottom right corner of the PC.
 Click on properties and scroll down to see receive/transmit speed:

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OR Search on Google as internet speed test and click on RUN SPEED TEST to get
download speed and upload speed.

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Expt.No: 04
Explore Bluetooth, Wifi, and NFC in your Smartphone and note their key
technical attributes (Radio spectrum band, range, path loss, throughput,
mode etc)
 Wireless communication is preferred a lot and has replaced wired connections over
the years as it is possible to share data even in long range, a faster rate and in a secure
way. Wireless communication is possible via technologies such as Bluetooth, NFC
and Wi-Fi of which the last one is yet to become mainstream. The technology is
chosen based on the purpose. The range plays an important role in choosing a specific
wireless technology.
 It is common for users to make use of Bluetooth and Wi-Fi to communication with
others and share data between devices. NFC is also used to some extent. Here, you
will get to know more details about the different wireless technologies and their major
differences.
1) Bluetooth
 Bluetooth is basically used when it is necessary to communicate within a short range.
 It was intended to replace the wired connection. It makes use of short range radio
links and operates on FHSS (Frequency Hopping Spread Spectrum) to avoid
inference. Bluetooth signals operate at 2.4GHz.
 Bluetooth LE is a recent technology that is aimed at enabling power sensitive devices
to connect permanently to the internet.
 Technical attributes
 Radio Spectrum band: There are several uses of the 2.4 GHz band.
Interference may occur between devices operating at 2.4GHz This article details
the different users of the 2.4 GHz band, how they cause interference to other
users and how they are prone to interference from other users.
 Range: Typically less than 10 m (33 ft), up to 100 m (330 ft). Bluetooth 5.0:
40–400 m (100–1,000 ft)
 Throughput:192.0 kbps
 Mode:Andriod.
2) Wifi(Wireless Fidelity)
 Wi-Fi networks are used commonly and these connect every possible device
together. Wi-Fi has been developed to facilitate wireless local area networking in
the 2.4GHz or 5.2GHZ bands.

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 There are issues related to security threat in Wi-Fi, but the same can be prevented
using the several security measures that are available. The common security
methods include WEP, WPA and WPA2.
 One similarity between Bluetooth and Wi-Fi technologies is that both share a
section of the 2.4GHz spectrum. This will pave way for some level of
interference.

 Technical attributes
 Radio Spectrum band: All Spectrum routers support 2.4 and 5 GHz frequencies.
If the router has a single WiFi network name, the advanced router will select the
correct connection for your device.
 Range: A general rule of thumb in home networking says that Wi-Fi routers
operating on the 2.4 GHz band can reach up to 150 feet indoors and 300 feet
outdoors.
 Throughput:600 mbps
 Mode:Router.

1) NFC(Near Field Communication)

 NFC is a standard in many smart phones and other devices. It aims at establishing
radio communication between devices by bringing them close to each other or by just
touching them. NFC facilitates in contactless transactions and data exchange.

 Technical attributes

 Radio Spectrum band: NFC operates at 13.56 MHz on ISO/IEC 18000-3 air
interface and at rates ranging from 106 kbit/s to 424 kbit/s. NFC always involves an
initiator and a target; the initiator actively generates an RF field that can power a
passive target.
 Range: NFC operates in a frequency range centered on 13.56 MHz and offers a data
transmission rate of up to 424 kbit/s within a distance of approximately 10
centimeters.
 Throughput: 106 kbit/s to 424 kbit/s.
 Mode: Reader/writer, peer-to-peer, card emulation and wireless charging.

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Expt.No: 05. My Protocol rules objectives.

Objectives
i. Relate computer network protocols to the rules that you use every day for various
forms of communication.
ii. Define the rules that govern how you send and interpret text messages.
iii. Explain what would happen if the sender and receiver did not agree on the details of
the protocol.
iv. Play the communication game.

Background / Scenario:
 Before beginning to communicate with each other, we establish rules or agreements to
govern the conversation. These rules, or protocols, must be followed for the message
to be successfully delivered and understood. Among the protocol characteristics that
govern successful human communication are:
 An identified sender and receiver
 Agreed upon method of communicating
 Common language and grammar
 Speed and timing of delivery
 Confirmation or acknowledgement requirements
 The techniques that are used in network communications share these fundamentals
with human conversations.
Instructions
 Think about the commonly accepted protocol standards for sending text messages to your
friends. Fill out the chart on the next page with some of the rules that you follow when
texting with friends and others.
Reflection
1. Now that you have documented the protocols that you use when sending and reading
text messages, do you think that these protocols would be the same if you were
texting with friends or with your parents and teachers? Explain your answer.
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________

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2. What do you think that the consequences would be if there was no agreed upon
protocol standards for different methods of
communications?_______________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
3. Share your protocol rules with your classmates. Are there differences between your
protocols and theirs? If so, could these differences result in misunderstanding of the
messages?____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________

Your Text Messaging Protocol

Protocol Requirement What does this mean? How is it implemented in
your protocol?
An identified sender and How do you know who the In text messaging, the sender
receiver text message is from? How and receiver are usually
does the person on the other identified by telephone
end know the message is number, username, or
delivered to you? Is it going nickname. Group texts can
to an individual or a group? be sent to a predefined group
or new groups created on
demand.
Agreed upon method of Do we send text only? Do we It can be a mix of text,
communicating send pictures back & forth? pictures, smileys and
What about using smileys and emoji. Depending on your
emoji? device and mobile OS, you
may even be able to send
videos.
Common language and Do we use acronyms? Is slang The sender and receiver
grammar acceptable? What is the native can use acronyms and
language of the participants? languages that are
understood by both sides.
Speed and timing of What determines how soon The speed of the delivery
delivery the recipient gets the depends on the speed of the
message? How quickly to we network and amount delay
expect to receive a response? and latency in the network.
A response is received
when the recipient sends a
response.
Confirmation or How do you know that the The intended recipient
acknowledgement message was received? How sends a response and the
requirements do you know that the recipient indicates the end
conversation is finished? of the conversation.

 Play the communication game (Telephone Game)-Dogs dig holes for big bones

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Expt.No: 06 Manual and Automatic address assignment (Windows)

a) IPv4 address
b) Subnet mask
c) DNS
Automatic address assignment:
 Automatically obtaining an IP Address from a DHCP (Dynamic Host Configuration
Protocol) server such as a router is an easy way to connect computer to the network.
 Instead of manually entering the IP Address, Subnet mask, and Default gateway, these
can be automatically assigned by the DHCP server.
 To do this, you need to set the network adapter on your computer to obtain an IP
Address automatically.

Step1: Right-click the Network icon located on the Desktop screen then click Open
Network and Sharing Center.

Step 2: Click Change adapter settings.

Step 3: Right-click on the Local Area Connection icon and click Properties.

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Step 4: On the Local Area Connection Properties window, select Internet Protocol
Version 4 (TCP / IPv4) then click Properties.

Step 5: Select a radio button beside Obtain an IP address automatically then click OK.

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Manual address assignment:

 Repeat the steps 1 to 4 of Automatic address assignment.
 Select the “Use the following IP address” option, and then type in the IP address,
subnet mask, and default gateway that corresponds with your network setup.
 Next, type in your preferred and alternate DNS server addresses. Finally, select the
“Validate settings upon exit” option so that Windows immediately checks your new
IP address and corresponding information to ensure that it works. When you’re ready,
click the “OK” button.

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Expt.No: 07 Manual and Automatic address assignment (Android)

a) IPv4 address
b) Subnet mask
c) DNS
Automatic address assignment:
 Automatically obtaining an IP Address from a DHCP (Dynamic Host Configuration
Protocol) server such as a router is an easy way to connect mobile to the network.
 Instead of manually entering the IP Address, Default gateway, DNS 1 and DNS 2
these can be automatically assigned by the DHCP server.
Manual address assignment:
How do I setup a static IP Address on my Android device?
 The steps will vary with different versions of Android. This documentation is based
on Android version 11.
1. Go to Settings.
2. Select Network & Internet, then Wi-Fi.
3. Tap on the network you are currently connected to open the settings menu

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4. Click on DHCP to change to static and set IP address as follows. Then save.

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Expt.No:08
i) Organize and play games to understand working of TCP/IP like: Create
2 groups of students, each playing role of layers of TCP/IP (intermediate
network devices roles can also be considered). Start the communication
between two with a sender and receiver.

How the TCP/IP Protocols Handle Data Communications

 When a user issues a command that uses a TCP/IP application layer protocol, a series
of events is initiated. The user's command or message passes through the TCP/IP
protocol stack on the local system. Then, the command or message passes across the
network media to the protocols on the remote system. The protocols at each layer on
the sending host add information to the original data.
 Protocols on each layer of the sending host also interact with their peers on the
receiving host. Figure shows this interaction.
Data Encapsulation and the TCP/IP Protocol Stack
 The packet is the basic unit of information that is transferred across a network. The
basic packet consists of a header with the sending and receiving systems' addresses,
and a body, or payload, with the data to be transferred. As the packet travels through
the TCP/IP protocol stack, the protocols at each layer either add or remove fields from
the basic header. When a protocol on the sending system adds data to the packet
header, the process is called data encapsulation. Moreover, each layer has a different
term for the altered packet, as shown in the following figure.
Figure : How a Packet Travels Through the TCP/IP Stack

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 This section summarizes the life cycle of a packet. The life cycle starts when you
issue a command or send a message. The life cycle finishes when the appropriate
application on the receiving system receives the packet.
Application Layer: Where a Communication Originates
 The packet's history begins when a user on one system sends a message or issues a
command that must access a remote system. The application protocol formats the
packet so that the appropriate transport layer protocol, TCP or UDP, can handle the
packet.
 Suppose the user issues an rlogin command to log in to the remote system, as shown
in Figure. The rlogin command uses the TCP transport layer protocol. TCP expects to
receive data in the form of a stream of bytes that contain the information in the
command. Therefore, rlogin sends this data as a TCP stream.
Transport Layer: Where Data Encapsulation Begins
 When the data arrives at the transport layer, the protocols at the layer start the process
of data encapsulation. The transport layer encapsulates the application data into
transport protocol data units.
 The transport layer protocol creates a virtual flow of data between the sending and
receiving application, differentiated by the transport port number. The port number
identifies a port, a dedicated location in memory for receiving or sending data. In
addition, the transport protocol layer might provide other services, such as reliable, in
order data delivery. The end result depends on whether TCP, SCTP, or UDP handles
the information.
TCP Segmentation
 TCP is often called a “connection-oriented” protocol because TCP ensures the
successful delivery of data to the receiving host. Figure :Shows how the TCP protocol
receives the stream from the rlogin command. TCP then divides the data that is
received from the application layer into segments and attaches a header to each
segment.
 Segment headers contain sending and receiving ports, segment ordering information,
and a data field that is known as a checksum. The TCP protocols on both hosts use
the checksum data to determine if the data transfers without error.

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Establishing a TCP Connection

 TCP uses segments to determine whether the receiving system is ready to receive the
data. When the sending TCP wants to establish connections, TCP sends a segment
that is called a SYN to the TCP protocol on the receiving host. The receiving TCP
returns a segment that is called an ACK to acknowledge the successful receipt of the
segment. The sending TCP sends another ACK segment, and then proceeds to send
the data. This exchange of control information is referred to as a three-way
handshake.
UDP Packets
 UDP is a “connectionless” protocol. Unlike TCP, UDP does not check that data
arrived at the receiving host. Instead, UDP formats the message that is received from
the application layer into UDP packets. UDP attaches a header to each packet. The
header contains the sending and receiving ports, a field with the length of the packet,
and a checksum.
 The sending UDP process attempts to send the packet to its peer UDP process on the
receiving host. The application layer determines whether the receiving UDP process
acknowledges the reception of the packet. UDP requires no notification of receipt.
UDP does not use the three-way handshake.
Internet Layer: Where Packets Are Prepared for Delivery
 The transport protocols TCP, UDP, and SCTP pass their segments and packets down
to the Internet layer, where the IP protocol handles the segments and packets. IP
prepares them for delivery by formatting them into units called IP datagrams. IP then
determines the IP addresses for the datagrams, so that they can be delivered
effectively to the receiving host.
IP Datagrams
 IP attaches an IP header to the segment or packet's header, in addition to the
information that is added by TCP or UDP. Information in the IP header includes the
IP addresses of the sending and receiving hosts, the datagram length, and the
datagram sequence order. This information is provided if the datagram exceeds the
allowable byte size for network packets and must be fragmented.
Data-Link Layer: Where Framing Takes Place
 Data-link layer protocols, such as PPP, format the IP datagram into a frame. These
protocols attach a third header and a footer to “frame” the datagram. The frame

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header includes a cyclic redundancy check (CRC) field that checks for errors as the
frame travels over the network media. Then, the data-link layer passes the frame to
the physical layer.
Physical Network Layer: Where Frames Are Sent and Received
 The physical network layer on the sending host receives the frames and converts the
IP addresses into the hardware addresses appropriate to the network media. The
physical network layer then sends the frame out over the network media.
How the Receiving Host Handles the Packet
 When the packet arrives on the receiving host, the packet travels through the TCP/IP
protocol stack in the reverse order from which it was sent. Figure :Illustrates this path.
Moreover, each protocol on the receiving host strips off header information that is
attached to the packet by its peer on the sending host. The following process occurs:
i) The physical network layer receives the packet in its frame form. The physical
network layer computes the CRC of the packet, and then sends the frame to the data
link layer.
ii) The data-link layer verifies that the CRC for the frame is correct and strips off the
frame header and the CRC. Finally, the data-link protocol sends the frame to the
Internet layer.
iii) The Internet layer reads information in the header to identify the transmission. Then,
the Internet layer determines if the packet is a fragment. If the transmission is
fragmented, IP reassembles the fragments into the original datagram. IP then strips off
the IP header and passes the datagram on to transport layer protocols.
iv) The transport layer (TCP, SCTP, and UDP) reads the header to determine which
application layer protocol must receive the data. Then, TCP, SCTP, or UDP strips off
its related header. TCP, SCTP, or UDP sends the message or stream to the receiving
application.
v) The application layer receives the message. The application layer then performs the
operation that the sending host requested.

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Expt.No: 09 Determine the IP Address Configuration of a Computer

(Windows) and Test the Network Interface TCP/IP Stack (Ping).
 Internet protocol configuration (ipconfig) is one of the most valuable tools used to
check and troubleshoot basic TCP/IP settings and this command displays all the IP
configuration details of the windows machine.

 The TCP/IP stands for Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol and it is a

set of networking protocols that allows communicating multiple computers.

 ipconfig is one of the most valuable tool available to check and troubleshoot basic
TCP/IP settings.

 Ipconfig syntax

ipconfig [/parameter]

Steps to determine IP address configuration on any computer:

Step 1: Click on the Windows key to open start and search cmd and then click on the
Command Prompt which is shown in the below image.

Step 2: Type ipconfig command and press enter to get details of IP, subnet mask and default
gateway addresses.

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Testing a TCP/IP protocol stack: Using ping

 The ping utility provided with many TCP/IP packages is useful for testing the IP
network layer.
 Ping takes as an argument an IP address and attempts to send a single packet to the
named IP protocol stack.
 First, determine if your own protocol stack is operating correctly by “pinging” your
own computer. For example, if your IP address is 192.168.43.190, enter
ping 192.168.43.190 at command prompt and wait to see if the packets are routed at
all. If they are, the output will appear similar to the following:

 If the ping works, then the computer is able to route packets to itself. This is
reasonable assurance that the IP layer is set up correctly.

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Expt.No: 10 Demonstrate working of common network devices.

Access Points:
 While a wired or wireless link is technological in an AP, it usually means a wireless
device as shown below.

 Access point connects multiple wireless devices together in a single wireless network.
 Access point supports both type of standards; Ethernet and Wi-Fi.
 Access point uses radio signals to provide the connectivity.
 Based on functionality an access point can be categorized in three types; standalone,
multifunction and client.
 A standalone access point works in the wireless network exactly as the switch works
in the wired network.
 To control the unauthorized access, Access point uses authorization.
 To extend the coverage area, multiple access points are used together under a
Wireless LAN Controller.
 An access point which works under the WLC is known as the LWAP (Lightweight
Access Point).
 In WLC-LWAPs setup, the WLC controls and manages all LWAPs.
 A LWAP works as the bridge between the WLC and the end device.
Repeaters:
 Repeaters are devices that operate only in the physical layer. Repeaters are used to
increase the usable length of the cable.
 Repeaters amplify a weak signal so that the signal stays as strong as the original one.
 Repeaters can also be used to connect two segments of the same network. Segments
refer to logical sections of the same network.
 Repeaters do not have any capability of directing network traffic or deciding what
particular route that certain data should take, they are simply devices that sit on the
network and boost the data signal that they receive.
 The problem with repeaters is that they amplify the entire signal that they receive,
including any line noise.

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 Repeaters require a small amount of time to regenerate the signal. This can cause a
propagation delay, which can affect network communication when there are several
repeaters in a row.
 Repeaters were most commonly associated with coaxial network configurations.
Because coaxial networks have now fallen out of favour, and because the
functionality of repeaters has been built in to other devices, such as hubs and
switches, repeaters are rarely used.
 The role of repeater is shown in the following figure.

Hubs:
 A hub is a centralized device that connects multiple devices in a single LAN network.
When a hub receives a data signal from a connected device on one of its ports, except
for that port, it forwards those signals from the remaining ports to all other connected
devices.
 Typically, a hub has one or more uplink ports that are used to connect it to another
hub. Hubs are no longer used in computer networks.
 There are two types of the Hub.
 Passive Hub: - A passive hub forwards data signals as it receives them. It
does not change data signals in any manner.
 Active Hub: - An active hub also forwards data signals. But, before
forwarding them, it amplifies them. Due to this added feature, an active Hub is
also called a repeater.
 The following image shows an active hub and a passive hub.

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Bridges:
A bridge is used to divide a large network into smaller segments. The basic functions of a
bridge are the following: -
 Breaking a large network into smaller segments.
 Connecting different media types such as UTP and fibre optic.
 Connecting different network architectures such as Ethernet and the Token ring.
The following image shows an example of a bridge.

 A bridge can connect two different types of media or network architecture, but it
cannot connect two different types of network layer protocols such as TCP/IP or IPX.
It requires the same network-layer protocols across all segments.
There are three types of bridge:-
Local Bridge: - The Bridge directly connects two LAN segments. In Ethernet
implementations, this is known as a transparent bridge. In the Token Ring network, this is
called a source-routed bridge.

Remote Bridge: - This Bridge connects with another Bridge over the WAN link.

Wireless Bridge: - This Bridge connects with another Bridge without using wires. It uses
radio signals for connectivity.

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 In networking models such as the OSI layers model and TCP/IP model, the
functionalities of Bridges are defined in the physical layer and data link layer.
 Just like a Hub, a Bridge is also no longer used in the computer network. Bridges have
been replaced by switches.
Switches:
 Like hubs, switches also connect computers in a network or different segments of the
same network.
 Switches work at the data link layer of the OSI reference model. Therefore, switches
treat data in the form of frames and not as signals,
 The following figure shows an example of a 32-port Ethernet switch.

 Just as in hub, devices in switches are connected to ports through twisted pair cabling.
 Hub works by sending the data to all the ports on the device whereas a switch
transfers it only to that port which is connected to the destination device as shown in
figure below.
 A switch does so by having an in-built learning of the MAC address of the devices
connected to it. A MAC address is a unique number that is stamped into every NIC.
 By forwarding data only to the system to which the data is addressed, the switch
decreases the amount of traffic on each network link dramatically.
 In effect, the switch literally channels (or switches, if you prefer) data between the
ports. For this purpose, switches maintain a list of MAC addresses and the port
number associated with each MAC address.

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Routers:
 Routers allow packets to be transmitted to their destinations by monitoring the sea of
networking devices interconnected with different network topologies.
 Routers are smart devices and store data on the networks to which they are connected.
 Most routers can be adjusted as a firewall for packet filters and can use ACLs.
 Routers are also used to convert from LAN to WAN framing in conjunction with the
network control unit/data service unit (CSU / DSU). Such routers are called
boundary routers.
 They serve as a LAN external link to a WAN and run on your network boundaries.
Routers interact through the management of destination tables and local connections.
 A router gives data on the linked systems and sends requests if the destination is
unknown. Routers are your first protection line, and only the traffic approved by
network administrators needs to be enabled to pass.

Network Interface Cards (NICs):

 Network Interface Cards, commonly referred to as NICs, are used to connect a PC to
a network. The NIC provides a physical connection between the networking cable and
the computer‘s internal bus.
 Many NIC adapters comply with plug-and-play specifications. On these systems,
NICs are automatically configured without user intervention, while on non-plug-and-
play systems, configuration is done manually through a set-up program.
 NICs work at both the data link layer and physical layers of the OSI reference model.
At the data link layer, NIC converts the data packets into data frames and adds the
MAC address to the data frame.

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 At the physical layer, it is responsible for converting the data into signals, and
transmitting them across the communication medium. A MAC address is a unique
hardware number present on the NIC and is specified by the NIC manufacturer. MAC
addresses are globally unique.
 When a computer needs to send data, the NIC receives data packets from the
computer, converts them into data frames, and passes them across the cable as signals.
 The role of NIC in most PC environments can be divided into the following tasks:
i) Host-to-card communication
ii) Buffering
iii) Frame Creation
iv) Parallel-to-Serial conversion
v) Encoding

Modems:
 Modems (modulators-demodulators) are used to transmit digital signals over analog
telephone lines. Thus, digital signals are converted by the modem into analog signals
of different frequencies and transmitted to a modem at the receiving location.
 The receiving modem performs the reverse transformation and provides a digital
output to a device connected to a modem, usually a computer.

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 The digital data is usually transferred to or from the modem over a serial line through
an industry standard interface, RS-232.
 Many telephone companies offer DSL services, and many cable operators use
modems as end terminals for identification and recognition of home and personal
users.
 Modems work on both the Physical and Data Link layers.

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Expt.No:11 Demonstrate different network cables and connectors.

LAN Cables – Co-axial, twisted pair, optical fibre:

Coaxial Cable
 
 A coaxial cable consists of two concentric conductors separated by insulation.
 The inner conductor transmits electric signals, and the outer conductor acts as a
ground. 
 The entire assembly is wrapped in a sheath of Teflon or PVC (polyvinyl chloride). 


Figure: The cross-section of a typical coaxial cable

 The conductor used in coaxial cables is copper wire. It is used for both the inner and
outer conductors.
 Coaxial cable is more resistant to interference and attenuation than twisted-pair
cabling. Although coaxial cabling is difficult to install, it is highly resistant to signal
interference. 
 The commonly used coaxial cables in Ethernet LANs are:
1. l0base2: It is known as thin net supports a data-transfer rate of 10 Mbps and can
transmit signals without attenuation over a distance of 185 meters. . Thinnet
connects directly to a workstation’s network adapter card using a British Naval
Connector (BNC).
2. l0base5: It is known as thick net, supports a data-transfer rate of 10 Mbps over a
distance of 500 meters. Thick net has a maximum cable length of 500 meters and
usually is used as a backbone to connect several smaller thinnet -based networks.
 There are three categories of coaxial cables namely, RG-59 (Cable TV), RG-58 (Thin
Ethernet), and RG-11 (Thick Ethernet). RG stands for Radio Government.

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 Advantages:
1. Support high bandwidths and can transmit signals up to 10 kilometers.
2. It was relatively inexpensive, and it was light, flexible, and easy to work with.
3. In fact, coaxial cables were the original transmission medium specified by IEEE for
use with Ethernet.
 Disadvantages: 1. It supports only the bus topology. Coaxial cables do not support
star topology, which is the most common topology used in LANs.
Twisted-Pair Cables
 A typical twisted-pair cable consists of four pairs of thin copper wires coated with
PVC or Teflon, spiralled (twisted) around one another.
 The spiralling results in radiation between the copper wires and cancels the effect of
EMI.
 A pair of wires forms a circuit that can transmit data. The pairs are twisted to provide
protection against crosstalk. Crosstalk is the undesired signal noise generated by the
Electro-Magnetic fields of the adjacent wires.
 Twisted pair may be used to transmit both analog and digital signals. For analog
signals, amplifiers are required about every 5 to 6 km. For digital signals, repeaters
are required every 2 or 3 km.


Figure: Cross section of Twisted Pair Cable

 A twisted pair consists of two insulated conductor twisted together in the spiral form.
Twisting of wires will reduce the effect of noise or external interference. One of the
wires is used to carry signals to the receiver and the other is used only as a ground
reference.

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 The number of twists per unit length will determine the quality of the cable. More
twists means better quality. It can be shielded or unshielded.
 The twisted-pair cables generally used in LANs are of the following types:
Shielded Twisted Pair (STP)
Unshielded Twisted Pair (UTP)

Shielded Twisted Pair (STP)

 In STP, an extra layer of metal foil is present between the twisted pairs of copper
wires and the outer sheath.
 The purpose of this layer is to provide additional protection from EMI and RFI.

Figure: Cross-section of the STP cable.

 STP is more expensive than UTP and is generally used in networks where cables pass
closer to devices that cause high EMI .
 The presence of shielding increases the resistance to the signal and, therefore, restricts
the cable length and the throughput offered by STP.
 The following summarizes the features of STP cable:
 Speed and throughput—10 to 100 Mbps
 Average cost per node—Moderately expensive
 Media and connector size—Medium to large
 Maximum cable length—100 m (short)
Unshielded Twisted Pair (UTP)
 UTP cables are the most commonly used communication medium in LANs.
 Of the four pairs in a UTP cable, however, only two pairs are actually used for
communication in LANs and provide speeds of up to 100 Mbps.

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 The wire pairs are then covered with a plastic outer jacket. Each pair is twisted with a
different number of twists per inch to help eliminate interference from adjacent pairs
and other electrical devices. 
 The tighter the twisting, the higher the supported transmission rate and the greater the
cost per foot. 

Figure: Cross-Section of UTP Cable

 UTP cables are capable of supporting different bandwidths and transmission speeds.
 Depending on the bandwidth offered, the following categories of UTP cables are
defined:
 Category 1 (Cat-1), Category 2 (Cat-2), Category 3 (Cat-3), Category 4 (Cat-4),
Category-5 (Cat-5)
Advantage:
 UTP cables are inexpensive and are resistant to physical stress.
 They also offer the flexibility to select a particular category of cable depending on the
network requirements and resist attenuation over distances that are adequate for most
LANs.
Disadvantage:
 UTP cables should not be used if the network is located in an environment with high
EMI.

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Optical Fibre Cables

 Optical fibre cables transmit data in the form of light. Optical fibre cables contain
long thin strands of pure glass, called the fibre, with each strand having a diameter of
about 5 microns.
 An optical fibre is a thin (2 to 125 pm), flexible medium capable of conducting an
optical ray. Various glasses and plastics can be used to make optical fibres
 A typical optical fibre cable consists of the following three components:
 Core: The core contains the optical fibre conductor (glass) that transmits light.
 Cladding: The core is surrounded by another optical material to prevent any
light from escaping the core. The function of cladding is to reflect the light
back into the core.
 Sheath or Outer jacket: The core and cladding are covered with a sheath,
usually made of plastic, to protect the fibre from damage.

Figure: Cross-Section of Optical Fibre Cable

 The data to be transmitted is converted into light by a codec (coder and decoder)
present at each end of the fibre. 
 Fibre optic cable transmits light signals which are converted from electrical to light
with the help of devices like Light Emitting Diodes (LEDs) or Light Amplification by
Stimulated Emitted Radiations (LASERs). 
 Each fibre has an inner core of glass or plastic that conducts light. The inner core is
surrounded by cladding, a layer of glass or plastic that reflects the light back into the
core instead of refraction. 
 The codec converts the data from the computer into light, and the light is then
transmitted across the cable with the help of either a Light Emitting Diode (LED) or
an Injection Laser Diode (ILD). 
 At the destination computer, a decoder receives the light beam and converts it into
data. 

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LAN Connectors
 Connectors act as interface between NIC of the computer and the cable that
transmits the signals.
 The type of connector depends on type of cable of used to connect computers or
devices on the network.

Coaxial Cable Connectors

 To connect coaxial cable to the device, we need coaxial cable connector.
 To connect a coaxial cable to an NIC, the following connectors are required:
 BNC connector
 T-connector
 Terminator

BNC Connectors: (BNC stands for British Naval/Navy Connector or Bayonet Nut
Connector or Bayonet Neill Councilman Connector) are available in three different forms:
1. BNC Cable Connector
2. BNC –T Connector
3. BNC Terminator

 The end of the coaxial cable that plugs into a computer is connected to a BNC
connector.
 A BNC connector connects the coaxial cable to the T-connector, which is plugged
into the NIC of the computer.
 A terminator is required at the end of the coaxial cable in the network to absorb or
destroy any signals that are not received by the computers in the network.

Twisted Pair Cable Connectors

 UTP and STP use different connectors to connect with the NIC.
 A UTP cable connects to an NIC with an RJ-45 connector.
 An STP cable uses a D-shell (or DB-9) connector.
 The standard connector for unshielded twisted pair cabling is an RJ-45 connector.
This is a plastic connector attached to UTP cable.
 A slot allows the RJ-45 to be inserted only one way. RJ stands for Registered Jack.

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 Figure shows the DB-9 connector, which is used with STP and an RJ-45 connector
used with UTP.

Figure: RJ-45 connector

 The connector used on a UTP cable is called as RJ-45 (Registered Jack 45) connector.
 Below picture shows an RJ45 jack, attached to UTP cable. Eight color-coded wires
inside Twisted-Pair cable is attached to eight pins in a RJ45 jack as shown above.
 Each wire in the Twisted Pair cable is crimped into 8 pins in the RJ45 jack.
 To prepare a UTP network cable, it is necessary to crimp two RJ45 connectors as
shown below.

Figure: UTP network cable

 There are two types of cabling: straight-through cabling and crossover cabling.
 Straight-through cable is used for connecting a computer to the hub/switch.
 Whereas crossover cable is used for connecting two computers or two hubs/switches.
Each cable requires two connectors.

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Straight-through Cable:
Pin Connector 1 Connector 2
Num. (T-568A) (T-568A)

01 White Green White Green

02 Green Green
03 White Orange White Orange
04 Blue Blue
05 White Blue White Blue
06 Orange Orange
07 White Brown White Brown
08 Brown Brown

Cross Over Cable:

Pin Connector 1 Connector 2

Num. (T-568A) (T-568B)

01 White Green White Orange

02 Green Orange
03 White Orange White Green
04 Blue Blue
05 White Blue White Blue
06 Orange Green
07 White Brown White Brown
08 Brown Brown

Optical Fibre Connectors

 There are several types of fibre optic connectors available today.
 The most common are: ST, SC, FC, MT-RJ and LC style connectors.
Straight Tip (ST)

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 The ST connector is one of the first connector types widely implemented in fibre optic
networking applications.
 ST connections use a 2.5mm ferrule with a round plastic or metal body. Available in
single-mode and multimode.
 The connector stays in place with twist-on/twist-off mechanism.
 The ST connector are reliable and durable field installation

Subscriber Connector (SC)

 SC connectors also use a round 2.5mm ferrule to hold a single fiber.
 They use a push-on/pull-off mating mechanism which is generally easier to use.
 The connector body of an SC connector is square shaped, and two SC connectors are
usually held together with a plastic clip (this is referred to as a duplex connection). T
 The Subscriber Connector (SC) can be seen commonly on MMF or SMF.
 Figure below shows an example of an SC connector:

Lucent Connector (LC)

 One popular Small Form Factor (SFF) connector is the LC type. This interface was
developed by Lucent Technologies (hence, Lucent Connector).
 It uses a retaining tab mechanism, similar to a phone or RJ45 connector, and the
connector body resembles the square shape of SC connector.
 LC connectors are normally held together in a duplex configuration with a plastic clip.
 The ferrule of an LC connector is 1.25mm.
 LC connector is always duplex connecting a pair of fibers at a time.

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 Figure below shows an example of a LC connector:

Multi-fibre Push On (MPO)

 The Multi-fibre Push On (MPO) connector is another duplex connector that offers an
easy option for connection.
 It is often also referred to as Multi-fiber Termination Push-on (MTP); the MTP
connector is a brand name (US Conec).
 Figure below shows an example of an MPO connector:

MU Connector
 The MU connector is designed for high-density connections.
 This small single-fiber connector has a high level of performance, providing more
than double the packaging density of the SC connector.
 The following Figure shows the MU connector.

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Expt.No: 12 Install and configure NIC.

 The NIC is also commonly referred to as a network adapter and is an expansion card
that enables a computer to connect to a network such as a home network and/or the
Internet using a Ethernet cable with a RJ-45 connector.
 This section discusses the process of installing a Network Interface Card/Network
Adapter.
 Steps:
1. First step is to read the user's guide and familiarize yourself with the new card.
2. Power down PC and remove the AC power cord.
3. Open the computer case.
4. Find an available Peripheral Component Interconnect (PCI) slot on the
motherboard.

5. Carefully remove the network card from its static-proof plastic envelope, and slide
it into the slot.
6. Seat the card in the slot firmly with gentle pressure along the length of the card,
especially right about the slot itself.

7. Snugly, screw the card to the computer frame, but do not over tighten.
8. Close the computer case.
9. Plug your computer in and power it up.
10. Click Start and then go to control panel.

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11. Click on hardware and sound and the click on Device Manager.

12. Double click network adapters which shows name of your Ethernet Card.
13. Next, double click the name of the Ethernet Adapter.
14. If the text in the "Device Status" box says "This device is working properly.",
then you successfully installed the card and are finished.

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Expt.No: 13
Crimping of RJ45: Straight and Cross.
a) Punching Cat 6 cable to I/O Box. Use punching tool.
b) Check connectivity using LAN tester.
 Crimping is the process of connecting RJ (Registered Jack) 45 connector to the
Ethernet cable using crimping tool. Generally there are two types of crimping
 Straight Through Crimping and
 Cross Over Crimping
 For connecting two computers to transfer the data we have to use connectors on
both ends of a cable. Generally, the connectors are male-female type to ensure reliable
connection. The standard connector for unshielded twisted pair cabling is an RJ-45
connector which is made up of plastic and looks like a large telephone-style
connector. Although RJ 45 is used for a variety of purposes, but the RJ-45 connector
is most commonly used for 10Base-T and 100Base-TX Ethernet connections.

RJ-45 Connector and its Pin Position

Straight Through Crimping

 This type of crimping is used when we want to connect unlike devices i.e.,
computer to switch,computer to hub, router to switch, switch to computer
etc.,
 T-568A Straight Through Crimping and its Pin Connection

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T-568A Straight Through Connection T-568B Straight Through Connection

Pin Connector 1 Connector 2 Pin Connector 1 Connector 2

Num. (T-568A) (T-568A) Num. (T-568B) (T-568B)
01 White Green White Green 01 White Orange White Orange
02 Green Green 02 Orange Orange
03 White Orange White Orange 03 White Green White Green
04 Blue Blue 04 Blue Blue
05 White Blue White Blue 05 White Blue White Blue
06 Orange Orange 06 Green Green
07 White Brown White Brown 07 White Brown White Brown
08 Brown Brown 08 Brown Brown

Cross Over Crimping

 This type of crimping is commonly used when we want to connect like devices
i.e., router to router,switch to switch, computer to computer etc.
 T-568A and T-568B Cross Over Crimping and its Pin Connection

T-568A and T-568B Cross over Connection Categories of UTP cables (Unshielded
Twisted Pair)

Pin Connector 1 Connector 2

Num. (T-568A) (T-568B)
01 White Green White Orange
02 Green Orange
03 White Orange White Green
04 Blue Blue
05 White Blue White Blue
06 Orange Green
07 White Brown White Brown
08 Brown Brown

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Cables and Tools Used for Crimping:

CAT 6 Cable and its internal Twist Pairs Cat 6 cable ready to use for LAN
connection

Crimping and Punching Tool LAN Tester

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Expt.No: 14. Install Network simulator like Cisco packet tracer. Create
simple network in simulator. Create and demonstrate all possible network
topologies using simulator.

Installing Packet Tracer:

 Download Packet Tracer which is appropriate for your operating system i.e Windows
 Installation in Windows is pretty simple and straightforward; the setup comes in a
single file named Packettracer_Setup 7.3.0.exe.
 Open this file to begin the setup wizard, accept the license agreement, choose a
location, and start the installation.
Create simple network in simulator:
 Design and create simple network as shown below.

O/p: Check for successful connection on pinging to any pc through its IP address.

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Network Topologies:
Star Topology:

Bus Topology:

Ring Topology:

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