Jaypee Institute of Information Technology, Noida

Department of
Electronics and Communication Engineering

Basic Electronics Lab (24B15EC111)

Semester : Odd (Ist) Semester

 JAYPEE INSTITUTE OF INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY
TECHNOLOGY,NOIDA
NOIDA

VISION

To become a centre of excellence in the field of IT and related emerging areas of

education, training and research comparable to the best in the world for
producing professionals who shall be leaders in innovation, entrepreneurship,
creativity and management.
MISSION

 To develop as a benchmark university in emerging technologies.

 To provide state
state--of-the-art
art teaching learning process and R&D
environment.
 To harness human capital for sustainable competitive edge and social
relevance.

DEPARTMENT OF
ELECTRONICS AND COMMUNICATION ENGINEERING

VISION

To be a centre of excellence in education, training and research in Electronics

and Communication Engineering to cultivate technically competent
professionals for Industry, Academia and Society.

MISSION
 To impart education through contemporary, futuristic and flexible
curricula with innovative teaching learning methods and hands on training
with well equipped Labs.
 To carry out cutting edge research in different areas of Electronics and
Communication Engineering.
 To inculcate technical and entrepreneurial skills in professionals to provide
socially relevant and sustainable solutions.
PROGRAMME : B.TECH. IN ELECTRONICS AND COMMUNICATION ENGINEERING

PROGRAMME EDUCATIONAL OBJECTIVES:

PEO1: To provide strong foundation in Electronics and Communication Engineering to pursue professional career,
entrepreneurship and higher studies.

PEO2: To develop capability to analyze, design and develop feasible solutions to real world problems.

PEO3: To inculcate professional ethics, managerial and communication skills to develop ingenious solutions for benefit of
society and environment.

PROGRAMME OUTCOMES:
PO1: Engineering knowledge: Apply the knowledge of mathematics, science, engineering fundamentals, and an
engineering specialization to the solution of complex engineering problems.

PO2: Problem analysis: Identify, formulate, research literature, and analyze complex engineering problems reaching
substantiated conclusions using first principles of mathematics, natural sciences, and engineering sciences.

PO3: Design/development of solutions: Design solutions for complex engineering problems and design system
components or processes that meet the specified needs with appropriate consideration for the public health and safety, and
the cultural, societal, and environmental considerations.

PO4: Conduct investigations of complex problems: Use research-based knowledge and research methods including
design of experiments, analysis and interpretation of data, and synthesis of the information to provide valid conclusions.

PO5: Modern tool usage: Create, select, and apply appropriate techniques, resources, and modern engineering and IT
tools including prediction and modelling to complex engineering activities with an understanding of the limitations.

PO6: The engineer and society: Apply reasoning informed by the contextual knowledge to assess societal, health, safety,
legal and cultural issues and the consequent responsibilities relevant to the professional engineering practice.

PO7: Environment and sustainability: Understand the impact of the professional engineering solutions in societal and
environmental contexts, and demonstrate the knowledge of, and need for sustainable development.
PO8: Ethics: Apply ethical principles and commit to professional ethics and responsibilities and norms of the engineering
practice.

PO9: Individual and team work: Function effectively as an individual, and as a member or leader in diverse teams, and
in multidisciplinary settings.

PO10: Communication: Communicate effectively on complex engineering activities with the engineering community and
with society at large, such as, being able to comprehend and write effective reports and design documentation, make
effective presentations, and give and receive clear instructions.

PO11: Project management and finance: Demonstrate knowledge and understanding of the engineering and
management principles and apply these to one’s own work, as a member and leader in a team, to manage projects and in
multidisciplinary environments.

PO12: Life-long learning: Recognize the need for, and have the preparation and ability to engage in independent and life-
long learning in the broadest context of technological change.

PROGRAMME SPECIFIC OUTCOMES:

PSO 1: To identify the engineering problems and develop solutions in the area of communication, signal processing, VLSI
and embedded systems.

PSO2: To demonstrate proficiency in utilisation of software and hardware tools along with analytical skills to arrive at
appropriate solutions.
 Detailed Syllabus

Course Code 24B15EC111 Semester: Odd Semester: 1st Session 2024-25

(specify Odd/Even) Month from: July to December
Course Name
Basic Electronics Lab

Credits 1 Contact Hours 2

Faculty Coordinator(s) Samriti Kalia, Vinay Anand Tikkiwal

(Names) Abhishek Kashyap , Abhay Kumar, Alok Joshi, Ankur
Teacher(s)
(Alphabetically) Bhardwaj, Archana Pandey, Divya Kaushik, Garima Kapoor,
Nitin Muchhal, Varun Goel, RituRaj, K. Nisha, Mandeep
Narula, Satyendra Kumar, Shamim Akhtar, Yogesh Kumar

COGNITIVE
COURSE OUTCOMES - At the end of the course, students will be able to:
LEVELS
Recall various electronic components and working of basic Remembering Level
C141.1
measuring instruments (C1)
Understanding Level
C141.2 Understand the input-output characteristics of BJT
(C2)
Verify Kirchhoff's laws and apply network theorems to solve DC Applying Level
C141.3
circuit (C3)
Analyze operational amplifier in various configurations and Analyzing Level
C141.4
characteristics of basic diodes including their applications (C4)

Module
Title of the Module List of Experiments CO
No.
Introduction to various components (Resistor,
Introduction to basic Capacitor, Inductor, and IC) and instruments
1. electrical equipment C141.1
Multimeter, Bread board, Regulated D.C. power
and components supply, and CRO.
2. Basic Circuit Analysis Verification of KVL and KCL using a given circuit. C141.3
3. Basic Circuit Analysis Verification of Thevenin’s theorem. C141.3
To study the forward bias I-V (current-voltage)
PN Junction diode and
4. characteristics of a simple p-n junction diode. Also C141.4
Applications
determine the forward resistance of the diode

PN Junction diode and To observe the output waveform of half/full wave

5. C141.4
Applications rectifier and calculate its ripple factor and efficiency

To study the reverse bias I-V (current-voltage)

Zener diode and
6. characteristics of a Zener diode. Also determine the C141.4
Applications
breakdown voltage, static and dynamic resistances.
Bipolar Junction To plot input characteristics of a common emitter
7. C141.2
Transistors NPN BJT
 8. Bipolar Junction To plot output characteristics of a common emitter
C141.2
Transistors NPN BJT
9 Operational Amplifier To realize inverting and non inverting amplifier
C141.4
configuration using Op-Amp IC- 741
10. Operational Amplifier To realize adder and subtractor circuits using Op-
C141.4
Amp IC-741
11. Basic Circuit Analysis Verification of Superposition Theorem. C141.3
PN Junction diode and Realization of desired wave shapes using clipper and
12. C141.4
Applications clamper circuits
Virtual Lab To plot input characteristics of a common collector
13. C141.2
Experiments NPN BJT.

Virtual Lab To plot output characteristics of a common collector

14. C141.2
Experiments NPN BJT.

Evaluation Criteria
Components Maximum Marks
Mid Sem Viva 20
End Sem Viva 20
Day-to-day performance, Lab Record 60
Total 100
Project Based Learning: Students will learn working of basic electronic equipment and applications
of basic circuit theorems and different semiconductor devices including diodes and transistors to
design circuits for various applications.

Recommended Reading material: Author(s), Title, Edition, Publisher, Year of Publication etc. ( Text books,
Reference Books, Journals, Reports, Websites etc. in the IEEE format)

R. L. Boylestad, and L. Nashelsky, “Electronic Devices and Circuit Theory”, 11 th Ed.,

1.
Prentice Hall of India, 2014.
D.C. Kulshreshtha, “Basic Electrical Engineering”, Revised 1 st Ed., Tata McGraw Hill,
2.
2017
3. S.M. Sze, K.K. Ng, “Physics of Semiconductor Devices”, Wiley India, 3rd Ed., 2006.
4. R. A. Gayakwad, “Op-Amps and Linear Integrated Circuits”, 4th Ed., Pearson, 2000.
 Jaypee Institute of Information Technology,Noida
Department of ECE
List of Experiments
Basic Electronics Lab (24B15EC111)
(Odd Semester)

1. Introduction to various components (Resistor, Capacitor, Inductor, and IC) and

instruments Multimeter, Bread board, Regulated D.C. power supply, and CRO.
(C141.1)

2. Verification of KVL and KCL using a given circuit. (C141.3)

3. Verification of Thevenin’s theorem. (C141.3)

4. To study the forward bias I-V (current-voltage) characteristics of a simple p-n junction
diode. Also determine the forward resistance of the diode. (C141.4)
o
5. To observe the output waveform of half/full wave rectifier and calculate its ripple factor
and efficiency.
m (C141.4)
c
6. To study the reverse bias I-V (current-voltage) characteristics of a Zener diode. Also
determine the breakdown voltage, static and dynamic resistances. (C141.4)

7. m NPN BJT.
To plot input characteristics of a common emitter B (C141.2)

8. m NPN BJT.
To plot output characteristics of a common emitter (C141.2)

9. To realize inverting and non amplifier configuration using Op-Amp IC- 741. (C141.4)
p
10. To realize adder and subtractor circuits using Op-Amp IC-741. (C141.4)
n
11. Verification of Superposition Theorem. (C141.3)
t
12. Realization of desired wave shapes using clipper and clamper circuits. (C141.4)

Virtual Lab:

1. To plot input characteristics of a common collector NPN BJT. (C141.2)

2. To plot output characteristics of a common collector NPN BJT. (C141.2)

 PREFACE

The Basic Electronics Lab is one of the most important labs for electronics engineering
students. This is the first level laboratory in which students are introduced with
electronics for the first time and are trained with the basics of circuit analysis in
electronics. In this lab students are given introduction and identification of different
active and passive electronics devices/components. They are familiarized with different
signal sources and instruments used in electronics engineering, students learn the
usage/handling of different measuring instruments like Digital Mulitmeter, DSO,
Arbitrary Function Generators, Regulated power supply etc. In this lab, students become
familiar with device characteristics and their applications. Students develop circuits on
bread board and analyze it using laboratory instruments such as digital multimeters
(DMMs), power supplies, function generators and oscilloscopes. By the end of their lab
coursework, students become familiar with basic components such as resistors, diodes,
transistors, and operational amplifiers function and have the necessary skills of circuit
designs.

A practical approach is probably the best approach to mastering a subject and gaining a
clear insight. List of experiments of Basic Electronics Lab covers those practical
oriented electronic circuit that are very essential for the students to solidify their
theoretical concepts. This provides a communication bridge between the theory and
practical of the electronic circuits. This is a one of most challenging laboratories in terms
of utilization because students of all departments use this lab.

Lab is equipped with sufficient number of following Equipments

• Digital Multimeter,
• Regulated Power Supply,
• DSO,
• Arbitrary Signal Generator,
• Project Bread Board
GUIDELINES AND PRECAUTIONS FOR STUDENTS

1. General Guidelines:
 Be punctual while coming to the lab and be sincere in doing your lab
work.
 Before starting the lab experiment, you must go through the lab manual
of the respective experiment and get your doubts clear before starting the
experiment.
 Be careful to keep watch bands, rings, necklaces and the other metallic
object out of contact with live parts when working around electrical
apparatus.
 If you are not sure how to operate a piece of equipment then read the
manual or take help from lab staff/ teacher.
 No food, beverages, chewing tobacco and gums are allowed in the lab.
 At the end of each lab period, return all the components and instruments
that are issued to you or your group.
 Keep the work area neat and clean; arrange the stools before leaving the
laboratory.

2. Precautions to be taken while doing experiment:

 Understand the circuit and equipment to be used in the experiment.
 Make the circuit on the bread board and check for all the connections
before switching ‘ON’ the supply.
 Use the proper source (A.C or D.C) and the range of meters. Always try
to vary the voltage gradually.
 Never exceed the permissible values of current, voltage of any machine,
apparatus, wires, load etc.
 Do not leave loose wire (wires not connected).
 Switch off the circuit while making any modification in the circuit.
 When working with inductive and capacitive circuits, reduce voltages or
current to near zero before switching open the circuits.
 While connecting the CRO and Function Generator with the circuits,
always connect with proper polarity of the BNC cable.
 EXPERIMENT NO. -1

AIM:
Introduction to various components (Resistor, Capacitor, inductor, and IC)
and instruments Multimeter, Bread board and Regulated D.C. power supply,
Function Generator and CRO.

THEORY:

Different Resistor Types:

Carbon film resistors:

The size of the resistor decides its power rating

(i.e., the maximum power it can dissipate
without burning).
Power rating from the top of the graph: 1/8 W
1/4 W
1/2 W

Metal film resistors: Used when a higher tolerance (more accurate value) is needed.

Power rating from the top of the graph:

1/8 W (tolerance ±1%) 1/4 W (tolerance ±1%) 1 W (tolerance ±5%) 2 W

(tolerance ±5%)

Reading resistor values from the colored bands:

Single-In-Line (SIL) Resistor network:

Variable Resistors:

Wirewound resistors:
 Ceramic (or cement) resistor:

Thermistor (thermally sensitive resistor ):

SMD resistors (Surface-Mount

Mount Device)

Different Capacitor Types:

Ceramic Capacitors: Limited to quite small values, but have high voltage ratings. They
range from 1pF to 0.47µF and are not polarized.

Reading Ceramic Capacitor values:

Example: 102 means 10 (and two zeroes) 00 or

1,000 pF or .001uF.
 For the TOLERANCE TOLERANCE
number: Multiply by: LETTER OVER 10pF
10pF or LESS
0 1 B +/- 0.1pF
1 10 C +/-0.25pF
2 100 D +/- 0.5pF
3 1000 F +/- 1.0pF +/- 1%
4 10,000 G +/- 2.0pF +/- 2%

5 100,000 H +/- 3%
J +/- 5%
8 0.01 K +/- 10%
9 0.1 M +/- 20%

Electrolytic Capacitors (Electrochemical type capacitors): Used for all values above 0.1µF.
Electrolytics have lower accuracy and temperature stability than most other types and are
almost always polarised. It's usually best to only use an electrolytic when no other type can be
used, or for all values over 100µF.

From the left to right: 1µF (50V)

47µF (16V)
100µF (25V)
220µF (25V)
1000µF(50V)

Tantalum Capacitors: Tantalum capacitors pack a large capacity into a

relatively small and tough package compared to electrolytics, but have much
smaller voltage ratings. They are often polarized and range from 0.1µF to 100µF.

From the left to right: 0.33 µF (35V)

0.47 µF (35V)
10 µF (35V)

Polyester Film Capacitors (Green Caps): Ranging from 0.01µF to 5µF. They are similar
to ceramics with some larger values and a slightly larger construction. They are not
polarized.

Metallized Polyester Film Capacitors:

SMD Capacitors:
Variable Capacitors:

Different Inductor Types:

Inductors:

Reading Inductor values from color codes:

Other interesting components:

Diodes: OVER 10pF

LED (Light Emitting Diodes):

Transistors:

ICs (Integrated Circuits):

Introduction to CRO

The cathode-ray oscilloscope (CRO) is a common laboratory instrument that provides accurate
time and amplitude measurements of voltage signals over a wide range of frequencies. Its
reliability, stability, and ease of operation make it suitable as a general purpose laboratory
instrument. The heart of the CRO is a cathode-ray tube shown schematically in Fig. 1.

Figure 1: Cathode Ray Tube (a) Schematic, (b) Details of Deflection Plate

Electrons leave the heated cathode by thermionic emission. They are accelerated through a
fixed voltage and emerge as a narrow beam focused through a hole in the deflection plate. When
the electron beam strikes the fluorescent screen on the face of the tube, it produces a small
luminous spot. An external potential difference can be measured by applying it across a pair of
parallel deflecting plates, through which the beam passes on the way to the screen. The beam is
then deflected by the resultant transverse uniform electric field between the plates. There are two
pairs of deflecting plates, one for vertical and the other for horizontal deflection.

CRO Controls

The front panel of oscilloscope is shown in figure 2. The inputs and controls with which you will
be concerned can be divided into three groups depending on the part of the oscilloscope circuitry
with which they are associated. All oscilloscopes include this basic set of controls. The numbers
in the diagram refer to the controls described below.
 Figure 2: CRO Controls

(I) FORMATION OF THE ELECTRON BEAM

POWER : Push in to turn the power on.
BEAM INTENSITY : The INTEN control adjusts the intensity or brightness of the trace.
Clockwise rotation increases the intensity.
IMPORTANT NOTE: When the spot on the screen is stationary, keep the intensity very low in
order not to damage the fluorescent screen at that point. In general, do not leave the intensity
higher than necessary for reasonable visibility.
BEAM FOCUS : The FOCUS control adjusts the sharpness of the electron spot on the screen.

(II) VERTICAL DEFLECTION OF THE ELECTRON BEAM

VERTICAL AXIS SENSITIVITY: VARIABLE FINE ADJUSTMENT: The vertical axis
VARIABLE control is used for fine adjustments of the vertical axis sensitivity. The sensitivity is
reduced by turning the vertical axis VARIABLE knob counterclockwise. Only in the fully
clockwise position (with the knob clicked into this position) can the vertical sensitivity be read
from the VOLTS/DIV setting.
VERTICAL POSITION: This control is used to move the displayed trace up or down. Turning the
knob clockwise moves the trace upward.
AC-DC INPUT SELECTOR: With the button in (DC position), the input terminal is directly
coupled to the vertical amplifier. With the button out (AC position) the direct current is blocked
by a capacitor.
GND GROUND SWITCH: With the GND button in, the input to the vertical amplifier is
grounded and the vertical INPUT terminal has zero input voltage.
VERTICAL INPUT : This is the input terminal for the vertical amplifier. The maximum
permissible input voltage is 120 Volts.
VERTICAL AXIS SENSITIVITY RANGE SELECTION IN VOLTS/DIV: The VOLTS/DIV 11-
position switch determines the sensitivity of the vertical amplifier. The 11 ranges are indicated in
volts per division on the front panel. The indicated sensitivities are only correct if the vertical
axis VARIABLE control is in the calibrated position (fully clockwise) and the VERTICAL
position control is pushed in.

(III) HORIZONTAL DEFLECTION OF THE ELECTRON BEAM

EXT TRIG INPUT or H IN: EXTERNAL TRIGGER INPUT OR HORIZONTAL INPUT: T his
input is used for externally triggering the horizontal sweep or for the HORIZONTAL INPUT in
a x-y plot. This input is DC coupled (i.e., either a constant or a time varying voltage may be used
-- compare with above) and the maximum allowable applied voltage is 100 volts.

HORIZONTAL SWEEP TRIGGER CONTROLS: There are four switches and one knob that are
used in determining the conditions for triggering the horizontal sweep.

HORIZONTAL SWEEP TIME: VARIABLE FINE ADJUSTMENT: The horizontal axis

VARIABLE control is used for fine adjustments of the horizontal sweep time per division. The
sweep time per division is increased by turning the horizontal axis VARIABLE knob counter
clockwise. Only in the fully clockwise position (with the knob clicked into position) can the
sweep time be read from the TIME/DIV setting.

HORIZONTAL SWEEP TIME: RANGE SELECTION IN TIME/DIV or H IN HORIZONTAL

INPUT SELECTOR: This control is used to select the horizontal sweep time per division on the
scope face. The indicated sweep times per division are only correct if the horizontal axis
VARIABLE control is in the calibrated position (fully clockwise) and the HORIZONTAL
position control is pushed in (no magnification position). In the fully counterclockwise position
the sweep oscillator is disconnected and the signal on the H IN terminal is applied to the
horizontal plates.

HORIZONTAL POSITION: This control is used to move the trace left or right. Turning the knob
clockwise moves the trace to the right.

Introduction to Function Generator

In the laboratory the device we use to produce A.C. signals of various types is called the
Waveform or Function Generator. Figure 3 shows the function generator controls.Display on its
own tells us nothing of the shape or amplitude of the output. It only gives a number which must
 be multiplied by the range settings to find the signal frequency.To set the frequency output of the
Function Generator we use the Frequency Control and the Range Selection Switches.

Figure 3 : Function Generator

1. The process is quite simple, firstly the Frequency is adjusted to the correct value. i.e if we
require 12.5 kHz we Use the Frequency Control to 12.5 and then depress the Range Selection
Switch corresponding to a 1kHz multiplier and the output will be as required.
2. The Mode Selection Switches are used to control the shape of the output signal. In this case we
only have access to three different types of signal: Square Wave, Sine Wave and Triangular
wave.
3. The operation of these switches is quite simple just press the switch that corresponds to the
particular type of signal that we require.
4. Before we connect the output of the Function Generator to a circuit we must first be able to set
the Amplitude of the Output signal.
5. The Output Terminal on the Function Generator is a BNC Connection which can be used directly
with a Coaxial Cable. Or if 3mm Plugs are required we will need to use an adaptor.

Introduction to DC Power Supply

It is easy to use, low power, four output general purpose laboratory supply. It is suitable for
experimental set-ups, circuit development and low voltage applications. The power supply
delivers three dc outputs through section A, B and C. All the sections are provided with panel
meters to monitor output voltage and current separately.
 Figure 4: DC Regulated Power Supply

• Section A : 0-30 V dc output with 2 Amps capacity.

• Section C : 5V preset dc output with 5 Amps capacity.

• Section B : 0 to +/-15V preset dc output with 1A capacity.

All the outputs are floating (i.e. neither any of +ve or-ve output terminals nor any point within
the regulator circuitry is connected to ground). In the other words all the three sections can be
used simultaneously. The power supply is designed to operate satisfactorily in ambient
temperature of up to 50oC and full power can be drawn if free air circulation is allowed. The unit
works on main supply of 230v ac at 50 Hz.

Introduction to Digital Multimeter (DMM)

The DMM (Figure 5) is used to make measurements of Voltage, Current and Resistance. Both
A.C. and D.C. signals can be measured using the DMM.

1. There is a dial that is used to select the mode which we wish to make measurements in.
2. Below are the Modes listed with their corresponding numbers from the diagram:
a. D.C Voltage measurement.
b. A.C Voltage measurement.
c. D.C Current measurement.
d. A.C Current measurement.
e. Resistance measurement.
 Figure 5: Digital Multimeter

3. Terminals are labelled Terminal1 through to Terminal4.

a. 10A: This terminal is used for measuring signals in the range of 2-10 Amps.
b. mA: This is used to measure signals from 0 to 400 mAmps.
c. VΩHz ~: This is used when we measure voltage/ resistance etc.
d. COM: This is the common terminal and is used in all measurements.

4. DMM is connected in parallel for voltage and in series for current.

5. DMM gives different readings than a CRO for A.C. signals.
6. Always connect the COM terminal when making measurements.

Introduction to Breadboard
A breadboard (Figure 6) is used to make up temporary circuits for testing or to try out an idea.
No soldering is required so it is easy to change connections and replace components. Parts will
not be damaged so they will be available to re-use afterwards

.
Figure 6: Project Bread Board
Breadboards have many tiny sockets (called 'holes') arranged on a 0.1" grid. The leads of most
components can be pushed straight into the holes. ICs are inserted across the central gap with
their notch or dot to the left. The top and bottom rows are linked horizontally all the way across
as shown in figure 7. The power supply is connected to these rows, + at the top and 0V (zero
volts) at the bottom.The other holes are linked vertically in blocks of 5 with no link across the
centre as shown in figure 7.
 EXPERIMENT NO: 2

AIM:
Verification of KVL and KCL using a given circuit.

APPARATUS AND COMPONENTS REQUIRED:

Sl.No Apparatus Specifications Quantity
1 Multimeter Digital 1
2 Power Supply DC regulated 1
3 Bread Board -- 1
5 Connecting wire -
5 Resistors 1 KΩ 2
6 Resistors 4.7 KΩ 1

THEORY:
There are two Kirchhoff Laws: (a) Kirchhoff Voltage Law (KVL); and (b) Kirchhoff
Current Law (KCL).
KVL states that the algebraic sum of all the voltages encountered as one goes
around a complete loop is zero. The word algebraic implies that the polarity of each of the
voltages is duly taken into account. The application of KVL is illustrated using the simple
circuit given in Figure 1 where the existence of three loops is readily identified so that one
can write down the three equations given in Eq. (E2.1).

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:

Figure 1: A simple circuit for illustrating KVL and KCL

Vs- R 1I 1– R2 I 2= 0 (E2.1a)
R2 I 2 - R3 I 3 = 0 (E2.1b)
Vs- R 1I 1 - R3 I 3 =0 (E2.1c)

Although KVL yields three simultaneous equations in three unknowns, only two of the
three equations are independent. This you can prove by doing a lit bit of algebra and
deriving one of the equations from the other two. When solving simultaneous equations in
three unknowns, one needs three independent equations in the three unknowns. Two are
provided by KVL and the third by KCL (Kirchhoff Current Law) enunciated in Sect. 2.2.
below.
Kirchhoff Current Law (KCL)

KCL states that the algebraic sum of all the currents entering (or leaving) a junction or
node is zero. This law is simply a statement of the physical requirement that charge cannot
simply accumulate at a node point; it simply must keep moving. This is entirely analogous
to the hydraulic problem in which a pipe carrying water branches out, say, into two pipes;
clearly the total incoming water flow in the first pipe must equal the sum of the outgoing
water flows in the other two pipes, i.e., water simply does not accumulate at the junction
point. The equation yielded by KCL applied to the top junction of three branches in Figure:
1 is
I 1 - I2 – I 3 = 0 (E2.2)
Note that since currents are algebraic quantities, one can assign either direction to each of
the currents.

PROCEDURE:

1. Measure the practical value of the given resistance with the help of Digital
multimeter.
2. Make the circuit on the bredboard as per the given circuit diagram,
3. Measure the value of input voltage and the voltage across each resistor (R1, R2, R3)
with the help of DMM.
4. Measure the current I1, I2 and I3 with the help of DMM.

NOTE:- To measure current , Ammeter is always connected in series with the circuit. So
break the circuit at that point and create two points. Now insert the Ammeter between
given two points to measure current.

OBSERVATION TABLE:

Table I – Resistance Measurements

Value Determination R1 R2 R3
ColorCode
Measured

Table II – Voltage Supply Measurements

Value Determination Vs
Nominal 10 V
Measured

Table III – MEASURED and THEORETICAL Currents and Potentials

For the different values of input voltage Vs, measure the currents through the
resisters and voltage drops across the resisters.
 Vs V1 V2 V3 I1 I2 I3
(Input (Voltage (Voltage (Voltage (Current (Current (Current
Voltage) across R1) across across through through through.
(Volts) (Volts) R2 ) R3 ) R1 ) R2 ) R3)
(Volts) (Volts) (mA) (mA) (mA)
Measured
Theoretical

CALCULATION:

Put the values of voltages and currents in equations (E2.1a – E2.1c and E2.2 )
Verify that in each loop

Σ Vi = 0
And at the node

Σ Ii = 0
Also calculate for the theoretical values.

RESULT:

PRECAUTION:

LEARNING OUTCOME:
 EXPERIMENT NO : 3

AIM:
Verification of Thevenin’s Theorem.

APPARATUS AND COMPONENTS REQUIRED:

Sl. No Apparatus Specifications Quantity

1 Multimeter Digital 1
DC Regulated Power
2 10V 1
Supply
3 Bread Board 1
4 Connecting wire
1 KΩ, 2.2 KΩ, 3.3 KΩ,
5 Resistors 1 each
4.7 KΩ, 10 KΩ

THEORY:

Thevenin equivalents are circuit simplification techniques that focus on terminal behavior.
They are especially useful in analyzing power systems and other circuits where one
particular resistor in the circuit (called the load resistor) is subject to change, and re-
calculation of the circuit is necessary with each trial value of load resistance, to determine
voltage across it and current through it. They are extremely valuable aids in analysis. Their
equivalent circuits may be used to represent any circuit made up of linear elements. These
two theorems are two equally valid methods of reducing a complex network down to
something simpler to analyze. A Thevenin equivalent circuit can be readily converted to a
Norton equivalent circuit and, vice versa. Figure 1 pictures Thevenin equivalents of a
circuit.

Figure 1 : A Thevenin equivalent circuit

Thevenin's Theorem states that we can replace entire network, exclusive of the
load, by an equivalent circuit that contains only an independent voltage source in series
with an impedance (resistance) such that the current-voltage relationship at the load is
unchanged .
 Figure 2: Equivalent Circuit of Thevenin’s Theorem

For a given complex electrical circuit, following steps are done in order to find Thevenin
and Norton equivalents of that circuit.

1. Pick a good breaking point in the circuit (cannot split a dependent source and its
control variable).
2. Compute the open circuit voltage, VOC.
3. Compute the Thevenin equivalent resistance, RTh (or impedance, ZTh).
a. If there are only independent sources, then short circuit all the voltage sources
and open circuit the current sources (just like superposition).
b. If there are only dependent sources, then must use a test voltage or current
source in order to calculate RTh= vTest/iTest (or ZTh=VTest/ITest).
c. If there are both independent and dependent sources, then compute RTh (or ZTh)
from RTh= vOC/iSC (or ZTh=VOC/ISC).
4. Replace circuit with Thevenin equivalent.
VOC in series with RTh (or ZTh)

Note: for figure 2 the equivalent network is merely RTh (or ZTh), that is, no current or
voltage sources.

Let's take a look in the following circuit and try to find Thevenin equivalents for the
shaded part of it.

First, we remove the capacitor from the circuit; we can re-introduce it once we have
derived the equivalent circuit.
The open-circuit voltage Voc is found from the voltage divider rule:

The short-circuit current Isc is found by determining the current flowing between the
terminals when they are shorted:

The equivalent resistance can be found by de-activing the independent voltage source by
replacing it by a short circuit, as shown:

We can verify the standard relationship Voc= I sc X Rt is satisfied: hence, we could have
derived only two of these three parameters.
Consequently, the Thevenin equivalent circuits are as follows:
CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:

Figure 3

PROCEDURE:
1. Measure the practical value of given resistance.
2. Make the circuit on the breadboard as per the circuit diagram in Figure 3
3. Measure the voltage (VL) across the load resistor (RL) and the current IL through the
Load using DMM Figure 4.

Figure 4

4. The DC supply is switched OFF and the Load RL is removed Figure 5.

Figure 5

5. The DC supply is swithched ON and the voltmeter is connected between the port A
and B to measure the Thevenin voltage (Vth=Voc) as shown in the Figure 5.
6. The power supply is switched off, voltage source is replaced by a connecting wire
(short circuit or internal resistance of the source). Using Ohm-meter the resistance
is found between A and B which is Thevenin resistace Rth Figure 6.

Figure 6

7. The circuit is reconnected and replaced by a single voltage source Vth and an
equivalent resistance Rth in series with the Load RL. Figure 7.
 Figure 7

8. Measure voltage across RL= VL' and current IL' through RL

VL=VL'
IL=IL'

OBSERVATION TABLE:

Table I – Resistance Measurements

Value Determination R1 R2 R3
Color Code
Measured

Table II – Voltage Supply Measurements

Value Determination Vs
Nominal 10 V
Measured

Table III – MEASURED Currents and Potentials

VL Voc=Vth Rth VL’

Measured
Theoretical

CALCULATION:
Student will do calculation as outlined above in theory and compare with experimental
value

RESULT:

PRECAUTION:

LEARNING OUTCOME:
 EXPERIMENT NO. : 4

AIM:
To study the forward and reverse bias (volt-ampere) characteristics of a simple
p-n junction diode. Also determine the forward resistance of the diode.

APPARATUS AND COMPONENTS REQUIRED:

Sl. No Apparatus Specifications Quantity

1 DC Power Supply - 1
2 Bread Board - 1
3 Multimeter - 1
4 Connecting wire - -
5 PN Diode IN4007 1
6 Resistors 1KΩ 1

THEORY:

The diode is a semiconductor device formed from a junction of n-type and p-type
semiconductor materials. The lead connected to p-type material is called as anode and the lead
connected to n- type material is called cathode as shown in Figure 1.

Figure 1: (a) Diode Symbol (b) Actual diode

When diode is in forward bias (higher potential is connected to the anode lead), current flows
through it. As the voltage across diode increases, current also increases. It is observed that the
rate of change in current increases with increase in the voltage across diode. After some
potential drop across the diode, the rate of change in current increases rapidly. The potential
drop after which current increases rapidly is called as Cut in Voltage. It is measured by
drawing a tangent on the slope of the V-I Characteristics from where current increases
drastically. For Germanium diode isit around 0.2-0.3V, while for Silicon diode it is 0.4-0.7V.
When diode is in reverse bias (higher potential is connected to the cathode lead), ideally no
current flows through it, practically a very small leakage current (in micro ampere) flows due
to some impurity charge carriers. In the p-n junction diode the value of reverse breakdown
voltage is very high (-600V for 1N4001). If this voltage is applied in the reverse bias, then
very high value of current will flow and diode will get damaged. The characteristic curve for
an ideal diode and practical diode is shown in Figure 2.

Figure 2: V-I characteristics of Diode

While analyzing circuits, the practical diode is usually replaced with a simpler model. In the
simplest form, the diode is modeled by a switch as shown in Figure 3. The switch is closed
when the diode is forward biased and open when reverse biased. R f and Rr are the resistances
offered by the diode in the forward bias and reversebias respectively. Vy is the cut-in voltage of
the diode.

Figure 3: Equivalent model of diode

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:

Figure 4: Circuit diagram

PROCEDURE:

1. Study the characteristics of the diode in the data sheet. Copy all the specification for
the diode in your final lab report.
2. Connect the circuit as shown in fig. 4.
3. Connect voltmeter across diode and resistor respectively.
4. Vary the input from DC source from -5 to 5 volt in the step of 0.1 volt and note down
the reading across diode and resistor. Calculate the current flowing through the
resistance.
5. Now plot the graph between the current flowing through the diode and potential
acrossthe diode.
6. From this graph, obtain the cut-in voltage (Vy) for the diode. From the point where
current Increases sharply, draw a line to x-axis. The point where it intersects on the
x-axis iscalled cut-in voltage.
7. Measure the slope of the curve to calculate the resistance offered by the diode in
theforward bias. Forward bias resistance is named as Rf as shown in fig. 6.

OBSERVATION TABLE:

Input Voltage Resistor Voltage Current Diode Voltage

S. No.
(Vin) (Vr) (I)=Vr/R (Vd)

RESULT:
Vy= Rf =

LEARNING OUTCOME:
 EXPERIMENT NO.: 5

AIM:
To observe the output waveforms of half wave and full wave rectifiers and
calculate its ripple factor and efficiency.

APPARATUS AND COMPONENTS REQUIRED:

Sl. No Apparatus Specifications Quantity

1 CRO - 1
2 Bread Board - 1
4 Connecting wire - -
5 Transformer (12-0-12), 500mA 1
6 Diode IN4007 4
7 Resistors 1KΩ 1

THEORY:

Half wave and full wave bridge rectifier:

In half wave rectification, single diode act as a half wave rectifier. The A.C. supply to be
rectified is applied in series with diode and load resistance RL. A.C. supply is given through a
transformer. During positive half cycles of input A.C. voltage, this make diode forward biased
and hence it conducts current. During negative half cycles, diode is reverse biased and it
conducts no current. Therefore, current flow through the diode during positive half cycles of
A.C. input voltage only. it is blocked during negative half cycles.

Full wave bridge rectifier, current flow through the load in the same direction for both half
cycles of input A.C. it's contain four diode D1, D2, D3, D4 connected to form bridge. The A.C
supply to be rectified is applied to the diagonally opposite end of the bridge trough the
transformer. Between two other ends of the bridge, the load resistance RL is connected. During
the positive half cycle of A.C. input voltage D1 & D3 forward biased while diode D2 &D4 are
reversed biased. Therefore only diode D1& D3 conduct. These two diode will be in series
through the load. Current flow through load. During negative half cycles diodes D2&D4
becomes forward biased whereas D1 and D3 become reverse biased. Therefore only D2&D3
conduct .these diodes will be in series through the load RL. Current flow through lo
CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:

Figure 1: Half wave rectifier

Figure 2 : Full wave bridge rectifier

PROCEDURE:
1. Connect the circuit as shown in figure.
2. Apply A.C. supply through transformer; 3. Find the current through load resistance.
3. Observed voltage wave across the load on CRO.
4. Find the value of ripple factor and efficiency.
 Calculation for Half Wave Rectifier:

Ripple factor

Efficiency of half wave rectifier

Efficiency, is the ratio of the dc output power to ac input power

Calculation for Full Wave Bridge Rectifier:

Ripple Factor
The ripple factor for a Full Wave Rectifier is given by

Efficiency
Efficiency, is the ratio of the dc output power to ac input power.

RESULTS:
Voltage wave form across the load:
Ripple factor:
Efficiency:

LEARNING OUTCOMES:
 EXPERIMENT NO. : 6
AIM:
To study the forward and reverse bias volt-ampere characteristics of a zener diode.
Also determine the breakdown voltage, static and dynamic resistances.

APPARATUS AND COMPONENTS REQUIRED:

Sl. No Apparatus Specifications Quantity

1 DC Power Supply - 1
2 Bread Board - 1
3 Multimeter - 1
4 Connecting wire - -
5 Zener Diode Vz=5.1V 1
6 Resistors 1KΩ 1

THEORY:

The circuit diagram to plot the VI characteristics of a zener diode is shown. Zener diode is a
special diode with increased amounts of doping. This is to compensate for the damage that occurs
in the case of a pn junction diode when the reverse bias exceeds the breakdown voltage and
thereby current increases at a rapid rate.
Applying a positive potential to the anode and a negative potential to the cathode of the zener
diode establishes a forward bias condition. The forward characteristic of the zener diode is same
as that of a pn junction diode i.e. as the applied potential increases the current increases
exponentially. Applying a negative potential to the anode and positive potential to the cathode
reverse biases the zener diode.
As the reverse bias increases the current increases rapidly in a direction opposite to that of the
positive voltage region. Thus under reverse bias condition breakdown occurs. It occurs because
there is a strong electric filed in the region of the junction that can disrupt the bonding forces
within the atom and generate carriers. The breakdown voltage depends upon the amount of
doping. For a heavily doped diode depletion layer will be thin and breakdown occurs at low
reverse voltage and the breakdown voltage is sharp. Whereas a lightly doped diode has a higher
breakdown voltage. This explains the zener diode characteristics in the reverse bias region. The
maximum reverse bias potential that can be applied before entering the zener region is called the
Peak Inverse Voltage referred to as PIV rating or the Peak Reverse Voltage Rating (PRV rating)
CIRCUIT DIAGRAM

(REVERSE BIASE):

(FORWARD BIASE):

Figure 1 : Circuit diagram for Reverse and Forward bias characteristics of Zener Diode

Figure 2: I-V plot of Zener Diode

PROCEDURE:

1. Connect the circuit as shown in figure.

2. Apply DC supply as shown in the figure.
3. Measure the value of VZ and IZ, VR Reverse biased.
4. Reapeat the all step with opposite polarity of zener diode.
5. Measure the value of VZ and IZ, VF Reverse biased.
6. Plot the curve between Voltage and current for forward and reverse biased zener diode.

OBSERVATION:

Forward Bias Reverse Bias

S. No. Iz =Vr/R Iz =Vr/R
VF (V) Vz (V) Vr (V) VR (V) Vz (V) Vr (V)
(mA) (mA)
1.

2.

3.

RESULT:

Plot for reverse biased and forward biased zener diode: Break down voltage value:
Static resistance = Vz/Iz

Dynamic resistance value: change in zener voltage/change in current through zener diode.

LEARNING OUTCOMES:
 EXPERIMENT NO.: 7

AIM:
To plot input characteristic of a BJT in Common Emitter configuration.
APPARATUS AND COMPONENTS REQUIRED:

Sl. No Apparatus Specifications Quantity

1 Digital Multimeter - 1
2 Bread Board - 1
3 DC Power Supply - 1
4 Connecting wire - -
5 Transistor BC547 1
6 Resistors 1KΩ, 100KΩ 1each

THEORY:

A transistor is a three terminal device. The terminals are emitter, base, collector. In common
emitter configuration, input voltage is applied between base and emitter terminals and output
is taken across the collector and emitter terminals. Therefore the emitter terminal is common
to both input and output ports.
The input characteristic resembles that of a forward biased diode curve. This is expected since
the Base-Emitter junction of the transistor is forward biased. As compared to CB arrangement
IB increases less rapidly with VBE. Therefore input resistance of CE circuit is higher than that
of CB circuit.
.
The current amplification factor of CE configuration is given by

β= ∆IC/∆IB

Figure 1: Transistor Symbol

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:

Figure 2: Circuit Diafram for Input Characterstcs of BJT in CE Configuration

INPUT CHARACTERISTIC

PROCEDURE:

1) Connect the circuit as per the circuit diagram

2) For plotting the input characteristics the output voltage V CE is kept constant at 1V and by
varying VBB(0-0.1-2V) note down different values of VBE , VRB and IB
3) Repeat the above step by keeping VCE at 2V and 3V.
4) Tabulate all the readings.
5) Plot the graph between VBE and IB for constant VCE.

OBSERVATION TABLE:

VCE =1V VCE =2V VCE =3V

S. No. VBB VBE VBB VBE VBB VBE
VRB IB VRB IB VRB IB
(V) (V) (V) (µA) (V) (V) (V) (µA) (V) (V) (V) (µA)
INPUT CHARACTERISTIC GRAPH

Figure 3: Input characteristics of the NPN transistor in common emitter configuration

RESULT:

LEARNING OUTCOME:
 EXPERIMENT NO.: 8

AIM:
To plot output characteristic of a BJT in Common Emitter Configuration.

APPARATUS AND COMPONENTS REQUIRED:

Sl. No Apparatus Specifications Quantity

1 Digital Multimeter - 1
2 Bread Board - 1
3 DC Power Supply - 1
4 Connecting wire - -
5 Transistor BC547 1
6 Resistors 1KΩ, 100KΩ 1each

THEORY:

A transistor is a three terminal device. The terminals are emitter, base, collector. In
common emitter configuration, input voltage is applied between base and emitter
terminals and output is taken across the collector and emitter terminals. Therefore the
emitter terminal is common to bothinput and output
The output characteristics are drawn between Ic and VCE at constant IB. the collector
current Ic varies with VCE upto few voltage only. After this the collector current becomes
almost constant and independent of VCE. The value of VCE upto which the collector
current changes with VCE is known as knee voltage. The transistor always operates in the
region above knee voltage. Ic is always constant and is approximately equal to IB.

The current amplification factor of CE configuration is given by

β= ∆IC/∆IB

Figure 1: Transistor Symbol

 CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:

Figure 2: Circuit Diafram for output Characterstcs of BJT in CE Configuration

OUTPUT CHARACTERISTIC

PROCEDURE:

1) Connect the circuit as per the circuit diagram.

2) For plotting the output characteristics the input current IB is kept constant at 10µA and by
varying VCC note down the different values of VCE, VRB and IC.
3) Repeat the above step by keeping IB at 20 µA 40 µA.

OBSERVATION TABLE:
:

IB1=10µA IB2=20µA IB3=40µA

S. No.
VCC VCE VRC IC VCC VCE VRC IC VCC VCE VRC IC
(mv) (mv) (mv) (mA) (mv) (mv) (mv) (mA) (mv) (mv) (mv) (mA)
1.

2.

3.

4.

5.
OUTPUT CHARACTERISTIC GRAPH

Figure 3: Output characteristics of the NPN transistor in common emitter configuration

RESULT:

LEARNING OUTCOME:
 EXPERIMENT NO.: 9

AIM:
To observe inverting and non-inverting amplifier configurations using Op-
Amp IC741.

APPARATUS AND COMPONENTS REQUIRED:

Sl.No Apparatus Specifications Quantity

1 CRO - 1
2 Power Supply - 1
3 Bread Board - 1
4 Connecting wire - -
5 Op Amp IC -741 1
6 Resistors 1KΩ, 10KΩ 2 each

THEORY:

Pin Diagram of Op-Amp IC741:

Figure 1 : Pin Diagram of Op-Amp741 IC

Inverting amplifier

Figure 2(a) shows a inverting amplifier. The output Voltage (V o) is of the opposite polarity as the
input voltage (Vin). The input signal is applied directly to the inverting (-ve) input terminal of the
amplifier and the feedback resistance is also connected between the output terminal and inverting
input terminal.
Closed –Loop Voltage Gain (AF):
The closed-loop voltage gain A F can be obtained by writing Kirchoff’s Current equation at the
inputnode 2 as follows:
Iin = IF + IB ................................ (1)
Since Ri is very large, the input bias current (IB) is negligibly small. For
instance,Ri = 2MΩ and IB = 0.5μA for 741C. Therefore, Iin ≅ IF

Now, from circuit diagram shown in Fig. 2 (a)

Vin - V2 = V2-Vo ......................(2)
R1 RF
Using Virtual short concept V1=V2
Since V2 = 0V, Substituting this value of V2 in Equation (2)

𝑉𝑜 −𝑅𝐹
𝐴𝐹 = 𝑉𝑖𝑛
= …………..(3)
𝑅1

CIRCUIT DAIGRAM & WAVEFORM

Figure 2: Inverting Amplifier (a) Circuit diagram (b) Waveforms

PROCEDURE:

1. Make the connections as per the circuit diagram.

2. Apply the input to the Inverting terminal and obtain the output on the CRO.
3. Take various readings by varying the input voltage and hence calculate the gain.
4. Calculate the gain using formula.

AF = - RF / R1 (Theoretical)
AF = Vo/Vin (Practical)

OBSERVATION TABLE:
AF= - RF/R1 AF= VO/Vin
S.No. Vin(volts) VO(volts)
(Theoretical) (Practical)
1
2
3
4

Non inverting amplifier

Figure shows a non-inverting amplifier. The output Voltage (Vo) is of the same polarity as the
input voltage ( Vin.) The input resistance of the non-inverting amplifier is very large (100MΩ)
in this case. The input signal is applied directly to the non-inverting (+ve) input terminal of the
amplifier and the feedback resistance are connected between the output terminal, the –ve input
terminal and ground.
The Minimum Gain of the Non-Inverting Amplifier is 1

Closed –Loop Voltage Gain (AF):

AF = Vo/Vin ..................... (4)
From the circuit diagram shown in Fig. 3 (a)

V1/ R1 = (Vo-V1)/ RF................................. (5)

Using Virtual short concept V1=V2=Vin

Therefore, Vin / R1 = ( Vo- Vin)/ RF

AF =V0 / Vin =1 + RF / R1 ...................(6)

CIRCUIT DAIGRAM & WAVEFORM

Figure 3: Non-Inverting Amplifier (a) Circuit diagram (b) Waveforms

PROCEDURE:
1. Make the connections as per the circuit diagram.
2. Apply the input to the Non-Inverting terminal and obtain the output on the CRO.
3. Take various readings by varying the input voltage and hence calculate the gain.
4. Calculate the gain using formula.
AF =1 +RF / R1
AF = Vo / Vin

OBSERVATION TABLE:

AF=1+(RF/R1) AF=Vo/Vin
S. No. Vin (Volts) Vo(Volts)
(Theoretical) (Practical)
RESULT:
Voltage gain of the Inverting/Non-inverting amplifiers depends on the value of R F & R1,
whereas it is independent of the open loop gain ‘A o’ of the op-amp. Theoretical and Practical
values of the Gain are approximately same.

LEARNING OUTCOME:
 EXPERIMENT NO : 10

AIM:
To realize an adder and substractor circuits using Op
Op- Amp IC 741 amplifier.

APPARATUS AND COMPONENTS REQUIRED:

Sl.No Apparatus Specifications Quantity

1 +/- 12 V Dual Supply, 0-
DC Regulated Power Supply 01
5V, 0-10V
2 Digital Multimeter - 1
3 Bread Board - 1
4 Connecting wire - -
5 Op Amp IC -741 1
6 Resistors 1kΩ 4
7 Resistors 10kΩ 1

THEORY:

ADDER:

Op-amp
amp can be used to design a circuit whose output is the sum of several input signals. Such a
circuit is called a summing amplifier or an adder. Summing amplifier can be classified as
inverting and non-inverting summer depending on the inputs applied to inverting and non-
inverting terminals respectively. Figure 1 sshows a non-inverting adder with n inputs. Here the
output will be the linear summation of input voltages. The circuit can also be used as summing
amplifier, scaling amplifier, or as an averaging amplifier also.

From the circuit of adder, it can be noted that at pin3, I1+I2+I3+… ...... n=0
The output voltage should be equal to the sum of all the input voltages .

Figure 1: Circuit diagram of Op-Amp as Adder

PROCEDURE:
1. Connect the adder circuit as shown in Figure1.
2. Apply the input voltages V1, V2 from DC power supply (Negative of the power supply
should be connected with the ground).
3. Biasing of the Op-amp should be done with correct polarity of Vcc(+/-12V).
4. Measure the output voltage across R L with the help of DMM.

OBSERVATION TABLE:

V1 V2 Vout V1+V2 (V)

(V) (V) (V)
Theoretical values
Measured Values

SUBTRACTOR:

A subtractor is a circuit that gives the difference of the two inputs, V o =V2-V1, where V1 and V2
are the inputs. By connecting one input voltage V1 to inverting terminal and another input
voltageV2 to the non-inverting terminal, we get the resulting circuit as the Subtractor. This is also
called as differential or difference amplifier using op-amps.

Output of a differential amplifier (subtractor) is given as

Vo = (-Rf/R1) (V1-V2)

If all external resistors are equal in value, then the gain of the amplifier is equal to -1. The output
voltage of the differential amplifier with a gain of -1 is

Vo = (V2-V1)

Thus the output voltage Vo is equal to the voltage V2 applied to the non – inverting terminal
minus the voltage V1 applied to the inverting terminal.

Figure 2: Circuit diagram of Op-Amp as Subtractor

PROCEDURE:
1. Connect the subtractor circuit as shown in Figure 2.
2. Apply the input voltages V1, V2 from DC power supply (Negative of the power supply
should be connected with the ground).
3. Biasing of the Op-amp should be done with correct polarity of Vcc(+/-12V).
4. Measure the output voltage across R L with the help of DMM.

OBSERVATION TABLE:

V1 (V) V2 (V) Vout (V) V2-V1 (V)

Theoretical values
Measured Values

RESULT:

LEARNING OUTCOMES:
 EXPERIMENT NO : 11
AIM:
Verification of Superposition Theorem.

APPARATUS AND COMPONENTS REQUIRED:

Sl.No Apparatus Specifications Quantity
1 Multimeter Digital 1
2 DC Regulated Power Supply +5V, +12V 1
3 Bread Board -- 1
5 Connecting wire -
5 Resistors 1 KΩ, 4.7 KΩ, 2.2 KΩ 1 each

THEORY:
In any linear bilateral network containing two or more independent sources
(voltage or current sources or combination of voltage and current sources) the resultant
current / voltage in any branch is the algebraic sum of currents / voltages caused by each
independent sources acting alone, with all other independent sources being replaced
meanwhile by their respective internal resistances.

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:

Figure 1 Circuit diagram

PROCEDURE:

1. Measure the practical value of the given resistance with the help of Digital
multimeter.
2. Make the circuit on the bredboard as per Figure 2,

Figure 2

4. Consider source V1 and open the DC source V2, replace it by a short circuit
(internal resistance of source) by wire. Measure voltage across VR1, VR2 and VR3
5. Now consider source V2 and open the DC source V1, replace it by a short circuit
(internal resistance of the source). Measure voltage across R1, R2 and R3 Figure 3.
 Figure 3

Note :- Keep the polarity of the DMM lead same while taking measurement.
6. Now consider both the sources V1 and V2. Measure voltage across R1,R2 and R3.
(Figure:1)

OBSERVATION TABLE:

Table I – Resistance Measurements

Value Determination R1 R2 R3
Color Code
Measured

Table II – Voltage Supply Measurements

Value Determination V1 V2
Nominal 12 V 5V
Measured

Table III – MEASURED Currents and Potentials

Active V VR1 VR2 VR3 I1 I2 I3

V1 ONLY
V2 ONLY
BOTH
Calc ∆%

③ ∆% = 100•[XBOTH - (ΣXj)]/XBOTHoWhere Xj≡ either of VRj or Ij

Table IV – CALCULATED Currents and Potentials

Active V VR1 VR2 VR3 I1 I2 I3

V1 ONLY
V2 ONLY
BOTH

RESULT:

PRECAUTION:

LEARNING OUTCOME:
 EXPERIMENT NO: 12

AIM:

Realization of desired wave shapes using clipper and clamper circuits.

APPARATUS AND COMPONENTS REQUIRED:

Sl.No Apparatus Specifications Quantity

1 CRO - 1
2 Power Supply DC regulated 1
3 Function Generator 1
4 Bread Board -- 1
5 Connecting wire -
6 Resistors 1 KΩ, 10 KΩ, 100 KΩ 1each
7 Capacitor 0.1 µF 1
8 Diode IN4007 1

THEORY:
The circuit with which the waveform is shaped by removing (or clipping) a portion of the
input signal without distorting the remaining part of the alternating waveform is called a
clipper. Clipping circuits are also referred to as voltage (or current) limiters, amplitude
selectors, or slicers. These circuits find extensive use in radars, digital computers, radio and
television receivers etc.

In a clipping circuit, the output voltage will be proportional to the input voltage as long as
the input lies between the specified reference levels. Outside this range, the output is
clipped - it remains essentially constant, no longer dependent on the input. Clipping
circuits find important uses in wave shaping and signal processing applications.

Often in the development of electronic circuits it is required that voltages be limited in

some manner to avoid circuit damage. Furthermore, the limiting or clipping of voltages can
be very useful in the development of wave-shaping circuits. A typical clipper circuit is
shown in Figure 1. In this circuit the output voltage can never be greater than 3 V. The ideal
diode becomes forward biased at Vo equal to 3 V and this ties the output directly to the 3 V
supply. The waveform can be
clipped on the negative side by placing the series combination of a diode and power supply
in parallel with the diode and power supply already shown.

Figure 1: Diode clipping circuit showing input and output waveforms

While clipper circuits are concerned primarily with limiting or cutting off part of the
waveform, clampers are used primarily to shift the DC level. For example, if we have a
clock signal that swings between 0v and 5V but our application requires a clock signal
from -5V to 0V, we can provide the proper DC offset with a passive clamper circuit. A
typical clamper circuit is shown in Figure 2. For this circuit to work properly the pulse
width needs to be much less than the RC time constant of 10 ms. The input square wave
with a frequency of 1 KHz and a pulse width of 0.5 ms meets this requirement. The diode
and power supply as shown will prevent the output voltage from exceeding 3 V (i.e., all of
the region above 3 V can be viewed as a forbidden region for output voltage). Because of
the time constant requirement the voltage across the capacitor cannot change significantly
during the pulse width, and after a short transient period the voltage across the capacitor
reached a steady state offset value. The output voltage is simply the input voltage shifted by
this steady state offset. Also, observe that the peak-to-peat output voltage is equal to the
peak-to-peak input voltage. This is true because the voltage across the capacitor cannot
change instantaneously and the full change of voltage on the input side of the capacitor will
likewise be seen on the output side of the capacitor.
 Figure 2: Diode clamper circuit showing input and output waveforms

PROCEDURE:

A. Clipper Circuits:

1. Consider the clipper circuit in Fig.3, draw the input and output voltage waveforms in
same plot
vi(t)=10sin(200πt), R=1kΩ and RL=47kΩ.

2. Consider the clamper circuit in Fig.4, draw the input and output voltage waveforms,
assume
vi(t)=10sin(200πt) and C=47μF.
RESULT:

PRECAUTION:

LEARNING OUTCOME: