27. Refer to the picture of Tarski's world given in Example 3.1.13.

Let Above (x, y) mean that x is above y

(but possibly in a different column). Determine the truth or falsity of each of the following statements.
Give reasons for your answers.

a. Ɐu, Circle(u) → Gray(u). This statement is false: All the circles are either Gray or Black.

b. Ɐu, Gray(u) → Circle(u). This statement is true: All Gray figures are circles.

c. ꓱ y such that Square(y) ꓥ Above (y, d). This statement is false: No square exists above d.

d. ꓱ z such that Triangle(z) ꓥ Above (f, z). This statement is true: g is a triangle and f is above g.

4. Write an informal negation for each of the following statements. Be careful to avoid negations that are
ambiguous.

a. All dogs are friendly. Some dogs are not friendly.

b. All graphs are connected. Some graphs are not connected.

c. Some suspicions were substantiated. No suspicions were substantiated.

d. Some estimates are accurate. All estimates are inaccurate.

5. Write a negation for each of the following statements.

a. Every valid argument has a true conclusion. There exists at least one valid argument that does not
have a true conclusion.

b. All real numbers are positive, negative, or zero. Some real numbers are not positive, negative, or zero.

In each of 11-14 determine whether the proposed negation is correct. If it is not, write a correct
negation.

11.

Statement: The sum of any two irrational numbers is irrational.

Proposed negation: The sum of any two irrational numbers is rational.

The proposed negation is not correct. The given statement makes a claim about any two irrational
numbers and means that no matter what two irrational numbers you might choose, the sum of those
numbers will be irrational. For this to be false means that there is at least one pair of irrational numbers
whose sum is rational. the negation proposed means that given any two irrational numbers, their sum is
rational.
Correct negation: There are at least two irrational numbers whose sum is rational.

12.

Statement: The product of any irrational number and any rational number is irrational.

Proposed negation: The product of any irrational number and any rational number is rational.

Proof. The proposed negation is wrong.

The given statement makes a claim about any pair of numbers, where one number is irrational and the
other rational; and means that no matter what two numbers you might choose, the product of those
numbers will be irrational. For this to be false means that there is at least one pair of numbers whose
product is rational.

On the other hand, the negation proposed in the exercise means that given any pair of numbers, their
product is rational. This is a much stronger statement than the actual negation: The truth of this
statement implies the truth of the negation, but the negation can be true without having this statement
be true.

Correct negation: There is an irrational number and a rational number, whose product is rational.

13.

Statement: For every integer n, if n2 is even then n is even.

Proposed negation: For every integer n, if n2 is even then n is not even.

Proof. The proposed negation is not correct. There are two mistakes: The negation of a “for every”
statement is not a “for every” statement; and the negation of an if-then statement is not an if-then
statement.

Correct negation: There exists an integer n such that n2 is even and n is not even.

14.

Statement: For all real numbers x1 and x2, if x12 = x22 then x1 = x2

Proposed negation: For all real numbers x1 and x2, if x12 = x22 then x1 ≠ x2,

Proof. The proposed negation is wrong. The issue is the same as in Exercise 12. The negation only
requires one pair of numbers to fail to satisfy the if-then statement; the proposed negation says that all
pairs fail to satisfy the if-then statement.

Correct negation: There exist real numbers x 1 and x2 such that x12 = x22 but x1 ≠ x2.

In 16-23, write a negation for each statement.

16. Ɐ real number x, if x2 ≥ 1 then x > 0 ; ∃ a real number x such that x2 ≥ 1 and x ≤ 0.
17. Ɐ integer d, if 6/d is an integer then d = 3; ∃ integer d such that 6/d is an integer but d ≠ 3.

18. Ɐx ∈ R, if x(x + 1) > 0 then x > 0 or x < - 1; ∃x ∈ R such that x(x + 1) > 0 and both x ≤ 0 and x ≥ −1.

19. Ɐn ∈ Z, if n is prime then n is odd or n = 2; ∃n ∈ Z such that n is prime and both n is even and n ≠ 2.

20. V integers a, b, and c, if ab is even and b-cis even, then a-c is even. ∃ integers a, b and c such that a
−b is even and b − c is even, and a − c is not even.

21. V integer n, if n is divisible by 6, then n is divisible by 2 and n is divisible by 3. ∃ an integer n such that
n is divisible by 6, and either n is not divisible by 2 or n is not divisible by 3.

22. If the square of an integer is odd, then the integer is odd. At least one integer has an odd square but
is not itself odd.

23. If a function is differentiable then it is continuous. ∃ a function that is differentiable and is not
continuous.

44. A polygon is square only if it has four sides. There exists a polygon that is square but it does not have
four sides.

Use the facts that the negation of a statement is a statement and that the negation of an if-then
statement is an and statement to rewrite each of the statements 45-48 without using the word
necessary or sufficient.

45. Being divisible by 8 is not a necessary condition for being divisible by 4. If a number is not divisible by
8 then that number is not divisible by 4.

46. Having a large income is not a necessary condition for a person to be happy. There is a person who
does not have a large income and is happy.

47. Having a large income is not a sufficient condition for a person to be happy. There is a person who
has a large income and is not happy.

48. Being a polynomial is not a sufficient condition for a function to have a real root. There is a function
that is a polynomial and it does not have a real root.

49. The computer scientists Richard Conway and David Gries once wrote:

The absence of error messages during translation of a computer program is only a necessary and
not a sufficient condition for reasonable [program] correctness.

Rewrite this statement without using the words necessary or sufficient.

If a program is reasonably correct, then there is an absence of error messages during translation of a
computer program; and, there are computer programs, with an absence of error messages during
translation, that are not reasonably correct.
50. A frequent-flyer club brochure states, "You may select among carriers only if they offer the same
lowest fare." Assuming that "only if" has its formal, logical meaning, does this statement guarantee that
if two carriers offer the same lowest fare, the customer will be free to choose between them? Explain.

No. Interpreted formally, the statement says, “If carriers do not offer the same lowest fare, then you may
not select among them.

In 26-33, for each statement in the referenced exercise write the contrapositive, converse, and inverse.
Indicate as best as you can which of these statements are true and which are false. Give a
counterexample for each that is false.

26. Exercise 16

Proof. Statement: ∀ real number x, if x2 ≥ 1 then x > 0.

Contrapositive: ∀ real number x, if x ≤ 0 then x2 < 1.

Converse: ∀ real number x, if x > 0 then x2 ≥ 1.

Inverse: ∀ real number x, if x2 < 1 then x ≤ 0.

The statement and its contrapositive are false. As a counterexample, let x = −2.

Then x2 = (−2)2 = 4, and so x2 ≥ 1. However, x ≯ 0.

but x2 ≱ 1.
The converse and the inverse are also false. As a counterexample, let x = 1/2. Then x 2 = 1/4, and so x > 0

27. Exercise 17

Proof. Statement: ∀ integer d, if 6/d is an integer then d = 3.

Contrapositive: ∀ integer d, if d ̸= 3 then 6/d is not an integer.

Converse: ∀ integer d, if d = 3 then 6/d is an integer.

Inverse: ∀ integer d, if 6/d is not an integer then d ̸= 3.

Statement and contrapositive are false. A counterexample is d = 2. 6/2 = 3 is an integer but 2 ̸= 3.

Converse and inverse are both true. If d = 3 then 6/3 = 2 is an integer.

28. Exercise 18

Proof. Statement: ∀x ∈ R, if x(x + 1) > 0 then x > 0 or x < −1.

Contrapositive: ∀x ∈ R, if x ≤ 0 and x ≥ −1, then x(x + 1) ≤ 0.

Converse: ∀x ∈ R, if x > 0 or x < −1 then x(x + 1) > 0.

Inverse: ∀x ∈ R, if x(x + 1) ≤ 0 then x ≤ 0 and x ≥ −1.

The statement, its contrapositive, its converse, and its inverse are all true.

29. Exercise 19
Proof. Statement: ∀n ∈ Z, if n is prime then n is odd or n = 2.

Contrapositive: ∀n ∈ Z, if n is not odd and n ̸= 2 then n is not prime.

Converse: ∀n ∈ Z, if n is odd or n = 2 then n is prime.

Inverse: ∀n ∈ Z, if n is not prime then n is not odd and n ̸= 2.

The statement and contrapositive are true. Converse and inverse are false: n = 9 is a counterexample.

30. Exercise 20

Proof. Statement: ∀ integers a, b, and c, if a − b is even and b − c is even, then a – c is even.

Contrapositive: ∀ integers a, b, and c, if a − c is not even, then a − b is not even or b − c is not even.

Converse: ∀ integers a, b, and c, if a − c is even then a − b is even and b − c is even.

Inverse: ∀ integers a, b, and c, if a − b is not even or b − c is not even, then a − c is not even.

The statement and contrapositive are true, but its converse and inverse are false. As a counterexample,
let a = 3, b = 2, c = 1. Then a−c = 2, which is even, but a−b = 1 and b − c = 1, so it is not the case that both
a − b and b − c are even.

31. Exercise 21

Proof. Statement: ∀ integer n, if n is divisible by 6, then n is divisible by 2 and n is divisible by 3.

Contrapositive: ∀ integer n, if n is not divisible by 2 or n is not divisible by 3, then n not is divisible by 6.

Converse: ∀ integer n, if n is divisible by 2 and n is divisible by 3, then n is divisible by 6.

Inverse: ∀ integer n, if n is not divisible by 6, then n is not divisible by 2 or n is not divisible by 3.

The statement, contrapositive, converse, inverse are all true.

32. Exercise 22

Proof. Statement: If the square of an integer is odd, then the integer is odd.

Contrapositive: If an integer is not odd, then the square of the integer is not odd.

Converse: If an integer is odd, then the square of the integer is odd.

Inverse: If the square of an integer is not odd, then the integer is not odd.

The statement, its contrapositive, its converse, and its inverse are all true.

33. Exercise 23

Proof. Statement: If a function is differentiable then it is continuous.

Contrapositive: If a function is not continuous then it is not differentiable.

Converse: If a function is continuous then it is differentiable.

Inverse: If a function is not differentiable then it is not continuous.

The statement and the contrapositive are true. The converse and inverse are false. A

counterexample is f(x) = |x|. This function is continuous at x = 0 but not differentiable at x = 0.

34. Write the contrapositive for each of the following statements.

a. If n is prime, then n is not divisible by any prime number from 2 through √ n. (Assume that n is a fixed
integer.)

If n is not divisible by any prime number from 2 through √ n, then n is not prime

b. If A and B do not have any elements in common, then they are disjoint. (Assume that A and B are fixed
sets.)

If A and B are not disjoint, then they have some elements in common.