Electrical Circuits

Circuit
A circuit is a closed conducting path through which an electric current flows or is
intended to flow.
OR
An electric circuit is a closed loop network that provides a return path for the current
flow.
OR
It is an interconnection of circuit elements, but it must have at least one independent
source and one closed path.

Network
A combination of various circuit elements, connected in any manner (simple or complex
configuration), is called an electric network.
OR
It is an interconnection of circuit elements that may or may not have a closed path.

Open Circuit
A circuit with no return path for current to flow in it (i.e. which is not completed) is
known as an open circuit. In other words, a circuit where voltage tends to the EMF (of
generating source) and no current is flowing at all is called an open circuit. Current can
only flow in a circuit if it finds a continuous path—known as a "closed circuit". If there's
a break anywhere in the circuit, the current cannot flow.
The current flowing through the circuit is zero in an open circuit, and voltage is present
(non-zero). Power equals V x I, and the current is equal to zero in an open circuit.
Hence, power is equal to zero, and no power dissipates from an open circuit. Hence,
power is equal to zero, and no power dissipates from an open circuit.

The current is zero in an open circuit condition (I = 0).

Hence, for any voltage value, the resistance is infinite in open circuit conditions.

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Example of an open circuit: A circuit with an open switch or blown fuse where the light
bulb is connected to the battery. So the bulb won't glow as the circuit is not completed,
i.e. it is an open circuit, and there is no flowing current in it.

Closed Circuit
A circuit with a return path for current to flow in it (i.e. completed circuit) is known as a
closed circuit.
Example of a closed circuit: A circuit with a close switch where the light bulb is
connected to the battery. So the bulb glows as current flows in the bulb's filament due to
the completed circuit.

Short Circuit
A circuit with a return path for current to flow in it where the value of resistance = zero.
(i.e. completed or closed circuit without connected load) is known as a short circuit. In
other words, a circuit where voltage tends to zero and current tends to infinity is called
a short circuit.
In short circuit conditions, a very high amount (theoretically infinite) of current passing
through the circuit. The resistance between two terminals of shorts circuits is ideally
zero. But practically, there is very low resistance.

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The resistance is almost zero in an open circuit condition (R = 0).

Example of a short circuit: A circuit with a close switch without a load connected to the
supply voltage. In other words, when a Phase or Line wire touches the Neutral wire
without a load between them. In that case, the fuse will blow, or the circuit breaker will
trip. Without proper protection, the short circuit may damage the appliance or cause a
severe injury.

Circuit Parameters
Different components or elements used in electric circuits are called circuit's parameters
like resistance, capacitance, Inductance, etc.

Active Circuit
It is a circuit which contains one or more EMF (Electromotive force) sources.

Passive Circuit
It is a circuit in which no EMF source exists.

Active Component
Those devices or components which require an external source to operate in a circuit
are called Active Components. For Example, Diode, Transistor, SCR etc.
A diode is an active component because it requires an external source to operate in a
circuit. The diode will not conduct the current (either in forward or reverse bias) until
the level of voltage reaches 0.3 V (in the case of Germanium) or 0.7 V (in the case of
Silicon).

Passive Component
Those devices or components which do not require an external source to operate in a
circuit are called Passive Components. For Example, Resistor, Capacitor, Inductor etc.
Passive Components (such as resistors. capacitors, inductors etc.) do not require an
external source for their operation.

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Linear Circuit
It is a circuit whose circuit parameters (resistance, Inductance, capacitance, etc.) are
constant; they do not change with voltage or current.

Non-Linear Circuit
It is a circuit whose circuit parameters (resistance, Inductance, capacitance, waveform,
etc.) change with voltage or current. In other words, an electric circuit in which circuit
parameters are not constant.

Unilateral Circuit
It is the circuit whose properties or characteristics change with the change of supply
voltage or current direction. In other words, a unilateral circuit allows the current to
flow only in one direction. A diode or rectifier is an example of a unilateral circuit
because it does not perform the rectification in both supply directions.

Bilateral Circuit
It is the circuit whose properties or characteristics do not change with the change of
supply voltage or current direction, i.e. its properties remain the same in either supply
direction. Hence, a bilateral circuit allows the current to flow in both directions. The
transmission line is the best example of a bilateral circuit because the circuit properties
remain constant by providing the supply voltage from any direction (starting end or
finishing end).

Node
Node is a point where two or more circuit elements (resistor, capacitor, inductor, etc.)
meet.

Junction
A junction is a node with at least three connecting elements, OR a junction is any point
in a circuit where a current can split.

Branch
A part or section of a circuit located between two junctions is called a branch. One or
more elements with two terminals can be connected in a branch.

Mesh
A closed loop which contains no other loop within it or a path which does not include
different paths is called Mesh.

Loop
It is a closed path in a circuit where no element or node is encountered more than once.
It is a closed path in a circuit where more than two meshes can occur, i.e. there may be
many meshes in a loop, but a mesh does not contain any loop.

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 7 Elements, 3 branches, 6 Nodes, 2 Junctions, 2 Meshes, 3 Loops

Factors Affecting the Resistance

Several factors affect the resistance of a conductor;
 Nature of material: e.g. copper has lower resistance than steel.
 Length: Longer wires have higher resistance.
 Thickness/Cross-sectional Area: Wires with smaller diameters (cross-section)
have higher resistance.
 Temperature: Heating a wire increases its resistance.

It is found that the resistance of a conductor is:

 Directly proportional to its length (l) or R ∝ l.
 Inversely proportional to its area of cross-section (A) or R ∝ 1/A.
Let's combine these two conditions for the resistance as
R∝l/A
or
R=ρ×l/A
where ρ is the constant of proportionality and is known as the resistivity or specific
resistance of the conductor.

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  The resistivity of a conductor is defined as the resistance of the conductor of unit
length and unit area of cross-section.
ρ=R×A/l
Series and Parallel Circuits
Characteristics Series Circuit Parallel Circuit

Definition A series circuit has a single A parallel circuit has multiple

pathway for the flow of current. pathways for the flow of current.
Arrangement The components are arranged in The components are arranged
a single line with their tails with their head connected
connected to the heads of the next together and tails connected
component. together.

Current The series circuit forms a single It forms multiple loops, so there
Pathways loop, so there is only a single are multiple pathways for
pathway. current.

Current & The current remains the same The current is divided in
Voltage through each component. different amounts in each path
and depends on the value of
resistance offered by each path.
IT = I1 = I2 = I3 = … In IT = I1 + I2 + I3 + … In
The voltage is divided among the The voltage across each path or
components and depends on each component remains the same.
component's resistance.
VT = V1 + V2 + V3 + … Vn VT = V1 = V2 = V3 = … Vn

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Resistance The total resistance increases, and The total resistance decreases,
it is always greater than its and it is less than the individual
individual resistance. resistance.
Req = R1 + R2 + R3 + … Rn 1/Req = 1/R1 + 1/R2 + 1/R3 + … 1/Rn
Power The total power in a series circuit The total power equals the sum
equals the sum of the power of the power dissipated by the
dissipated by the individual individual re sistors.
resistors.
PT = P1 + P2 + … Pn PT = P1 + P2 + … Pn
PT = I2R1 + I2R2 + … I2Rn PT = V2/R1 + V2/R2 + … V2/Rn
Power Supply The total voltage increases (adds The total voltage remains the
up) for power supplies connected same for power supplies in
in series while the total current parallel while the total current
remains the same. increases (add up).
Fault A fault in any component breaks A fault in any component will
the whole circuit, and the other not affect any other components,
components do not work. and they will work fine.
Troubleshooting It isn't easy to troubleshoot, and It is easier to trouble and
identifying the components takes identifies the faulty branch.
time.

Series and Parallel connection of Batteries

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Short in a Series Circuit
Since a short circuit has almost zero resistance, it causes the problem of excessive
current, which in turn causes power dissipation to increase many times and circuit
components to burn out.

In Figure (a)

In Figure (b)

The current flow is twice the normal value

In Figure (c)

The current flow is six times the normal value; therefore, connecting wires and other
components will become hot enough to burn out.

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Open in a Series Circuit

If the circuit becomes 'open' anywhere, the following two effects will be produced
i. Since 'open' offers infinite resistance, the circuit becomes zero.
ii. The whole of the applied voltage felt across the 'open.'

Short in a Parallel Circuit

In Figure (a), if a 'short' is placed across R3, then

i. Battery draws almost infinite current because its resistance and resistance of
connecting wires is negligible
ii. Short across one branch creates short across all branches
iii. There will be no current in shorted branches
iv. The shorted components will not damage
In Figure (b), a 'short' across R3 may short out R2 but not R1 since R4 protects it.

Open in a Parallel Circuit

Since an 'open' offers infinite resistance, there would be no current in that part of circuit
where 'open' occurs.

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 In Figure (a), an open in the mainline prevents current flow to all branches.
 In Figure (b), an open occurred in the branch of B1; hence, B1 will not glow as there is
no current. The second bulb remains connected across the supply; it will keep
operating normally.

Voltage Divider Rule (VDR) for Resistive Circuits

 In a circuit, when several elements are connected in series, input voltage divides
across the elements. According to the elements used in the circuit, the voltage
divider rule can be classified into three types; resistive voltage divider, inductive
voltage divider, and capacitive voltage divider.
 As the resistors are connected in series, the current that passes through both
resistors is the same. But the voltage is not the same for both resisters. The input
voltage of the circuit divides into both resisters. And the value of individual voltage
depends on the resistance.

 As shown in the above Figure, two resistors R1 and R2 are connected in series
with the voltage source Vs. The total current supplied by the source is I ampere.
As all elements are connected in series, it will make a single loop, and the current
that passes through all elements is the same (I amp).
 The voltage across resistor R1 is VR1, and the voltage across resistor R2 is VR2. And
the total supplied voltage divides between both resisters. Hence, the total voltage
is a sum of VR1 and VR2.

According to Ohm's law

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Since,

put the value of current I in the Eq. (3);

And

put the value of current I in the Eq. (4);

Hence, for the voltage divider rule for a resistive circuit, the resistor's voltage is a ratio
of the multiplication of total voltage and that resistance to the total resistance.
Example: Find the voltage across each resistor using the voltage divider rule.

Answers: VR1 = 16.67 V, VR2 = 33.33 V, VR3 = 50 V

Current Divider Rule (CDR) for Resistive Circuits

 When a number of elements are connected in parallel, the current divides into a
number of parallel paths. And the voltage is the same for all elements which are
equal to the source voltage.
 The value of current passes through a particular branch depends on the
resistance of that branch.
 The current always flows through the least resistance. So, the current has an
inverse relationship with resistance. According to Ohm's law, the current that
enters the node will be split between them in inverse proportion to the resistance.
 It means that the smaller value resistance has a larger current as the current
chose the least resistance path. And the larger value resistance has the least
current.

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  In the circuit given above, the resistors are connected in parallel. The voltage of
resisters is the same as the source voltage. But due to parallel connection, the
current divides into different paths.
 We can directly find the value of current passing through each resistor with the
help of the current divider rule. The main current supplied by the source is I.
And it divides into two resistors R1 and R2. The current passes through the
resistor R1 is I1 and the current passes through the resistor R2 is I2.
 As the resistors are connected in parallel. So, the equivalent resistance is Req.

According to Ohm's law

( )

For resister R1;

( )

For resister R2;

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 ( )

These equations show a current divider rule for resistance connected in parallel. From
these equations, we can say that the current that passes through resister is equal to the
ratio of multiplication of total current and opposite resistance with the total resistance.

Example: Find the current passes through each resistor by the current divider rule for
the given network.

Answers: I = 8.5 A, I1 = 5 A, I2 = 2.5 A, I3 = 1 A

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Kirchhoff's Current & Voltage Law
 These two electrical laws were introduced by a German Physicist "Robert Kirchhoff"
in 1847.
 We can easily find the equivalent resistance of a complex network and flowing
currents in different conductors.
 Both AC and DC circuits can be solved and simplified using these simple laws
known as Kirchhoff's Current Law (KCL) and Kirchhoff's Voltage Law (KVL).

Kirchhoff’s Current Law (KCL)

At any moment, the algebraic sum of flowing currents through a point (or junction) in a
network is Zero (0), or in any electrical network, the algebraic sum of the currents
meeting at a point (or junction) is Zero (0). This law is also known as Point Law or
Current law.

 In any electrical network, the algebraic sum of incoming currents to a point and
outgoing currents from that point is Zero. Or the entering currents to a point are
equal to the leaving currents of that point.
 Kirchhoff's current law is also known as Kirchhoff's First Law or Point law.
 Suppose some conductors meet at a point "A", as shown in Figure. In some
conductors, currents are incoming to the point "A", while in others, currents leave or
outgoing from point "A".

 Consider the incoming or entering currents as “Positive (+) towards point “A” while
the leaving or outgoing currents from point “A” is “Negative (-)”. Then,

I1 + (–I2) + (–I3) + (–I4) + I5 = 0

OR

I1 + I5 – I2 – I3 – I4 = 0
OR

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 I1 + I5 = I2 + I3 + I4
Incoming or Entering Currents = Leaving or Outgoing Currents
Or

ΣIEntering = ΣILeaving

Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law (KVL)

In any closed path (or circuit) in a network, the algebraic sum of the IR product is equal
to the EMF in that path.
 In other words, in any closed loop (also known as Mesh), the algebraic sum of the
EMF applied is equal to the algebraic sum of the voltage drops in the elements.

ΣEMF = ΣIR
 Kirchhoff's voltage law is also known as Kirchhoff's Second Law or Mesh law.
 The figure shows a closed circuit, which contains two connections of batteries E1 and
E2. The overall sum of EMFs of the batteries is indicated by E1-E2. The imaginary
direction of the current is also shown in the figure.

 E1 drives the current in a direction that is supposed to be positive, while E2

interferes in the current direction (i.e. it is in the opposite direction of the supposed
direction of current); hence, it is taken as negative.

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 The voltage drop in this closed circuit depends on the product of current and
resistance.
 If we go around the closed circuit (or each mesh), and multiply the resistance of the
conductor and the flowing current in it, then the sum of the IR equals the sum of the
applied EMF sources connected to the circuit.
The overall equation for the above circuit is:

E1 – E2 = I1R1 + I2R2 – I3R3 – I4R4

 It is essential to determine the current direction whenever solving circuits via
Kirchhoff's laws. The current direction can be assumed to be a clockwise or
anticlockwise direction. Once you select the custom direction of the current, you will
have to apply and maintain the same direction for the overall circuit until the final
solution of the circuit.
 If we got the final value as positive, it means the supposed direction of the current
was correct. In the case of negative values, the current of the direction is reversed as
compared to the supposed one then.
Sign Conventions for KVL:

Examples:

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Superposition Theorem
The Superposition Theorem is used to solve complex networks with multiple energy
sources. It is essential to determine voltage and current across the elements by
calculating the effect of each source individually. And combine all sources' effects to get
the circuit element's actual voltage and current.

The superposition theorem states that;

"In any linear bilateral network having greater multiple sources, the response
(voltage and current) in any element is equal to the summation of all responses
caused by individual source acting alone, while other sources are eliminated from the
circuit."

In other words, we will consider only one independent source acting at a time. So, we
need to remove other sources. The voltage sources are short-circuited, and the current
sources are open-circuited for ideal sources. If the internal resistance of sources is given,
you need to consider the circuit. The superposition theorem is only applied to the
circuit which follows Ohm's law.

When to use the Superposition Theorem?

The network must follow the below requirements to apply the superposition theorem.

 The components used in the circuit must be linear. The resistor, inductor, and
capacitor are linear elements. But the diode and transistor are not linear elements.
 The circuit components must be bilateral elements. It means the magnitude of the
current is independent of the polarity of energy sources.
 With the help of the superposition theorem, we can find the current that passes
through an element, voltage-drop of resistance, and node voltage. But we cannot
find the power dissipated from the element.

Steps to follow for Superposition Theorem

Follow these steps using the superposition theorem to find the response in a particular
branch.

Step-1: Find out the number of independent sources available in the network.

Step-2: Choose any one source and eliminate all other sources. If you consider all
energy sources ideal sources, you need not consider internal resistance. Short-

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 circuit the voltage source and open-circuit the current source. But if internal
resistance of sources is given, you have to replace internal resistance.

Step-3: In the circuit, when only one independent energy source is present, you must
find a response with only one energy source.

Step-4: Repeat step-2 and 3 for all energy sources available in the network. If there
are three independent sources, you must repeat these steps three times. And
every time, you get some value from the response.

Step-5: Now, combine all responses by algebraic summation obtained by individual

sources. And you will get a final response value for a particular network
element.

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Thevenin’s Theorem
A French engineer, M.L Thevenin, made one of these quantum leaps in 1893. This
theorem is useful to quickly and easily solve complex linear circuits and networks.
Thevenin’s Theorem may be stated below:

“Any linear electric network or a complex circuit with current and voltage sources
can be replaced by an equivalent circuit containing a single independent voltage
source, Thevenin’s Voltage (VTH), and a series resistance, Thevenin’s Resistance
(RTH).”

If the circuit contains multiple sources and resistors, then the response in an element
can be easily found by replacing the entire network to the left of that element with a
Thevenin’s equivalent circuit. The response in an element can be the voltage across that
element, current flowing through that element or power dissipated across that element.
This concept is illustrated in following figures.

Linear
Complex
Circuit

Thevenin’s
Equivalent
Circuit

Steps to analyze an electric circuit using Thevenin’s Theorem

i. Open the load resistor.

ii. Calculate / measure the open circuit voltage. This is the Thevenin Voltage (VTH).
iii. Open current sources and short voltage sources.
iv. Calculate /measure the Open Circuit Resistance. This is the Thevenin Resistance
(RTH).

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v. Now, redraw the circuit with measured open circuit Voltage (VTH) in Step (2) as
voltage source and measured open circuit resistance (RTH) in step (4) as a series
resistance and connect the load resistor which we had removed in Step (1). This is
the equivalent Thevenin circuit of that linear electric network or complex circuit
which had to be simplified and analyzed by Thevenin’s Theorem.
vi. Now find the total current flowing through the load resistor by using the Ohm’s
Law:

IL = VTH / (RTH + RL)

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