V. Conductors and Insulators III.

Basic Parts of Electric Circuit

Fundamentals of Electrical
Circuits Conductor Insulator
Energy Source
A circuit needs an energy source
to push a charge through the
Allows electrons to move through Does not allow electrons to move circuit.
them easily easily
A device in a circuit that operates
Load
I. General Definition of Electricity Has high thermal conductivity but Has low thermal conductivity but using electrical energy
low resistance high resistance
● Movement of charge around a circuit A conductor is a material that
● Said movement is referred to as electric current Conductor allows electrical energy to flow
How Voltage Differs from Current through it easily
II. Electrical Charge (Q)
(1) It is the current that moves through the circuit
An object added to a circuit that
● Electrons are the charge carriers that flow in an electrical restricts the flow of electrical
circuit –from the negative to positive terminals. (2) The potential difference does not move
energy.
● Measured in Coulombs (C)
● The charge on a proton and electron is 1.602 x 10⁻¹⁹ C (3) The voltage across the filament resistance makes electrons flow from
Resistors inhibit the flow of
● 1 Coulomb has 6.24 x 10¹⁸ electrons one side to the other Resistor
electric current by producing a
● When two objects with the same charge come into contact, voltage drop when current passes
they repel. When two objects with different charges come into (4) While the current is flowing around the circuit, however, the potential
through them. They limit current
contact, they attract. difference remains across the filament to do the work of moving electrons
and cause some electric energy to
through the resistance of the filament
be given off as heat.
III. Electric Current (I)
A device that is used to control
● Continuous flow or movement of electrons (negative charges) the flow of current through a
in a circuit I. General Definition of Electric Circuit circuit
● It is the amount of charge flowing past a point in a certain
amount of time ● A closed path that has voltage to produce current with When an electric current reaches
● Measured in Ampere (A) resistance to limit the amount of current. an open switch, the current
Switch
● Circuits are very similar to water flowing through a pipe stops, creating an open circuit.
because
When an electric current reaches
Relationship Between Charge, Current, and Time (1) Just as there is pressure difference where the flow a closed switch, the current
begins and end in a pipe, there is a potential continues, creating a closed
General Concept: 1 A is 1 C of charge transferred in 1 second difference (voltage) from where the charge begins circuit.
to where it ends in a circuit
If electric current is missing, then:
IV. Primary Electric Circuit Diagram Symbols
(2) Just as a certain amount of flow passes each second,
I = Q/t in a circuit, a certain amount of flow passes each
second which is also called current
If electric charge is missing, then:
● Most basic circuits have three parts namely

Q = It (1) An energy source

If time is missing, then: (2) One or more loads (run by electricity)

(3) Conductors (wires) that connect the two

t = Q/I
II. Characteristics of an Electric Circuit

IV. Voltage (V) (1) There must be a source of potential difference

● Also called potential difference or p.d. (2) There must be a complete path for the current flow
● Measured in Volts (V)
(3) The current path normally has resistance – the resistance is in the
● The amount of electrical energy the electrons have at any point
circuit for the purpose of either generating heat or limiting the amount of
in a circuit is known as their “potential”.
current
● At any two points the electron has different amounts of energy.
V. Short Circuit VII. Circuit Building Blocks
Current in a Series Circuit (IT) IT​= I1​= I2​= I3 ​=⋯ = IN​
● The voltage source has a closed path across its terminals but the ● Networks = Circuits
resistance is practically zero ● Networks are composed of the following: nodes, branches, and Total Voltage (VT) VT ​= VR1​+ VR2 ​+ ⋯ + VRN​
● Results to too much current loops
● A bypass across the load resistance ● Nodes. The point of connection between two or more branches Voltage Drop Across Each VRi​=I×Ri​
○ May include a portion of the circuit Resistor (VRI)
○ Essential Node - the point of connection between
three or more branches
● Branches. A single two-terminal element in a circuit ** Note!
○ Segments of wires are not included
○ Examples: voltage source, resistor, and current ● The total resistance is the sum of all resistors.
source ● The current is the same through all components.
● The total voltage is distributed across each resistor, creating
● Loops. Any closed path that starts and ends at the same point individual voltage drops according to the resistance of each
without retracing any part of the path. component.

II. Parallel Circuit

If elements are connected such that the same voltage is across all of
An element or wire with R = 0 is called a short circuit. them, the elements are said to be connected in parallel
A circuit can be series, parallel, or even a mixture of both.
VI. Open Circuit
I. Series Circuit
● When any part of the path is open or broken, the circuit is
open because there is no continuity in the conducting path. If two or more elements in a circuit are connected so that each element
● Has an infinitely high resistance, resulting to lack of current has the same current flowing through it, they are in series.

● Offers more than one path for the flow of electricity, so each
load has its own path for electricity.
● A failure in one part of the circuit will not affect another part of
the circuit
● Each load connected to a parallel circuit uses the full voltage
of the energy source.
● In parallel circuit, the Rt is equal to the inverse of the sum of
the reciprocals of the individual resistance values.
● Provides only one possible electrical path for current flow IMPORTANT FORMULAS FOR PARALLEL CIRCUIT
● An open circuit voltage is the voltage measured across the ● The elements are connected end to end in a chain fashion
terminals of a power source when no current flows ● Loads are set up in a line that requires the current to flow
● Since no current flows in an open circuit, there’s no voltage through one load before passing through the next. Total Current (IT) IT ​= I1​ + I2 ​+ I3​+ ⋯+ IN​
drop across the internal resistance. Therefore Vin = Vout = 1.5V ● All of the loads share the same energy source. This means that
the current lowers as more loads are added to the circuit. Voltage (VT) VT =VR1​=VR2​=VR3 ​=⋯=VRN
● A failure or break in any part of the switch will stop the flow of
electricity through the entire circuit.
Total Resistance (RT)
● The total or equivalent resistance Req seen by the source is
equal to the sum of the values of the individual resistors

IMPORTANT FORMULAS FOR SERIES CIRCUIT

Equivalent Resistance

Total Resistance (RT or REQ) RT​= REQ​=R1​+R2​+R3​+⋯+RN​

Total Voltage (VT) VT​=IT​×RT​ Voltage-Current Relationship VT​=RT​⋅IT​

● A closed circuit voltage is the voltage measured across the
terminals when the circuit is complete and current flows Where: Alternative Total Resistance
through a load Formula (If 2 Parallel Resistors RT = R1 x R2 / R1 + R2
● When the circuit is closed, current flows, creating a voltage IT, = total current and RT = total are Given)
drop across the internal resistance resistance
 FORMULA FOR PERFORMING WYE TO DELTA
TRANSFORMATION flows in a single direction periodically reverses direction.
consistently over time.
General Concept: Every Delta Network is functionally equivalent to a
Wye network and vice versa A battery is a steady DC voltage
An alternating voltage source
source because it has fixed
periodically reverses or
polarity and its output voltage
alternates in polarity
is a steady value.

Has fixed polarity Has reverse polarity

Varies between reversal in

Steady or vary in magnitude
polarity

Steady value cannot be stepped Can be stepped up or down for

up or drown by a transformer electrical power distribution

Signal input and output for

Electrode voltages for amplifiers
amplifiers
● In a Delta (Δ) network, three resistors are connected in a ** Note! Easier to measure Easier to amplify
triangle shape
● Each resistor in the Delta network is calculated using the sum
● The subscripts for resistance in a Delta network are letters. of the products of all pairs of resistors in the Wye network,
divided by the resistor in the Wye network that is opposite the
Delta resistor being calculated.
Resistors oppose or resist the flow of electric current. They have a
FORMULA FOR PERFORMING DELTA TO WE property called resistance which is measured in Ohms (Ω)
TRANSFORMATION
I. General Definition of Resistance

● Property of an electric circuit or material tending to prevent the

flow of current and at the same time converting electrical
energy to heat energy

II. Varying Resistance

● Opposition to current or resistance of a material depends on the

following:
● In the equivalent Wye (Y) network, three resistors are
connected in a "Y" shape, with each resistor connecting one
(1) Type of Material. The better conductor a material
of the three nodes to a central node
is, the lower its resistance would be.
● Resistance is numbered in Wye network.
(2) Length of Material. The longer the material, the
higher the resistance.

** Note! (3) Thickness of Material (Cross-Sectional Area).

The thinner the material, the higher the resistance.
● Each resistor in the Wye (Y) network is calculated using the
product of two adjacent resistors from the Delta network, (4) Temperature of Material. The higher the
divided by the sum of all three Delta resistors. temperature, the higher the resistance.
● This formula must be satisfied for equivalence.

● For the transformation to be valid, the total resistance seen

between any two nodes (A, B, or C) should be the same in both Relationship Between These Factors & Resistance
the Delta and Wye configurations. ALTERNATING CURRENT
DIRECT CURRENT (DC) General Concept: At any given temperature, the resistance of the wire
(AC)
varies in proportion to the length of the wire and varies inversely as
A type of electric current that An electric current that the cross-sectional area
Formula: ● The graph shows that for a given increase in temperature (Δt,
there is a proportional increase in resistance (Δr).
R = ρ L/A
On the 1st temp condition

Where:

● R is the resistance in ohms (Ω)

● ρ is a constant called resistivity which is a characteristic of the
material of which the wire is made
● L is the length of the conductor
● A is the cross-sectional area expressed in CM or Cmil
● Square mil has a larger surface area than circular mil.
Thus:
● By definition, a wire has an area of 1 CM and has a diameter of
1 mil.

A= π/4​D2 = π/4​(1 mil)2 = π/4​sq. mils = 1 cm

Therefore;

1 CM = π/4​sq. mils = 0.7854 x 10-6 in2

Rearranged Formula for Each Variable
IV. Inferred Zero Resistance
1 sq. mil =4/π CM
To solve for Length (L):
● In order to have a zero resistance, temperature must be
negative.
R•A For a wire with a diameter of N mils:
L= /ρ Inferred Zero Resistance by Similar ΔS:

To solve for cross-sectional area (A): A= π/4​D2 = π/4N2​(sq.mils) = (π/4N2) 4/π CM

ρ•L = ACM = (dmils)2

A= /R

To solve for resistivity (ρ):

III. Resistance as a Linear Function of Temperature Temperature Coefficient at Any Given Time

R•A Let:
ρ= /L R1 = RO [1+α0t1]
R2 = RO [1+α0t2]
Reference for Temperature Coefficient & Resistivity :
https://www.engineeringtoolbox.com/resistivity-conductivity-d_418.ht Then Divide R1 by R2:
ml

Converting Area to Circular Mils

Area of a conductor is measured in circular mils !!

● Circular mils (CM) is the area of a circle (wire-cross section)

whose diameter is 1 mil. It is a unit of area, obtained by Figure 1. Shows the relationship between electrical resistance (R) and
squaring the diameter, while mil is a linear unit of length temperature (T) as a linear function

● A "mil" is defined as 0.001 inches (10^-3 inches), and 1000 ● The line sloping upwards from the origin indicates that
mils make up 1 inch resistance increases linearly with temperature. The higher the
temperature, the greater the resistance, which is typical for
many materials.
IN GENERAL: First Temperature Condition Final Temperature Coefficient Formula

Where:

R0 = resistance at 0°C temperature

R1 = resistance at temperature 1
R2 = resistance at temperature 2
t1 = temperature at conductor 1
t2 = temperature at conductor 2
αn​= temperature coefficient at any given temperature

FURTHER INTERPRETATION General Resistance Equation at Different Temperatures

** NOTE: Hindi sure T^T

General Temperature Coefficient Formula

● Helps adjust for the temperature coefficient at different

temperatures.

● Ohm’s Law describes the fundamental relationship between

voltage (V), current (I), and resistance (R) in an electrical
circuit.

● The current I is directly proportional to the applied voltage V.

This means if the voltage increases, the current also
increases, provided resistance remains the same.

● The current I is inversely proportional to the resistance R.

Higher resistance results in lower current for a given voltage.

Inferred Zero Resistance Formula: ● For a resistive element, current flows from the higher
potential (positive) to the lower potential (negative)
● Helps in theoretical calculations, showing the temperature
Reference Condition (at 0 °C)
where resistance might drop to zero. Resistive Element - any component that provides resistance to the flow
of electric current, converting electrical energy into heat

Passive Element - any component that does not generate energy but
can store, dissipate, or resist energy. It doesn’t produce power but can
absorb it or store it temporarily.

I. Power

● Defined as the rate of doing the work and the conversion of

energy from one form to another.
● Is an indication of how much work
● Can be accomplished in a specified amount of time, that is a
rate of doing work.
Mathematically, Power is expressed as ● SYSTEM: The process or equipment that converts the energy
from one form to another Energy (Wh) = power(w) x time(h)
W ● Energy Output: The usable energy that leaves the system after
P = /t
conversion Energy in Kilowatt-hours
Where:
Fundamental Principle of Energy Conversion Energy (kWh) = power(w) x time (h) / 1000
P is power measured in watts (W).
W is work or energy measured in joules (J). Energy input=Energy output+Energy lost or stored
t is time measured in seconds (s). Wi​=Wo​+Wlost or stored​
● 1 watt is defined as the rate of energy transfer equivalent to 1 General Concept: Maximum power is transferred to the load (variable
Where:
joule/second resistor R) when it is equal to the resistance of the source (fixed
● Horsepower (hp) is another unit of power commonly used. resistor r).
Wi​= Total energy input
● 1 hp ≈ 746 W
Wo = Useful energy output
Maximum Power Expression
Wlost or stored = Energy lost or stored within the system
Other Forms of Power
Power Conversion PRL = V2/ 4RL
This indicates that the maximum power transferred to the load
P=VI Pi​=Po​+Plost or stored​ resistor occurs when its resistance equals the source resistance. This
equation was derived by:
Where: Where:

V is voltage measured in volts (V) Pi​= Power input

I is current measured in amperes (A) Po = Power output
Plost or stored = Power lost or stored within the system

Efficiency of the System

VQ
P= /t ● Efficiency (η) is a crucial metric that indicates how effectively
a system converts energy input into useful output.
Electric current is defined as the rate of flow of electric charge (Q), ● It is defined as the ratio of useful power output to power input
defined as I = Q/t.

P=VI= I (IR) =I2R ● Power Equation: Starting with the power equation PRL = V2L/RL
Where:
η = Efficiency (expressed as a percentage) ● Voltage Calculation: Using voltage across the load resistor to
From Ohm’s Law, V=IR. find VL.
Pi​= Power input
This indicates that power can also be expressed in terms of current and ● Substitution and Simplification: Substituting VL into the
Po = Power output
resistance power equation and simplifying.
Wo = Useful work output ● Max Power Condition: Finding that maximum power occurs
Wi= Total work input when RL=r
III. Energy
P=V2/R
● In order for power, which is the rate of doing work, to produce
If voltage across a resistor is known. an energy conversion of any form, it must be used over a
This indicates that power can also be expressed in terms of voltage and period of time I. British Thermal Unit (BTU)
resistance.
● Heat needed to raise the temperature of 1 lb of water by 1°F.
General Formula:
II. Efficiency ● Equivalent to the following:
W = Pt
○ 778 ft-lb
○ 257.99 g-cal
Where W is the work done or energy
○ 1054.9 joules
P is the power
○ 2.931× 10−4 kWh
t is the time
II. Gram-Calorie (gm-cal) as a Heat Energy Unit
Energy in Watt-hours
● Energy Input: The energy entering the system ● Heat needed to raise the temperature of 1 gram of water by
1°C.
 ● Equivalent to the following:
○ 4.2 w-sec (watts multiplied by seconds) Total or Equivalent Resistance Current through R2 (I2) and
○ 4.187 joules Current through R1 (I1)

III. Joule’s Law Current through the Circuit, IS In a parallel circuit, the current
through each resistor is inversely
The formula for heat developed in a circuit is: Derived using Ohm’s Law. Is proportional to its resistance.
constant throughout the series
circuit. The larger the resistance, the
Q = I2Rt/4.2 in gram-calories
smaller the current through that
branch
Where:
Q = heat Voltage Drop Across R2 (V2)
I = current and Voltage Drop Across R1
R = resistance (V1)
t = time (in seconds)
V2 ​and V1 depend on the ratio of
IV. Conversion Factors R2 and R1 to the total resistance I. General Definition of Kirchoff’s Law

● Provides a means for solving electrical networks that may not

8.345 lb be solved readily by simple application of Ohm’s law.
II. Current Divider Principle (CDP) ● There are two basic rules that must be applied in this law.
231 cubic inches (cu. in.)
1 gallon (gal) ● States that the current flowing in one branch of a parallel (1) In any electrical networks, the algebraic sum of the
3785 cubic meters (cu. m) combination is equal to the current entering of the parallel currents that meet at a point is zero
combination multiplied by the ratio of the resistance in the
3.785 liters (L) other branch to the sum of the resistance of both branches. (2) In any closed circuit the sum of all the emf’s and all the
resistance drops taken with their proper sign is zero.
1000 grams (g) For two resistors R1 and R2 in parallel, the current I1 flowing through R1
1 liter (L) is determined by: II. Explanation on How to Assign Voltage Signs
1000 cubic centimeters (cu. cm)
I1 = I (R2/ R1 + R2) With sources:
1 quart (qt) 0.946 liters (L)
Similarly, (1) Moving from (-) to (+) terminal: The potential increases (use
a + sign)
(2) Moving from (+) to (-) terminal: The potential decreases (use
I2 = I (R1 / R1 + R2) a - sign)

Note: The sign of the emf source is independent of the direction

I. Voltage Divider Principle (VDP) Note! The greater the resistance of the other branch the more the of the current
current will flow in the opposite branch.
● Provides a method for finding the voltage across one or more ** If the resistance R1 is less than the resistance R2, then the greater With resistors:
resistor that are connected in a series circuit with other portion of I will flow in R1, that is, the greater current will flow in the
resistors path of the lesser resistance. (1) Moving in the same direction as the current: The voltage
decreases (use a - sign).
Voltage (V1) across a resistor R1 in series with another resistor R2 (and (2) Moving in the opposite direction to the current: The voltage
connected to a total voltage V) can be found using: Other Derived Formulas increases (use a + sign).

V1 = V (R1/ R1 + R2) Voltage Source (Vs) Note: Conventional current flows from the (-) terminal to the
(+) terminal
Or generally, In a parallel circuit, each branch
Vn = V (Rn/RT) (each resistor) experiences the Other References:
same voltage.
(1) https://youtu.be/2Zu3ppq3n8I
Note! The higher the resistance of a component in a series circuit, the (2) https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=dgkaE7eiY5w&list=PL-m
larger the share of the total voltage it will have across it. V9m5bis8EyuRBZmKllThMcG4Q8dz5c
Other Derived Formulas