Module 1: Data Communication Components

1. Representation of Data and Its Flow

Data communication involves transmitting data between two or more devices through a
transmission medium. The data can be represented in various formats, such as:

• Text: ASCII, Unicode, etc.

• Numbers: Binary, decimal, hexadecimal.
• Images: Bitmap (BMP), JPEG, PNG.
• Audio: Analog-to-digital conversion using PCM.
• Video: Compressed formats like MPEG, MP4.

Flow of Data:

• Simplex: Data flows in one direction only (e.g., keyboard to monitor).

• Half-Duplex: Data flows in both directions but one direction at a time (e.g., walkie-
talkies).
• Full-Duplex: Data flows in both directions simultaneously (e.g., telephone
communication).

2. Networks

Networks are collections of interconnected devices that share resources and exchange
information.

• Types of Networks:
o LAN (Local Area Network): Covers a small geographical area like a
building.
o MAN (Metropolitan Area Network): Covers a city or campus.
o WAN (Wide Area Network): Covers large geographical areas like countries.
o PAN (Personal Area Network): Covers short distances, typically for personal
devices.

3. Various Connection Topologies

Network topology refers to the physical or logical arrangement of network devices.

• Bus Topology: All devices share a single communication line; cheap but not fault-
tolerant.
• Star Topology: Devices connect to a central hub; easy to manage but hub-dependent.
• Ring Topology: Devices connect in a closed-loop; data flows in one or both
directions.
• Mesh Topology: Every device is interconnected; robust but expensive.
 • Hybrid Topology: Combines two or more topologies for flexibility.

4. Protocols and Standards

Protocols: Set of rules governing data communication (e.g., TCP/IP, HTTP, FTP, SMTP).
Standards: Established guidelines for hardware and software interoperability (e.g., IEEE,
ISO).

5. OSI Model (Open Systems Interconnection)

A conceptual framework that standardizes communication in seven layers:

1. Physical Layer: Transmission media, signals, and hardware.

2. Data Link Layer: Error detection, MAC addressing (Ethernet, PPP).
3. Network Layer: Logical addressing and routing (IP, ICMP).
4. Transport Layer: End-to-end communication, error recovery (TCP, UDP).
5. Session Layer: Establishing, maintaining, and terminating sessions.
6. Presentation Layer: Data formatting, encryption, and compression.
7. Application Layer: User interface and application services (HTTP, DNS).

6. Transmission Media

The medium used to transmit data can be:

• Wired:
o Twisted Pair Cable: Shielded (STP) or unshielded (UTP).
o Coaxial Cable: Used in older networks.
o Fiber Optic Cable: High-speed, long-distance communication.
• Wireless:
o Radio Waves: Long-distance communication.
o Microwaves: Line-of-sight communication.
o Infrared: Short-distance communication.
o Satellite: Global communication.

7. LAN

• Wired LAN: Uses Ethernet cables and switches; stable and fast.
• Wireless LAN (WLAN): Uses Wi-Fi (IEEE 802.11 standards); more flexible but less
secure.
• Connecting LANs: Through routers, switches, and bridges.
• Virtual LAN (VLAN): Logically segments networks within a single physical LAN.
8. Techniques for Bandwidth Utilization

Bandwidth utilization maximizes the efficiency of available bandwidth.

• Multiplexing:
o Frequency Division Multiplexing (FDM): Divides bandwidth into frequency
bands.
o Time Division Multiplexing (TDM): Allocates time slots for devices.
o Wave Division Multiplexing (WDM): Uses different wavelengths for
transmitting signals (commonly used in fiber optics).
• Spread Spectrum:
o Frequency Hopping Spread Spectrum (FHSS): Rapid switching of
frequencies.
o Direct Sequence Spread Spectrum (DSSS): Spreads signal over a wide
frequency band for better resistance to interference.

9. Spread Spectrum Techniques

Spread spectrum techniques are used to enhance the reliability and security of data
communication, especially in wireless networks. These methods spread the signal over a
wider frequency range than the minimum required bandwidth.

Types of Spread Spectrum Techniques:

1. Frequency Hopping Spread Spectrum (FHSS):

o The signal rapidly switches or "hops" between different frequencies within a
specified band.
o Makes communication more secure and resistant to interference.
o Example: Bluetooth uses FHSS.
2. Direct Sequence Spread Spectrum (DSSS):
o The original data signal is multiplied by a pseudo-random noise (PN)
sequence, spreading the signal across a wider frequency range.
o Resistant to narrowband interference and eavesdropping.
o Example: Used in IEEE 802.11b Wi-Fi networks.
3. Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiplexing (OFDM):
o Combines multiple closely spaced orthogonal subcarriers to transmit data in
parallel.
o Efficient in high-bandwidth applications and reduces interference.
o Example: Used in Wi-Fi (802.11a/g/n/ac), LTE, and DVB.

Advantages of Spread Spectrum:

• Enhanced security due to pseudo-random encoding.

• Greater resistance to noise and interference.
• Better utilization of available bandwidth.
10. Overview of Bandwidth Utilization Techniques

Efficient bandwidth utilization is crucial to optimize network performance and ensure the
quality of service (QoS).

Multiplexing in Detail:

• Frequency Division Multiplexing (FDM):

o Each signal is assigned a unique frequency band within the channel.
o Common in analog broadcasting and telephone systems.
• Time Division Multiplexing (TDM):
o Divides time into slots, with each device transmitting in its assigned slot.
o Used in digital telecommunication systems like ISDN and SONET.
• Wave Division Multiplexing (WDM):
o Splits light into multiple wavelengths for simultaneous transmission over
optical fiber.
o Enables high-capacity communication networks like internet backbones.

11. Practical Applications in Networking

1. LAN and VLAN Applications:

o LAN is suitable for small-scale businesses or home networks.
o VLAN allows segmenting traffic, improving security and reducing broadcast
domain sizes.
2. Wireless LAN Applications:
o Wireless networks provide flexibility in schools, offices, and homes.
o Security protocols like WPA3 ensure data protection.
3. Multiplexing in Everyday Use:
o FDM: Radio and TV broadcasting.
o TDM: Cellular networks, allowing multiple users to share the same frequency.
o WDM: Optical networks for high-speed internet.
4. Spread Spectrum:
o Used in military communication for its security and anti-jamming capabilities.
o Found in commercial wireless systems like CDMA and Wi-Fi.

Module 2: Data Link Layer and Medium Access Sub-Layer

Introduction

The Data Link Layer (DLL) is the second layer in the OSI model, responsible for reliable
data transfer across a physical link. It provides error detection, error correction, framing, and
medium access control to ensure smooth communication between devices.

The Medium Access Sub-Layer (a subset of the DLL) focuses on controlling how devices
share a common communication medium efficiently, avoiding collisions, and maximizing
throughput.

1. Error Detection and Correction

Errors can occur during data transmission due to noise, attenuation, or interference. The Data
Link Layer ensures reliable communication by employing error detection and error
correction techniques.

Error Detection

1. Block Coding:
o Data is divided into blocks, and redundancy is added to each block.
o Common examples:
▪ Parity Bits: Add a single bit to ensure the total number of 1s is even
(even parity) or odd (odd parity).
▪ Checksums: Sum of all data blocks, verified at the receiver.
2. Hamming Distance:
o Measures the number of bit changes required to convert one binary string to
another.
o Used to determine error-detection and correction capability:
▪ Minimum Hamming Distance = dmind_{min}
▪ Error detection = dmin−1d_{min} - 1
▪ Error correction = dmin−12\frac{d_{min} - 1}{2}
3. Cyclic Redundancy Check (CRC):
o A powerful method for error detection.
o Transmitter divides data by a predefined polynomial (generator) and appends
the remainder as a CRC code.
o Receiver performs the same division; if the remainder is zero, data is error-
free.

Error Correction

1. Forward Error Correction (FEC):

o Redundancy allows the receiver to correct errors without retransmission.
o Example: Hamming Code.
2. Automatic Repeat Request (ARQ):
o Combines error detection and retransmission.
o Protocols:
▪ Stop-and-Wait ARQ: Sender waits for an acknowledgment (ACK)
before sending the next frame.
 ▪ Go-Back-N ARQ: Sender sends multiple frames; if an error occurs, it
retransmits from the erroneous frame.
▪ Selective Repeat ARQ: Only erroneous frames are retransmitted,
improving efficiency.

2. Flow Control Protocols

Flow control prevents the sender from overwhelming the receiver with data.

1. Stop-and-Wait Protocol:
o Sender transmits one frame at a time and waits for an ACK before sending the
next frame.
o Simple but inefficient, as the link remains idle during waiting time.
2. Sliding Window Protocol:
o Sender can transmit multiple frames before requiring an ACK, determined by
the window size.
o Two types:
▪ Go-Back-N: Sender retransmits from the error point.
▪ Selective Repeat: Only the erroneous frames are retransmitted.
3. Piggybacking:
o Combines data and acknowledgment frames, reducing the number of
transmissions and improving efficiency.

3. Medium Access Control (MAC)

MAC protocols regulate how devices share a common transmission medium.

Random Access Protocols

In random access, no prior coordination exists between devices; they transmit based on rules
to minimize collisions.

1. Pure ALOHA:
o Devices transmit whenever data is ready.
o Collisions occur when multiple devices transmit simultaneously.
o Efficiency: 18.4% (maximum throughput).
2. Slotted ALOHA:
o Time is divided into slots, and devices transmit at the beginning of a slot.
o Reduces collisions compared to Pure ALOHA.
o Efficiency: 36.8% (maximum throughput).
3. Carrier Sense Multiple Access (CSMA):
o Devices sense the medium before transmitting to avoid collisions.
o Variants:
▪ CSMA/CD (Collision Detection): Stops transmission when a collision
is detected (used in Ethernet).
 ▪ CSMA/CA (Collision Avoidance): Uses mechanisms like
acknowledgments and backoff times to avoid collisions (used in Wi-
Fi).

Multiple Access Protocols

These protocols allow multiple devices to share the communication medium efficiently.

1. Time Division Multiple Access (TDMA):

o Divides the channel into time slots assigned to devices.
o Ensures no collisions but requires synchronization.
2. Frequency Division Multiple Access (FDMA):
o Allocates unique frequency bands to devices.
o Common in analog communication systems.
3. Code Division Multiple Access (CDMA):
o Devices share the same frequency but use unique codes for transmission.
o Highly secure and interference-resistant.

4. Performance Analysis

• Stop-and-Wait:
o Simple, but low efficiency due to idle time.
• Go-Back-N:
o Higher throughput but wastes bandwidth for retransmissions.
• Selective Repeat:
o Efficient in bandwidth utilization, especially in high-error environments.
• CSMA/CD vs. CSMA/CA:
o CSMA/CD is suitable for wired networks, while CSMA/CA is preferred for
wireless networks where collision detection is challenging.

Module 3: Network Layer

The Network Layer is the third layer in the OSI model, responsible for enabling the transfer
of data packets between devices across different networks. Its primary functions include
switching, logical addressing, routing, and address mapping.

1. Switching
Switching refers to the process of forwarding data packets between devices within or across
networks. The three main types of switching are:

1.1 Circuit Switching

• A dedicated communication path is established between source and destination before

data transfer begins.
• Suitable for real-time communication like telephone calls.
• Advantages: Consistent transmission rate and low latency.
• Disadvantages: Inefficient for bursty data traffic, as the path remains reserved even
during idle periods.

1.2 Packet Switching

• Data is divided into packets, and each packet is transmitted independently.

• Packets may take different paths to the destination, where they are reassembled.
• Advantages: Efficient use of network resources and supports bursty traffic.
• Types:
o Datagram Packet Switching: Packets are independent and may arrive out of
order.
o Virtual Circuit Packet Switching: A logical path is established before
transmission, but the physical path is shared.

1.3 Message Switching

• Entire messages are transmitted from one node to another.

• Stored temporarily at intermediate nodes before being forwarded.
• Disadvantages: High latency for large messages due to the store-and-forward
mechanism.

2. Logical Addressing

Logical addressing ensures unique identification of devices on a network. It enables

communication across multiple networks.

IPv4 (Internet Protocol Version 4)

• Address Format: 32-bit address divided into four octets (e.g., 192.168.1.1).
• Classes:
o Class A: Large networks (1.0.0.0 – 126.255.255.255).
o Class B: Medium networks (128.0.0.0 – 191.255.255.255).
o Class C: Small networks (192.0.0.0 – 223.255.255.255).
o Class D: Multicasting (224.0.0.0 – 239.255.255.255).
o Class E: Reserved (240.0.0.0 – 255.255.255.255).
• Limitations: Limited address space, no built-in security, and inefficient routing.

IPv6 (Internet Protocol Version 6)

 • Address Format: 128-bit address written in hexadecimal and separated by colons
(e.g., 2001:0db8:85a3:0000:0000:8a2e:0370:7334).
• Features:
o Larger address space.
o Built-in security (IPSec).
o Simplified header for faster processing.
o Stateless and stateful address configuration.
o Support for mobility and multicast.

3. Address Mapping

Address mapping translates between different types of addresses (e.g., logical to physical).

3.1 ARP (Address Resolution Protocol)

• Resolves an IPv4 address to a MAC address.

• Works by broadcasting an ARP request on the local network; the device with the
matching IP responds with its MAC address.

3.2 RARP (Reverse Address Resolution Protocol)

• Resolves a MAC address to an IPv4 address.

• Used by diskless devices to obtain their IP address during bootup.

3.3 BOOTP (Bootstrap Protocol)

• An early protocol used to assign IP addresses, along with basic configuration

information, to devices during bootup.
• Predecessor to DHCP.

3.4 DHCP (Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol)

• Automates the assignment of IP addresses, subnet masks, default gateways, and other
configuration details.
• Offers dynamic and static configurations.
• Key messages:
o Discover: Client broadcasts to locate a DHCP server.
o Offer: Server responds with an available IP address.
o Request: Client requests the offered IP address.
o Acknowledgment (ACK): Server assigns the IP and confirms the lease.

4. Delivery, Forwarding, and Routing

4.1 Delivery
Delivery refers to the process of transferring packets to their correct destination. Types
include:

• Direct Delivery: The source and destination are on the same network.
• Indirect Delivery: The source and destination are on different networks, requiring
routing through intermediate devices.

4.2 Forwarding

Forwarding is the process of determining the next hop for a packet based on the routing table.
It involves:

• Routing Table: Contains information about destination networks and next hops.
• Longest Prefix Match: Used to match the destination IP address to the most specific
route.

4.3 Routing

Routing is the process of determining the best path for a packet to travel from source to
destination.

5. Unicast Routing Protocols

Unicast routing protocols are responsible for routing packets to a single destination.

5.1 Distance Vector Routing Protocols

• Routers exchange information about the distance (number of hops) to destination

networks.
• Example: RIP (Routing Information Protocol).
• Limitations: Slow convergence and scalability issues.

5.2 Link State Routing Protocols

• Routers exchange information about the state of their links to build a complete map of
the network.
• Example: OSPF (Open Shortest Path First).
• Features: Fast convergence, supports large networks, and uses Dijkstra's algorithm.

5.3 Hybrid Routing Protocols

• Combine features of distance vector and link state protocols.

• Example: EIGRP (Enhanced Interior Gateway Routing Protocol).

5.4 Path Vector Protocols

• Used in interdomain routing.

• Routers exchange path information instead of hop counts or link states.
 • Example: BGP (Border Gateway Protocol).

Module 4: Transport Layer

The Transport Layer is the fourth layer in the OSI model, responsible for reliable process-
to-process communication, ensuring data integrity, delivery, and flow control between
applications. It provides essential services like connection establishment, error recovery, and
congestion control, and supports both reliable and unreliable data transfer protocols.

1. Process-to-Process Communication

• This involves enabling communication between specific processes (applications)

running on devices.
• Port Numbers: Unique identifiers assigned to processes for differentiation.
Examples:
o HTTP: Port 80
o HTTPS: Port 443
o DNS: Port 53
• Transport layer protocols (like TCP and UDP) use port numbers to direct packets to
the correct application.

2. Protocols of the Transport Layer

2.1 User Datagram Protocol (UDP)

• Characteristics:
o Connectionless protocol.
o Does not guarantee delivery, order, or error correction.
o Lightweight and faster compared to TCP.
• Features:
o Low overhead.
o Suitable for time-sensitive applications like video streaming, VoIP, and DNS.
• Header Structure:
o Includes source port, destination port, length, and checksum.

2.2 Transmission Control Protocol (TCP)

• Characteristics:
o Connection-oriented protocol.
o Guarantees reliable, ordered, and error-checked delivery of data.
o Uses a handshake mechanism for connection establishment.
 • Features:
o Segmentation: Divides data into smaller packets.
o Acknowledgment (ACK): Confirms successful data delivery.
o Flow Control: Adjusts the sender’s rate to match the receiver’s capacity.
o Error Detection: Uses checksums for error detection.
• Header Structure:
o Includes sequence numbers, acknowledgment numbers, flags (SYN, ACK,
FIN), and a checksum.

2.3 Stream Control Transmission Protocol (SCTP)

• Characteristics:
o Combines features of TCP and UDP.
o Provides reliable, message-oriented transport.
o Supports multistreaming (transmission of multiple data streams in one
connection).
o Ensures fault tolerance with multi-homing (support for multiple IP addresses).
• Use Cases:
o Applications like signaling in telecom systems (e.g., SS7 over IP).

3. Congestion Control

Congestion occurs when the network is overloaded with data, leading to packet loss and
delays. Congestion control techniques aim to manage and prevent such issues.

Congestion Control in TCP

• Slow Start: Increases the transmission rate exponentially until congestion is detected.
• Congestion Avoidance: Increases the transmission rate linearly after reaching a
threshold.
• Fast Retransmit: Retransmits lost packets quickly without waiting for the
retransmission timer.
• Fast Recovery: Avoids reducing the transmission rate too drastically after packet
loss.

4. Quality of Service (QoS)

QoS refers to mechanisms that ensure a specific level of performance for data flows in a
network. Key parameters include:

• Bandwidth: Amount of data transmitted per unit time.

• Latency: Delay in data delivery.
• Jitter: Variability in packet arrival time.
• Packet Loss: Percentage of packets lost during transmission.
5. QoS Improving Techniques

5.1 Leaky Bucket Algorithm

• Concept:
o Controls the data flow by allowing it to "leak" at a constant rate, irrespective
of bursty input.
o If the bucket (buffer) overflows due to excessive input, packets are discarded.
• Steps:
1. Data enters the bucket (buffer).
2. Data is transmitted at a fixed rate.
3. Excess data beyond the bucket's capacity is dropped.
• Use Case: Ensures smooth data transmission and prevents burst traffic from
overwhelming the network.

5.2 Token Bucket Algorithm

• Concept:
o Allows data transmission as long as tokens (representing permission to send
data) are available in the bucket.
o Tokens are generated at a constant rate and stored in the bucket.
o Allows for bursty data flow while maintaining overall rate control.
• Steps:
1. Tokens are generated at a regular interval.
2. A token is required to transmit each packet.
3. If tokens are exhausted, the transmission waits until new tokens are generated.
• Use Case: Provides flexibility by supporting bursty traffic while controlling the
overall traffic rate.

6. Comparison of UDP, TCP, and SCTP

Feature UDP TCP SCTP

Connection Connection-
Connectionless Connection-oriented
Type oriented
Reliability No Yes Yes
Order of
Not guaranteed Guaranteed Guaranteed
Delivery
Multistreaming No No Yes
Real-time Reliable data Telecom signaling, multistream
Use Case
applications transfer applications

Module 4: Transport Layer

The Transport Layer is the fourth layer in the OSI model, responsible for reliable process-
to-process communication, ensuring data integrity, delivery, and flow control between
applications. It provides essential services like connection establishment, error recovery, and
congestion control, and supports both reliable and unreliable data transfer protocols.

1. Process-to-Process Communication

• This involves enabling communication between specific processes (applications)

running on devices.
• Port Numbers: Unique identifiers assigned to processes for differentiation.
Examples:
o HTTP: Port 80
o HTTPS: Port 443
o DNS: Port 53
• Transport layer protocols (like TCP and UDP) use port numbers to direct packets to
the correct application.

2. Protocols of the Transport Layer

2.1 User Datagram Protocol (UDP)

• Characteristics:
o Connectionless protocol.
o Does not guarantee delivery, order, or error correction.
o Lightweight and faster compared to TCP.
• Features:
o Low overhead.
o Suitable for time-sensitive applications like video streaming, VoIP, and DNS.
• Header Structure:
o Includes source port, destination port, length, and checksum.

2.2 Transmission Control Protocol (TCP)

• Characteristics:
o Connection-oriented protocol.
o Guarantees reliable, ordered, and error-checked delivery of data.
o Uses a handshake mechanism for connection establishment.
• Features:
o Segmentation: Divides data into smaller packets.
o Acknowledgment (ACK): Confirms successful data delivery.
o Flow Control: Adjusts the sender’s rate to match the receiver’s capacity.
o Error Detection: Uses checksums for error detection.
• Header Structure:
o Includes sequence numbers, acknowledgment numbers, flags (SYN, ACK,
FIN), and a checksum.
2.3 Stream Control Transmission Protocol (SCTP)

• Characteristics:
o Combines features of TCP and UDP.
o Provides reliable, message-oriented transport.
o Supports multistreaming (transmission of multiple data streams in one
connection).
o Ensures fault tolerance with multi-homing (support for multiple IP addresses).
• Use Cases:
o Applications like signaling in telecom systems (e.g., SS7 over IP).

3. Congestion Control

Congestion occurs when the network is overloaded with data, leading to packet loss and
delays. Congestion control techniques aim to manage and prevent such issues.

Congestion Control in TCP

• Slow Start: Increases the transmission rate exponentially until congestion is detected.
• Congestion Avoidance: Increases the transmission rate linearly after reaching a
threshold.
• Fast Retransmit: Retransmits lost packets quickly without waiting for the
retransmission timer.
• Fast Recovery: Avoids reducing the transmission rate too drastically after packet
loss.

4. Quality of Service (QoS)

QoS refers to mechanisms that ensure a specific level of performance for data flows in a
network. Key parameters include:

• Bandwidth: Amount of data transmitted per unit time.

• Latency: Delay in data delivery.
• Jitter: Variability in packet arrival time.
• Packet Loss: Percentage of packets lost during transmission.

5. QoS Improving Techniques

5.1 Leaky Bucket Algorithm

• Concept:
o Controls the data flow by allowing it to "leak" at a constant rate, irrespective
of bursty input.
 o If the bucket (buffer) overflows due to excessive input, packets are discarded.
• Steps:
1. Data enters the bucket (buffer).
2. Data is transmitted at a fixed rate.
3. Excess data beyond the bucket's capacity is dropped.
• Use Case: Ensures smooth data transmission and prevents burst traffic from
overwhelming the network.

5.2 Token Bucket Algorithm

• Concept:
o Allows data transmission as long as tokens (representing permission to send
data) are available in the bucket.
o Tokens are generated at a constant rate and stored in the bucket.
o Allows for bursty data flow while maintaining overall rate control.
• Steps:
1. Tokens are generated at a regular interval.
2. A token is required to transmit each packet.
3. If tokens are exhausted, the transmission waits until new tokens are generated.
• Use Case: Provides flexibility by supporting bursty traffic while controlling the
overall traffic rate.

6. Comparison of UDP, TCP, and SCTP

Feature UDP TCP SCTP

Connection Connection-
Connectionless Connection-oriented
Type oriented
Reliability No Yes Yes
Order of
Not guaranteed Guaranteed Guaranteed
Delivery
Multistreaming No No Yes
Real-time Reliable data Telecom signaling, multistream
Use Case
applications transfer applications