106 Chapter 3 The Logic of Quantified Statements

Test Yourself
Answers to Test Yourself questions are located at the end of each section.

1. If P(x) is a predicate with domain D, the truth set of P(x) 4. A statement of the form ∀x ∈ D, Q(x) is true if, and only
is denoted . We read these symbols out loud as . if, Q(x) is for .
2. Some ways to express the symbol ∀ in words are . 5. A statement of the form ∃x ∈ D such that Q(x) is true if,
and only if, Q(x) is for .
3. Some ways to express the symbol ∃ in words are .

Exercise Set 3.1*

1. A menagerie consists of seven brown dogs, two black dogs, 6. Let R(m, n) be the predicate “If m is a factor of n 2 then m
six gray cats, ten black cats, five blue birds, six yellow birds, is a factor of n,” with domain for both m and n being the set
and one black bird. Determine which of the following state- Z of integers.
ments are true and which are false. a. Explain why R(m, n) is false if m = 25 and n = 10.
a. There is an animal in the menagerie that is red. b. Give values different from those in part (a) for which
b. Every animal in the menagerie is a bird or a mammal. R(m, n) is false.
c. Every animal in the menagerie is brown or gray or black. c. Explain why R(m, n) is true if m = 5 and n = 10.
d. There is an animal in the menagerie that is neither a cat d. Give values different from those in part (c) for which
nor a dog. R(m, n) is true.
e. No animal in the menagerie is blue.
f. There are in the menagerie a dog, a cat, and a bird that 7. Find the truth set of each predicate.
all have the same color. a. predicate: 6/d is an integer, domain: Z
b. predicate: 6/d is an integer, domain: Z+
2. Indicate which of the following statements are true and c. predicate: 1 ≤ x 2 ≤ 4, domain: R
which are false. Justify your answers as best as you can. d. predicate: 1 ≤ x 2 ≤ 4, domain: Z
a. Every integer is a real number.
b. 0 is a positive real number. 8. Let B(x) be “−10 < x < 10.” Find the truth set of B(x) for
c. For all real numbers r, −r is a negative real number. each of the following domains.
d. Every real number is an integer. a. Z b. Z+ c. The set of all even integers
3. Let P(x) be the predicate “x > 1/x.” Find counterexamples to show that the statements in 9–12 are
a. Write P(2), P( 21 ), P(−1), P(− 21 ), and P(−8), and false.
indicate which of these statements are true and which
are false. 9. ∀x ∈ R, x > 1/x.
b. Find the truth set of P(x) if the domain of x is R, the set 10. ∀a ∈ Z, (a − 1)/a is not an integer.
of all real numbers.
c. If the domain is the set R+ of all positive real numbers, 11. ∀ positive integers m and n, m · n ≥ m + n.
what is the truth set of P(x)? √ √ √
12. ∀ real numbers x and y, x + y = x + y.
4. Let Q(n) be the predicate “n 2 ≤ 30.” 13. Consider the following statement:
a. Write Q(2), Q(−2), Q(7), and Q(−7), and indicate
which of these statements are true and which are false. ∀ basketball players x, x is tall.
b. Find the truth set of Q(n) if the domain of n is Z, the set
Which of the following are equivalent ways of expressing
of all integers.
c. If the domain is the set Z+ of all positive integers, what this statement?
is the truth set of Q(n)? a. Every basketball player is tall.
b. Among all the basketball players, some are tall.
5. Let Q(x, y) be the predicate “If x < y then x 2 < y 2 ” with c. Some of all the tall people are basketball players.
domain for both x and y being the set R of real numbers. d. Anyone who is tall is a basketball player.
a. Explain why Q(x, y) is false if x = −2 and y = 1. e. All people who are basketball players are tall.
b. Give values different from those in part (a) for which f. Anyone who is a basketball player is a tall person.
Q(x, y) is false.
c. Explain why Q(x, y) is true if x = 3 and y = 8.
d. Give values different from those in part (c) for which
Q(x, y) is true.

∗
For exercises with blue numbers or letters, solutions are given in Appendix B. The symbol H indicates that only a hint or a partial
solution is given. The symbol ✶ signals that an exercise is more challenging than usual.

Copyright 2010 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s).
Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.
 3.1 Predicates and Quantified Statements I 107

14. Consider the following statement: H 20. Rewrite the following statement informally in at least two
different ways without using variables or the symbol ∀ or
∃x ∈ R such that x = 2. 2
the words “for all.”
Which of the following are equivalent ways of expressing
∀ real numbers x, if x is positive, then
this statement?
the square root of x is positive.
a. The square of each real number is 2.
b. Some real numbers have square 2. 21. Rewrite the following statements so that the quantifier trails
c. The number x has square 2, for some real number x. the rest of the sentence.
d. If x is a real number, then x 2 = 2. a. For any graph G, the total degree of G is even.
e. Some real number has square 2. b. For any isosceles triangle T , the base angles of T are
f. There is at least one real number whose square is 2. equal.
c. There exists a prime number p such that p is even.
H 15. Rewrite the following statements informally in at least two
d. There exists a continuous function f such that f is not
different ways without using variables or quantifiers.
differentiable.
a. ∀ rectangles x, x is a quadrilateral.
b. ∃ a set A such that A has 16 subsets. 22. Rewrite each of the following statements in the form
“∀ x, if then .”
16. Rewrite each of the following statements in the form
a. All Java programs have at least 5 lines.
“∀ x, .”
b. Any valid argument with true premises has a true con-
a. All dinosaurs are extinct.
clusion.
b. Every real number is positive, negative, or zero.
c. No irrational numbers are integers. 23. Rewrite each of the following statements in the two forms
d. No logicians are lazy. “∀x, if then ” and “∀ x, ”
e. The number 2,147,581,953 is not equal to the square of (without an if-then).
any integer. a. All equilateral triangles are isosceles.
f. The number −1 is not equal to the square of any real b. Every computer science student needs to take data struc-
number. tures.
17. Rewrite each of the following in the form “∃ x such 24. Rewrite the following statements in the two forms
that .” “∃ x such that ” and “∃x such that
a. Some exercises have answers. and .”
b. Some real numbers are rational. a. Some hatters are mad. b. Some questions are easy.
18. Let D be the set of all students at your school, and let M(s) 25. The statement “The square of any rational number is ratio-
be “s is a math major,” let C(s) be “s is a computer sci- nal” can be rewritten formally as “For all rational numbers
ence student,” and let E(s) be “s is an engineering student.” x, x 2 is rational” or as “For all x, if x is rational then x 2
Express each of the following statements using quantifiers, is rational.” Rewrite each of the following statements in the
variables, and the predicates M(s), C(s), and E(s). two forms “∀ x, ” and “∀x, if , then
a. There is an engineering student who is a math major. ” or in the two forms “∀ x and y, ”
b. Every computer science student is an engineering stu- and “∀x and y, if , then .”
dent. a. The reciprocal of any nonzero fraction is a fraction.
c. No computer science students are engineering students. b. The derivative of any polynomial function is a polyno-
d. Some computer science students are also math majors. mial function.
e. Some computer science students are engineering stu- c. The sum of the angles of any triangle is 180◦ .
dents and some are not. d. The negative of any irrational number is irrational.
e. The sum of any two even integers is even.
19. Consider the following statement:
f. The product of any two fractions is a fraction.
∀ integers n, if n 2 is even then n is even.
26. Consider the statement “All integers are rational numbers
Which of the following are equivalent ways of expressing but some rational numbers are not integers.”
this statement? a. Write this statement in the form “∀x, if then
a. All integers have even squares and are even. , but ∃ x such that .”
b. Given any integer whose square is even, that integer is b. Let Ratl(x) be “x is a rational number” and Int(x) be “x
itself even. is an integer.” Write the given statement formally using
c. For all integers, there are some whose square is even. only the symbols Ratl(x), Int(x), ∀, ∃, ∧, ∨, ∼, and →.
d. Any integer with an even square is even.
27. Refer to the picture of Tarski’s world given in Example
e. If the square of an integer is even, then that integer is
3.1.13. Let Above(x, y) mean that x is above y (but pos-
even.
sibly in a different column). Determine the truth or falsity
f. All even integers have even squares.

Copyright 2010 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s).
Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.
 108 Chapter 3 The Logic of Quantified Statements

of each of the following statements. Give reasons for your “x is a perfect square.” (An integer n is said to be a perfect
answers. square if, and only if, it equals the square of some integer.
a. ∀u, Circle(u) → Gray(u). For example, 25 is a perfect square because 25 = 52 .)
b. ∀u, Gray(u) → Circle(u). a. ∃x such that Prime(x) ∧ ∼Odd(x).
c. ∃y such that Square(y) ∧ Above(y, d). b. ∀x, Prime(x) → ∼Square(x).
d. ∃z such that Triangle(z) ∧ Above( f, z). c. ∃x such that Odd(x) ∧ Square(x).
In 28–30, rewrite each statement without using quantifiers or H 31. In any mathematics or computer science text other than this
variables. Indicate which are true and which are false, and jus- book, find an example of a statement that is universal but is
tify your answers as best as you can. implicitly quantified. Copy the statement as it appears and
rewrite it making the quantification explicit. Give a com-
28. Let the domain of x be the set D of objects discussed
plete citation for your example, including title, author, pub-
in mathematics courses, and let Real(x) be “x is a real
lisher, year, and page number.
number,” Pos(x) be “x is a positive real number,” Neg(x)
be “x is a negative real number,” and Int(x) be “x is an 32. Let R be the domain of the predicate variable x. Which of
integer.” the following are true and which are false? Give counter
a. Pos(0) examples for the statements that are false.
b. ∀x, Real(x) ∧ Neg(x) → Pos(−x). a. x > 2 ⇒ x > 1
c. ∀x, Int(x) → Real(x). b. x > 2 ⇒ x 2 > 4
d. ∃x such that Real(x) ∧ ∼Int(x). c. x 2 > 4 ⇒ x > 2
d. x 2 > 4 ⇔ |x| > 2
29. Let the domain of x be the set of geometric figures in the
plane, and let Square(x) be “x is a square” and Rect(x) be 33. Let R be the domain of the predicate variables a, b, c, and
“x is a rectangle.” d. Which of the following are true and which are false?
a. ∃x such that Rect(x) ∧ Square(x). Give counterexamples for the statements that are false.
b. ∃x such that Rect(x) ∧ ∼Square(x). a. a > 0 and b > 0 ⇒ ab > 0
c. ∀x, Square(x) → Rect(x). b. a < 0 and b < 0 ⇒ ab < 0
c. ab = 0 ⇒ a = 0 or b = 0
30. Let the domain of x be the set Z of integers, and let Odd(x)
d. a < b and c < d ⇒ ac < bd
be “x is odd,” Prime(x) be “x is prime,” and Square(x) be

Answers for Test Yourself

1. {x ∈ D | P(x)}; the set of all x in D such that P(x) 2. Possible answers: for all, for every, for any, for each, for arbitrary, given
any 3. Possible answers: there exists, there exist, there exists at least one, for some, for at least one, we can find a 4. true; every x
in D (Alternative answers: all x in D; each x in D) 5. true; at least one x in D (Alternative answer: some x in D)

3.2 Predicates and Quantified Statements II

TOUCHSTONE: Stand you both forth now: stroke your chins, and swear by your
beards that I am a knave.
CELIA: By our beards—if we had them—thou art.
TOUCHSTONE: By my knavery—if I had it—then I were; but if you swear by that that
is not, you are not forsworn. — William Shakespeare, As You Like It

This section continues the discussion of predicates and quantified statements begun in
Section 3.1. It contains the rules for negating quantified statements; an exploration of the
relation among ∀, ∃, ∧, and ∨; an introduction to the concept of vacuous truth of universal
statements; examples of variants of universal conditional statements; and an extension of
the meaning of necessary, sufficient, and only if to quantified statements.

Copyright 2010 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s).
Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.